Introduction to sar-marjolaine_rouault
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Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) uses signal processing techniques to synthesize a large antenna from data collected by a physically small antenna as it moves along a flight path. This allows SAR to achieve high-resolution images independent of altitude. SAR transmits microwave pulses and analyzes the returned echoes to build up images of the terrain. SAR has various applications including topographic mapping and measuring ocean waves, currents, and wind. Ocean backscatter measured by SAR is influenced by surface roughness driven by factors like wind as well as hydrodynamic effects of waves and currents.
![SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction
Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean
(a) Aircraft L-band VV SAR
image that includes the
north wall of the Gulf
Stream and adjacent shelf
near Cape Hatteras,
(b) Sketch map of
detectable features and
conditions in (a) including
the USNS Bartlett. [After
Lyzenga and Marmorino,
1998]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introductiontosar-marjolainerouault-130924232822-phpapp02/85/Introduction-to-sar-marjolaine_rouault-27-320.jpg)
![SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction
Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean
Schematic plot of processes associated with the passage of a linear oceanic internalSchematic plot of processes associated with the passage of a linear oceanic internal
wave. Deformation of the thermocline (heavy solid line), orbital motions of the waterwave. Deformation of the thermocline (heavy solid line), orbital motions of the water
particles (dashed lines), streamlines of the velocity field (light solid lines), surfaceparticles (dashed lines), streamlines of the velocity field (light solid lines), surface
current velocity vectors (arrows in the upper part of the image), and variation of thecurrent velocity vectors (arrows in the upper part of the image), and variation of the
amplitude of the Bragg waves (wavy line at the top). [After Alpers, 1985]amplitude of the Bragg waves (wavy line at the top). [After Alpers, 1985]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/introductiontosar-marjolainerouault-130924232822-phpapp02/85/Introduction-to-sar-marjolaine_rouault-30-320.jpg)
Introduction to sar-marjolaine_rouault
- 1. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction An introduction to Synthetic Aperture Radar observationsAn introduction to Synthetic Aperture Radar observations Marjolaine RouaultMarjolaine Rouault Ecosystem Earth Observation – CSIREcosystem Earth Observation – CSIR mrouault@csir.co.zamrouault@csir.co.za
- 2. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction OutlineOutline ➢ Radar imaging systemsRadar imaging systems ➢ Synthetic aperture radars (SAR)Synthetic aperture radars (SAR) ➢ SAR measurements in the oceanSAR measurements in the ocean
- 3. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: What is a radar?What is a radar? ➢ What is a radar ? Radar = RAdio Detection And Ranging Radars are used in many contexts, including meteorological detection of precipitation, measuring ocean surface waves, air traffic control, police detection of speeding traffic, and by the military. There are active and passive radar sensors: Active radars: Radar imaging systems (SARs), Scatterometers, Altimeters Passive radars: radiometers
- 4. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: how do they work?how do they work? A radar is essentially a ranging or distance measuring device. It consists fundamentally of a transmitter, a receiver, an antenna, and an electronics system to process and record the data. The same antenna is often used for transmission and reception. By measuring the time delay between the transmission of a pulse and the reception of the backscattered "echo" from different targets, their distance from the radar and thus their location can be determined.
- 5. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: frequencies and bandsfrequencies and bands The microwaves emitted and received by SAR are at much longer wavelengths (5.6cm for ERS SAR) than optical or infrared waves.
- 6. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: frequencies and bandsfrequencies and bands Measurements through clouds Images can be acquired independently on the current weather conditions Measurements day and night Images independent of solar illumination, which is particularly important in high latitudes (polar night)
- 7. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: imaging geometryimaging geometry Most imaging radars used for remote sensing are side-looking airborne radars (SLARs) to avoid ambiguities. The antenna points to the side with a beam that is wide vertically and narrow horizontally. Azimuth = flight direction Range = perpendicular to the flight direction Swath = 100 to 500km
- 8. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: building a 2D imagebuilding a 2D image A pulse of energy is transmitted from the radar antenna. The amplitude and phase of the backscattered signal is recorded as a function of time. This is repeated over again while platform is moving. As the sensor platform moves forward, recording and processing of the backscattered signals builds up a two-dimensional image of the surface.
- 9. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Azimuth resolutionAzimuth resolution Azimuth resolution describes the ability of an imaging radar to separate two closely spaced scatterers in the direction parallel to the motion vector of the sensor When two objects are in the radar beam simultaneously, for almost all pulses, they both cause reflections, and their echoes will be received at the same time. However, the reflected echo from the third object will not be received until the radar moves forward. When the third object is illuminated, the first two objects are no longer illuminated, thus the echo from this object will be recorded separately. For a real aperture radar, two targets in the azimuth or along-track resolution can be separated only if the distance between them is larger than the radar beamwidth. For all types of radars, the beamwidth is a constant angular value with range. For a given radar wavelength, the azimuth beamwidth depends on the physical length of the antenna in the horizontal direction according to: RADARRADAR TRAJECTORYTRAJECTORY LL WW RADARRADAR FOOTPRINTFOOTPRINT SWATHSWATH NADIR TRACKNADIR TRACK hh RADAR PULSERADAR PULSE cτ = c / BW θθ Xa Xr L B λ =Beamwidth:
- 10. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Azimuth resolutionAzimuth resolution Field amplitude pattern for uniformly illuminated antenna
- 11. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Azimuth resolutionAzimuth resolution Real Aperture Radars have azimuth resolution determined by the antenna beamwidth, so that it is proportional to the distance between the radar and the target (slant-range). For real aperture radars, azimuth resolution can be improved only by longer antenna or shorter wavelength. The use of shorter wavelength generally leads to a higher cloud and atmospheric attenuation, reducing the all-weather capability of imaging radars. RADARRADAR TRAJECTORYTRAJECTORY LL WW RADARRADAR FOOTPRINTFOOTPRINT SWATHSWATH NADIR TRACKNADIR TRACK hh RADAR PULSERADAR PULSE cτ = c / BW θθ Xa Xr X a = h λ L co s θ L B λ = Azimuth resolution: Beamwidth:
- 12. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Range resolutionRange resolution To distinguish between two targets, the backscatter must be received at two different times. Since the radar pulse must travel two ways, the two targets lead to distinguished echoes if: d > L/2 If d==L/2, A and B are mapped as same target ! Range resolution (here B = bandwith, Ɵ = radar incidence angle Good range resolution for ➢ short pulse ➢ Large incidence angle
- 13. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Range resolutionRange resolution To improve range resolution, radar pulses should be as short as possible. However, it is also necessary for the pulses to transmit enough energy to enable the detection of the reflected signals. If the pulse is shortened, its amplitude must be increased to keep the same total energy in the pulse. One limitation is the fact that the equipment required to transmit a very short, high-energy pulse is difficult to build. Synthetic Aperture Radars were developed as a means of overcoming the limitations of real aperture radars.
- 14. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Improving azimuth resolutionImproving azimuth resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) refers to a technique used to synthesize a very long antenna by combining signals (echoes) received by the radar as it moves along its flight track. it is important to note that some details of the structure of the echoes produced by a given target change during the time the radar passes by. This change is explained also by the Doppler effect which among others is used to focus the signals in the azimuth processor.
- 15. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Improving azimuth resolutionImproving azimuth resolution Perception is relative! It's to do with the effect of sound or light waves on the person seeing or hearing them - like the difference you hear as an emergency siren passes you. It is caused by the change in distance between the thing creating the wave and whatever is measuring, seeing or hearing the wave.
- 16. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Improving azimuth resolutionImproving azimuth resolution 1122 1133 The Azimutal bandwith of the SAR is B = 2 fd
- 17. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Improving azimuth resolutionImproving azimuth resolution The accuracy for determining the position of a target in the antenna beam is better, the longer one is able to listen to the sound signal. ➢ The larger the beamwidth, the longer one can listen to the sound ➢ The smaller the antenna, the larger is the beamwidth ( β = λ/D) ➢ Thus, the azimuthal resolution becomes better, the smaller the antenna length D. This result is completely contrary to what applies to other remote sensing instruments where the larger the antenna, the better the resolution. Here, the smaller the antenna, the better the resolution. Azimuth resolution is Xa =D/2 The azimuthal resolution of a SAR is independent of range R and is proportional to D
- 18. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Improving range resolutionImproving range resolution Pulse chirping: Signal modulation is a way to increase the radar pulse length without decreasing the radar range resolution This technique is analogous to the technique used in the azimuth (flight) direction to improve the azimuthal resolution. In the azimuth direction the frequency modulation of the backscatter signal results from the motion of the platform and is thus naturally induced. In range direction, the frequency modulation of the backscatter signal is artificially induced by the emitted signal All civilian spaceborne SARs, and most civilian airborne SARs use linear FM chirps as the modulation scheme.
- 19. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: data processingdata processing Layover Slant-range scale distortion Foreshortening Shadowing These effect my enhance the visual appearance of relief and terrain structure, making radar imagery excellent for applications such as topographic mapping and identifying geologic structure
- 20. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Radar imaging systems:Radar imaging systems: Data processingData processing SAR processing can be considered as a two-dimensional focusing operation : ➢ Range focusing: relatively straight forward ➢ Azimuth focusing: depends upon the Doppler histories produced by each point in the target field For even moderate azimuth resolutions, a target's range to each location on the synthetic aperture changes along the synthetic aperture. The energy reflected from the target must be "mathematically focused" to compensate for the range dependence across the aperture prior to image formation.
- 21. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Data processingData processing Speckle in SAR SAR image optical image
- 22. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Data processingData processing Contribution from random scattering elements on the surface, with varying path length to antenna cause constructive / destructive interference. Therefore amplitude is the sum of the coherent contributions with random phase shifts. Unlike system noise, speckle is a real electromagnetic measurement. Correct using: ➢ multi-look processing ➢ spatial filtering.
- 23. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: ConclusionsConclusions ➢ SAR simulates a very long antenna using the “synthetic aperture principle”. The “synthetic” antenna is generated by the motion of the platform (aircraft or satellite) and through the use of signal processing of the Doppler shift associated with the motion of the aircraft ➢ As a result SAR resolution is independent of the platform height and proportional to the synthetic antenna length. ➢ For Envisat SAR (called ASAR), the length of the synthetic antenna is ~20 km ➢ Generally, depending on the processing, resolutions achieved are of the order of 1-2 metres for airborne radars and 5-50 metres for spaceborne radars. ➢ SAR processing requires very heavy computing after data acquisition
- 24. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean At the ocean's surface radar echoes from SARs are reflected through Bragg Scatering Bragg scattering is the strong, resonnant signal for surface roughness (waves) on the scale of the radar wavelength The short Bragg-scale waves are formed in response to wind stress (need at least 3.25m/sec at C band). For C-band,For C-band, λλrr ~ 6 cm~ 6 cm
- 25. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean Bragg scattering is affected by wind Radar backscatter increases with wind speed No wind Bragg scattering is affected by wind and many other things ...
- 26. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean ➢ SAR measures sea surface roughness (Bragg waves - order cm) ➢ Sea surface roughness is affected by wind, waves, currents, surface film (oil / biological matter) or sea ice ➢ Backscatter from the surface roughness is registered by SAR in both amplitude and phase Waves Oil spill Wind field Current front Internal waves
- 27. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean (a) Aircraft L-band VV SAR image that includes the north wall of the Gulf Stream and adjacent shelf near Cape Hatteras, (b) Sketch map of detectable features and conditions in (a) including the USNS Bartlett. [After Lyzenga and Marmorino, 1998]
- 28. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean Bragg Scattering is modulated by three principal mechanisms that can enhance or suppress average backscatter of ocean surface: ➢ Tilt modulation: change in local incident angle ➢ Hydrodynamic modulation: alteration of Bragg scale waves due to surface currents ➢ Damping by surfactants: suppression of Bragg scale waves
- 29. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean Long waves change the slope of the small Bragg waves, with maximum backscatter on the face of the wave, 90o out of phase with the wave amplitude.
- 30. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean Schematic plot of processes associated with the passage of a linear oceanic internalSchematic plot of processes associated with the passage of a linear oceanic internal wave. Deformation of the thermocline (heavy solid line), orbital motions of the waterwave. Deformation of the thermocline (heavy solid line), orbital motions of the water particles (dashed lines), streamlines of the velocity field (light solid lines), surfaceparticles (dashed lines), streamlines of the velocity field (light solid lines), surface current velocity vectors (arrows in the upper part of the image), and variation of thecurrent velocity vectors (arrows in the upper part of the image), and variation of the amplitude of the Bragg waves (wavy line at the top). [After Alpers, 1985]amplitude of the Bragg waves (wavy line at the top). [After Alpers, 1985]
- 31. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Observing the oceanObserving the ocean An Additional influence on ocean backscatter is “Velocity Bunching” ➢ Artifact of SAR system ➢ Caused by moving ocean surface ➢ Moving waves introduce Doppler offsets and result in azimuth displacement ‘errors’ in images ➢ Displacements can combine in non-linear fashion and cannot be removed ➢ Most prevalent for azimuth travelling waves Velocity bunching does not change average backscatter; it introduces only local variations due to location displacements
- 32. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wind measurementsWind measurements Radar backscatter increases with wind speed
- 33. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wind measurementsWind measurements Backscatter σ depends on: ➢ wind speed ➢ wind direction relative to radar look direction ➢ radar incidence angle (known) One measurement of σ gives several possible solutions of wind speed and direction For SAR, information about wind direction is needed as auxiliary information ➢ Simplest solution is to take wind direction from numerical model ➢ Scatterometer (if colocated in time and space) ➢ Use wind streaks in the SAR-image Empirical functions are then used to relate σ to wind speeds These functions are tuned to co-located – ECMWF 10 m winds – ERS-1 scatterometer data (σ) CMOD-algorithm (C-band model function), with same algorithm later applied to SAR
- 34. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wind measurementsWind measurements
- 35. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wind measurementsWind measurements SAR provides unique opportunity to monitor oceans winds at high resolution (typically 1 km x 1 km) Available information and performance ➢ Wind speed accuracy: < 2 m/s (rms) ➢ Wind direction accuracy: ~25° (rms) Applications Near real-time: ➢ High resolution coastal wind field measurement ➢ Improve Oil spill monitoring ➢ Coastal navigation Long term: ➢ Wind farm design, wind resource assessment. ➢ Understanding coastal dynamics ➢ Monitoring and study of meteorological phenomena
- 36. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wave measurementsWave measurements Wave fields, wave / current interactions
- 37. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wave measurementsWave measurements Collard, F., F. Ardhuin and B. Chapron (2005): Extraction of coastal ocean wave fields from SAR images. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 30(3), 526–533.
- 38. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wave measurementsWave measurements Instruments: SAR is the only spaceborne instrument that can measured the two-dimensional ocean wave spectra concept operationally since 1991 (ERS-1, ERS-2, Envisat). Envisat ASAR Wave Mode – improved successor of ERS Wave Mode Sentinel-1 (2011->) - improved successor of Envisat ASAR Wave Applications: Wave nowcasting and wave forcasting: Assimilation into numerical wave models for better swell wave prediction Assessment of swell wave climate, globally Coastal wave studies, and coastal wave climate Swell tracking and storm location Example of application: http://www.esa.int/esaEO/SEMAKIV681F_economy_0.html
- 39. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Wave measurementsWave measurements Agulhas Current region is unique. It is a region where most long waves and cross- seas occur. There is a high risk of Rogue wave and dangerous seas for ships.
- 40. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Internal WavesInternal Waves There are internal waves all around Africa
- 41. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Current measurementsCurrent measurements Direct measurements of the surface current velocity across the track of the satellite are derived using Doppler Anomaly signal from ASAR Doppler Anomaly/Velocity (ASAR WM) Radial Wind Speed (ECMWF) CDOP_23 Doppler Anomaly/Velocity predicted (NNT) -- Residual Doppler Anomaly (current) Slide from Dr. Fabrice Collard
- 42. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Current measurementsCurrent measurements ➢ Coverage = 400 km by 400 km wide swath image ➢ Spatial resolution = 150m by 150m ➢ 1 ascending and 1 descending path every 3 days in the Agulhas Current region since July 2007 ASAR Wide Swath mode uses five predetermined overlapping antenna beams to make up the swath.
- 43. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Ship detectionShip detection Ships detected around False Bay at a distance greater than 1km from the shore on the 26th August 2007. Green symbols indicate that there is an ambiguity in the detection. Symbols in red indicate a definite ship identifications. Credit: CLS radar division
- 44. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: Oils spill detectionOils spill detection Prestige oil spill Galicia – November 2002 BP oil spill Gulf of Mexico – June 2010
- 45. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Synthetic Aperture Radars:Synthetic Aperture Radars: the futurethe future SAR satellite missions Owner Launch date (planned) Frequency band ERS-2 ESA March 1995 C Radarsat-1 CSA (operated by MDA) November 1995 C ENVISAT ESA March 2002 C ALOS PALSAR JAXA January 2006 L COSMO SkyMed ASI June 2007 X TerraSAR X DLR June 2007 X Radarsat-2 MDA December 2007 C SAOCOM (SIASGE) CONAE 2008 L RISAT ISRO 2008 C Sentinel1 ESA June 2011 C HayYang-3 SOA 2012 X Radarsat-C ? 2012 C The number of SAR missions is booming
- 46. SSyntheticynthetic AApertureperture RRadar: introductionadar: introduction Useful URLsUseful URLs ➢ ESA Earth Remote Sensing Home Page: http://earth.esa.int/ ➢ Canada Centre for Remote Sensing: http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ ➢ The German Remote Sensing Data Center: http://www.dfd.dlr.de/ ➢ The NASA/JPL Imaging Radar Home Page: http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/ ➢ Remote Sensing Platforms and Sensors: http://quercus.art.man.ac.uk/rs/sat_list.cfm ➢ UCT Dept. Electr. Eng.: http://www.rrsg.uct.ac.za/applications/applications.html