Knowledge and Curriculum, Types of Knowledge
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Knowledge is one of the most valuable assets a person can acquire. It serves as the foundation for personal, social, and professional development and plays a vital role in shaping human life and society. Below are some key points that highlight the importance of knowledge: Empowerment and Confidence Knowledge empowers individuals by giving them the confidence to make informed decisions, solve problems, and navigate challenges. It allows people to express themselves effectively and stand by their beliefs with conviction. Personal Growth Knowledge promotes self-improvement. It broadens perspectives, enhances critical thinking, and nurtures creativity. Learning new skills or concepts enables individuals to evolve continuously and adapt to change. Professional Success In the modern world, knowledge is the cornerstone of career advancement. It helps individuals stay competitive in their fields, adapt to technological advancements, and make innovative contributions. Specialized knowledge is often a key determinant of success in the workplace. Social Contribution Knowledgeable individuals contribute significantly to the progress of their communities and societies. By sharing their understanding and expertise, they can drive social change, improve quality of life, and address pressing global issues. Problem-Solving and Decision-Making With knowledge, individuals can approach problems methodically, analyze situations critically, and make sound decisions. This is crucial in both personal and professional life. Cultural and Historical Awareness Knowledge provides insight into history, culture, and traditions, fostering respect and understanding among diverse communities. It helps preserve the legacy of human civilization and encourages appreciation for global diversity. Technological and Scientific Advancements Knowledge fuels innovation. Scientific discoveries and technological advancements rely on the accumulation of knowledge. Societies thrive when their members actively engage in learning and research. Personal Fulfillment Acquiring knowledge is inherently satisfying. It stimulates curiosity, enriches life experiences, and cultivates a lifelong love of learning. The joy of discovery can be deeply fulfilling and rewarding. Resilience and Adaptability Knowledge equips individuals to face uncertainties and challenges with resilience. It helps people adapt to changing circumstances and find effective solutions during crises. Bridge to Future Generations By sharing and transferring knowledge, individuals contribute to the education and enlightenment of future generations. This ensures that wisdom, discoveries, and advancements continue to evolve over time. knowledge is a powerful tool that shapes individuals and society. It provides the means to grow, innovate, and contribute to a better world. As Francis Bacon famously said, "Knowledge is power," and this truth continues to resonate in every aspect of life.
Knowledge and Curriculum, Types of Knowledge
- 1. Knowledge Dr. Nrapendra Vir Singh Assistant Professor Department of Teacher Education Central University of South Bihar, Gaya Email: aashubhu@gmail.com nrapendra@cusb.ac.in
- 2. Branches of Philosophy Metaphysics (science of Creation) Cosmology Theology Cosmogony Teleology Ontology Epistemology (Science of Knowledge) Rationalism Empiricism Criticism Intuitionism Axiology (Science of Values) Ethics Asthetics
- 3. Knowledge ? The body of facts, principles, etc. acquired through human experience and thought A familiarity, awareness, or understanding of someone or something such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving, discovering, or learning. A justified true belief All that has been perceived or grasped by the mind, learning, enlightenment. Awareness of a particular fact or situation; a state of having been informed or made aware of something.
- 4. Trilogy of Knowledge The Object of Knowledge The Act of Knowing The Knower
- 5. Nature of Knowledge • The nature of knowledge can be understood through various perspectives: • Objective vs. Subjective – Knowledge can be objective (based on facts) or subjective (influenced by personal perspectives). • Explicit vs. Tacit – Explicit knowledge is documented and shareable, while tacit knowledge is personal and experience-based. • Theoretical vs. Practical – Theoretical knowledge involves principles and concepts, whereas practical knowledge is applied in real-life situations. • Propositional vs. Procedural – Propositional knowledge ("knowing that") consists of statements and facts, whereas procedural knowledge ("knowing how") involves skills and abilities.
- 6. Indian View of Knowledge • In Indian view, the concept of jnana (ज्ञान) is "knowledge". It is a cognitive event that is recognized when experienced, and is inseparable from the total experience of reality. • In Indian philosophy, jnana can refer to both true cognition (prama) and false cognition, or aprama. In contrast, Western philosophy only considers true cognition to be knowledge. • Gyan yoga, also known as gyan marga, is a path to gaining true knowledge of the self. It is a way to union with the Divine through the pursuit of spiritual knowledge. A gyan yogi explores questions like "who am I" and "how am I related to the world"
- 7. Contd.. Human experience of the world is based on cognizable entities. In the works of various philosophical systems, six sources of knowledge (pramanas) have been identified, according to which each of these cognizable entities can be revealed or understood: • Perception (Pratyakṣa), • Inference (Anumana), • Comparison and analogy (Upamana), • Postulation, derivation from circumstances (Arthapatti), • Non-perception, negative/cognitive proof (Anupalabdhi) and • Testimonies (Sabda) from scriptural sources like the Vedas or recorded transcendental insights of seers. Each of them is further categorized by each philosophical system as far as it is recognized as a valid mean to knowledge within that system.
- 8. Western view of Knowledge • Philosophers have different views about the variations of knowledge in the Western conception. A priori and a posteriori are two basic terms in epistemology. • A priori literally means “from before”. This is because a priori knowledge depends upon what a person can derive from the world without needing to experience it. This is better known as reasoning. • A posteriori literally means “from what comes after.” This is a reference to experience and using a different kind of reasoning to gain knowledge.
- 9. Contd.. • Russell draws a distinction between two sorts of knowledge, viz. knowledge of things and knowledge of truths. • Knowledge of things is again divided into two kinds, viz. ‘Knowledge by Acquaintance’ and ‘Knowledge by Description.’ • Knowledge of truths is divided into intuitive knowledge and derivative knowledge. • Russell holds that all our knowledge, both knowledge of things and knowledge of truths, rests upon acquaintance as its foundation.
- 10. Donald Davidson knowledge of our own minds knowledge of other minds knowledge of an external reality Subjective Inter-subjective Objective knowledge Personal knowledge: Knowledge gained from your own experiences and observations, such as knowing that a bird is a bird because you've seen birds before. Procedural knowledge: Knowledge of how to do something, such as how to ride a bike or play a musical instrument. It involves practical skills and step-by- step procedures. Propositional knowledge: Knowledge of general truths about the world
- 11. Contd.. • Explicit knowledge: Explicit knowledge is easily articulated, documented, and shared. It includes information codified in books, manuals, databases, and other formalized structures. • Implicit knowledge: Implicit knowledge is the practical application of explicit knowledge. • Tacit knowledge: Tacit knowledge is deeply embedded in individual experience and intuition, making it difficult to articulate or transfer to others. • Declarative knowledge: Declarative knowledge is understanding factual information, concepts, and truths. It encompasses the knowledge of facts, definitions, theories, and principles that can be explicitly stated and communicated. • Embedded knowledge: Embedded knowledge is ingrained within an organization’s processes, systems, products, and culture. It is often not explicitly documented but is integral to the organization’s functioning and success. • Institutional knowledge: Institutional knowledge refers to the collective understanding, skills, processes, and historical context that an organization accumulates over time.
- 12. Three Divisions of Knowledge (Based on the way or manner in which it is obtained) • A priori Knowledge is knowledge whose truth or falsity can be decided before or without recourse to experience (a priori means 'before'). Knowledge that 's a priori has universal validity and once recognized as true (through the use of pure reason) does not require any further evidence. • A posteriori knowledge is the knowledge based upon observation and experience. This is the knowledge of the scientific method stressing accurate observation and exact description. • Experienced knowledge is always tentative and cannot exist prior to experience or be concluded from observation. It must be experienced to have value.
- 13. Three Prime Theories of Truth Correspondence Theory of Truth • The correspondence theory of truth considers correspondence to be the test of truth. It advocates that a judgment is true if there is a correspondence between the judgment and fact; otherwise the judgment will be false. A statement is true if it accurately reflects the state of affairs in the world. • Truth is the correspondence between a statement (or belief) and the external reality.
- 14. The coherence theory of truth •The coherence theory considers coherence to be the test of truth. It views that a judgment is true if it coheres with a system. Truth is the coherence or consistency within a set of beliefs or propositions. • A statement is true if it fits cohesively within a broader network of beliefs.
- 15. Pragmatic theory of truth •The pragmatic theory of truth considers workability or meaningfulness and utility or usefulness as the test of truth. So, the pragmatic theory says that a judgment is true if it is workable or meaningful or useful •Truth based on practical consequences and utility.
- 16. SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE • Perception-That which can be perceived through the experiences of the senses. The view that experience is the primary source of knowledge is called empiricism. • Introspection-knowledge of one’s self that can be found through internal self- evaluation. This is generally considered to be a sort of perception. (For example, I know I am hungry or tired.) • Memory-Memory is the storage of knowledge that was learned in the past — whether it be past events or current information. • Testimony-Testimony relies on others to acquire knowledge and communicate it to us. Some deny that testimony can be a source of knowledge, and insist that beliefs gained through testimony must be verified in order to be knowledge. • Reason-Reason can be considered a source of knowledge, either by deducing truths from existing knowledge, or by learning things a priori, discovering necessary truths (such as mathematical truths) through pure reason. The view that reason is the primary source of knowledge is called rationalism.
- 17. THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE Rationalism The theory according to which reason is the main source of knowledge is called rationalism. Rationalists don’t depend on sense experience. According to all rationalists the knowledge that we get through sense experience generally deceive us. Some of the early rationalist philosophers are Socrates and Plato. Later Descartes (who is also regarded as the father of modern philosophy) , Spinoza, Leibnitz and Wolff join this league and gave a new form to rationalism. According to all of them mind is always active. Knowledge is actively produced by the mind out of its inner ideas with the help of reason.
- 18. Empiricism • According to this theory knowledge is a posteriori (posterior to experience) which means we get knowledge through our senses only, not with innate ideas. Empiricist thus believe in the knowledge based on experience. According to them experience is of two kinds-sensation and reflection. Sensation is external perception and reflection is internal. • Sophist, Bacon, John Locke, Berkeley, Hume became the supporter of empiricism. John Locke was the propunder of empiricism in modern philosophy. • According to Locke our mind at the time of birth is a tabula rasa ( a blank slate).
- 19. Skepticism • Skepticism is a method of philosophical enquiry that questions on the certainty of knowledge. • Skepticism is the attitude of being uncertain or doubtful about a claim or idea, often due to insufficient evidence. In philosophy, skepticism is the questioning of the possibility of knowledge, either in a specific area or in general. • In philosophy, skepticism refers to questioning the possibility of knowledge, either in a particular domain or in general. • It regards all knowledge only as probable.
- 20. Relationship Between Information, Knowledge, Belief, and Opinion • Information → Knowledge • Information serves as the foundation for knowledge. • When information is processed, analyzed, and understood, it becomes knowledge. • Example: • Information: "Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen." • Knowledge: "Water (H₂O) is a molecule formed by two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, bonded through covalent bonding." • Knowledge ↔ Belief • Knowledge and belief are related, but belief does not always require justification, while knowledge does. • A belief can become knowledge if it is justified and proven to be true. • Conversely, knowledge can influence what people believe. • Example: • A child may believe the Earth is flat. • When they learn about scientific evidence (photos, gravity, astronomy), their belief changes into knowledge that the Earth is round.
- 21. Contd.. • Belief → Opinion • Opinions often stem from personal beliefs but are subjective and influenced by emotions or biases. • Example: • Belief: "Exercise improves health." • Opinion: "Running is the best form of exercise." (This is a personal preference, not an absolute truth.) • Information & Knowledge → Opinion Formation • The more information and knowledge a person has, the more informed their opinions can be. • However, opinions can still be subjective, even when based on knowledge. • Example: • A historian studies World War II (knowledge). • Based on this, they may form an opinion on which leader made the best strategic decisions.
- 22. Process of Knowledge Construction • Knowledge construction is the process through which individuals actively create, refine, and internalize knowledge. It is an ongoing, dynamic process that involves acquiring, organizing, and applying information in meaningful ways. • Experience & Observation (Input Stage) • Knowledge begins with sensory experiences, observations, and interactions with the world. • Individuals collect raw data and information from their surroundings. • Example: A student observes how plants grow under sunlight and without sunlight. • Processing & Interpretation • The mind organizes and processes information using cognitive abilities like reasoning, comparison, and classification. • Prior knowledge and experiences help interpret new information. • Example: The student compares the plants' growth and recognizes that sunlight is crucial for healthy growth.
- 23. Contd.. Conceptualization & Understanding • Patterns and relationships are identified, leading to the formation of concepts and theories. • The learner integrates new knowledge with existing knowledge. • Example: The student learns that plants use sunlight for photosynthesis, deepening their understanding of plant biology. Reflection & Internalization • Knowledge is evaluated, refined, and stored in long-term memory. • Learners reflect on its significance and relevance. • Example: The student now understands the role of photosynthesis and can explain why plants need sunlight. Application & Testing (Practical Use) • The individual applies knowledge to solve problems, make decisions, or create new ideas. • This step involves experimentation, critical thinking, and innovation. • Example: The student applies their knowledge to a science experiment, testing plant growth under different light conditions. Social Interaction & Collaboration • Knowledge construction often occurs in social contexts, through discussion, debate, and collaboration. • Example: The student discusses findings with classmates, leading to new perspectives and insights. Continuous Revision & Expansion • Knowledge is dynamic; it evolves as new information becomes available. • Mistakes and misconceptions are corrected over time. • Example: Scientific advancements refine our understanding of photosynthesis, leading to better agricultural practices.
- 24. Summary of Knowledge Construction Process Experience & Observation – Gathering information Processing & Interpretation – Organizing and analyzing Conceptualization & Understanding – Forming ideas Reflection & Internalization – Storing and refining knowledge Application & Testing – Using knowledge in real-world scenarios Social Interaction – Learning through discussions Continuous Expansion – Updating knowledge with new insights
- 25. Aspect Information Knowledge Belief Opinion Definition Raw facts or data Verified understanding of facts Acceptance of a claim Personal judgment or viewpoint Objectivity Highly objective Can be objective or subjective Mostly subjective Subjective Requirement for Evidence No requirement for justification Requires justification Not necessarily justified Not necessarily justified Can be True or False? No (just data) Yes (truth-based) Yes (but not always verifiable) Neither (subjective nature) Example "The Sun is a star." "The Sun generates energy through nuclear fusion." "I believe the Sun influences my personality." "I think sunsets are more beautiful than sunrises."
- 26. Curriculum • The curriculum refers to the structured set of educational experiences designed to achieve specific learning objectives. It encompasses what is taught, how it is taught, and the intended outcomes of education in schools, colleges, and other learning environments. • The curriculum serves as the blueprint for educational experiences, reflecting the goals of both individual development and societal progress. • Traditional View: Curriculum is a plan for achieving educational goals. It includes a sequence of knowledge and skills to be mastered (John Franklin Bobbitt ). • Progressive View: Curriculum is a plan for learning, emphasizing student- centered, active, and experience-based approaches (Hilda Taba). • Modern View: Curriculum is a dynamic, evolving framework that considers societal needs, learner diversity, and technological advancements.
- 27. Types of Curriculum •Formal Curriculum: Planned and organized educational experiences. •Found in official documents such as syllabi and textbooks. •Examples: National educational standards, core subjects taught in schools. •Informal Curriculum: Unstructured learning that occurs outside formal settings. •Includes extracurricular activities, peer interactions, and personal exploration. •Examples: Club participation, hobby learning, mentorship. •Hidden Curriculum: Unintended lessons learned through the educational environment. •Often reflects societal norms, values, and power dynamics. •Examples: Discipline, respect for authority, and gender roles. •Null Curriculum: Content that is intentionally or unintentionally excluded from the curriculum. •Highlights what is not taught and its implications on knowledge gaps. •Example: Lack of representation of minority cultures or local histories.
- 28. Theories of Curriculum Development Behaviorist Approach • Focus: Observable and measurable learning outcomes. • Key Proponents: B.F. Skinner, Ralph Tyler. • Features: • Emphasis on structured objectives, clear outcomes and reinforcement. • Step-by-step progression through skills and knowledge. • Example: Drill-and-practice methods in skill-based subjects like mathematics.
- 29. Constructivist Approach Focus: Active learning and the construction of knowledge through experience. Key Proponents: Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky. Features: • Emphasis on inquiry, problem-solving, and collaboration. • Curriculum designed around students’ interests and prior knowledge. Example: Project-based learning and inquiry-based science education.
- 30. Humanist Approach Focus: Holistic development of the learner, including emotional and moral growth. Key Proponents: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow. Features: • Emphasis on self-actualization, creativity, and autonomy. • Learner-centered approaches with flexibility in content and pace. Example: Open classrooms and student-directed learning in the arts.
- 31. Key Considerations for Curriculum Design •Relevance: Aligning content with students’ needs and societal goals. •Inclusivity: Addressing diverse learner backgrounds and abilities. •Integration: Connecting different subjects for interdisciplinary learning. •Sustainability: Incorporating environmental and ethical awareness.
- 32. Interconnection between Knowledge and Curriculum • The relationship between knowledge and curriculum is fundamental to education. Knowledge represents the content or understanding that learners acquire, while the curriculum is the organized framework through which this knowledge is delivered, shaped, and assessed. • The interconnection between knowledge and curriculum is reciprocal and dynamic. Knowledge informs the content of the curriculum, while the curriculum provides the framework for delivering and shaping this knowledge. An effective curriculum bridges the gap between theoretical understanding and practical application, fostering learners’ intellectual, social, and moral growth.
- 33. Philosophical Perspectives Connecting Knowledge and Curriculum •Essentialism: •Advocates for a knowledge-centered curriculum focusing on essential facts and cultural heritage. Example: Core subject-based curricula in schools. •Progressivism: •Views knowledge as dynamic and emphasizes experiential learning. Example: Project-based and interdisciplinary curricula. •Constructivism: •Argues that knowledge is constructed by learners through interaction with the environment. Example: Inquiry-based and problem-solving curricula.
- 34. Curriculum as a Medium for Knowledge Transmission and Transformation Transmission: The curriculum preserves and disseminates cultural, scientific, and historical knowledge across generations. Transformation: The curriculum evolves to integrate emerging knowledge and adapt to societal changes. For example: • Inclusion of digital literacy reflects technological advancements. • Sustainability topics reflect global priorities.