Knowledge Gap Theory FINAL DRAFT.pdf
- 1. KNOWLEDGE GAP THEORY Submitted To: DR. SHABANA ASGHER Submitted By: AQSA ZAFFER AYESHA ARSHAD ZAINAB ASHIQ MS Mass Communication 2021 – 2023 DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION LAHORE COLLEGE WOMEN UNIVERSITY, LAHORE
- 2. 1 Introduction Knowledge Gap theory was first proposed in 1970 by Philip J Tichenor, the Associate Professor of Journalism and mass Communication, George A. Donohue, Professor of Sociology and Clarice. N Olien, Instructor in Sociology, all three researchers in the University of Minnesota. Knowledge Gap Theory Philip J Tichenor, George A. Donohue and Clarice. N Olien defined the Knowledge Gap theory, as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information faster than lower socioeconomic status population segments. Hence the gap in knowledge between the two tends to increase rather than decrease.” In simple words, as the access to mass media increases those particular segments of population inevitable gain information faster and hence the wide gap increases with the lower economic status of the population. As a result, the knowledge gap also widens and the people of the higher economic class gain the benefits more. In this theory knowledge is treated as any other commodity which is not distributed equally throughout the society and the people at the top of the ladder has more easy access to it. This theory was used in the presidential election and it is was seen that when a new idea invades in the society, the people of the higher strata understand it better and hence the gap expands. But, events such as debates, free talks may help to reduce this gap.
- 3. 2 Reasons of Knowledge Gap This can be understood from more than one perspective. Let's say that Jackie is a highly educated individual. Compared to a poorly educated person, Jackie will more likely be able to find out where she can get relevant information. Moreover, when Jackie finds the information, she is looking for, she will be more likely to have the background knowledge required to better understand and use that information. It‟s one thing to find a source of information, it's another thing to have the means by which to understand it. And so, those with more education, like Jackie, are more likely to actually gain useful information from a source, since they are better positioned to understand it from the get-go. Five reasons have been mentioned to explain why knowledge gap exist. The reasons are mentioned as following. Communication Skills People from higher socioeconomic classes are better educated in communication skills than people from lower socioeconomic classes. Better educated people statistically would have better reading and writing skills. They also tend to have learning, thinking, speaking and comprehension skills. They therefore are more capable of understanding the information presented to them in mass media. Direct Quote from the Theory In their own words, Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970, p. 161) explain this concept: “Persons with more formal education would be expected to have the higher reading and com- prehension abilities necessary to acquire public affairs or science knowledge.”
- 4. 3 Stored information Educated person is exposed to much more topics through classrooms, textbooks, discussions, than a less educated person and hence his awareness is more. Tichenor, Donohue and Olien define stored information as “existing knowledge resulting from prior exposure to the topic” (1970, p. 162). According to the theory, people who are more highly educated are likely to have had more exposure to a topic in their past. This prior knowledge helps them understand a topic when they are exposed to it by the media. Direct Quote from the Theory The authors explain stored information in this way: “Persons who are already better informed are more likely to be aware of a topic when it appears in the mass media and are better prepared to understand it.” (Tichenor, Donohue and Olien, 1970, p. 162). Relevant Social Contact People with a higher socioeconomic status tend to have more social contacts. These social contacts are more likely to share information on topics that are also seen on media. They are therefore more likely to have some prior experience on a topic. This makes them primed to learn and understand the information they have been exposed to. With more social contacts to provide relevant background information on a topic, people with higher socioeconomic status are also more likely to be able to identify false or inaccurate information on mass media. Direct Quote from the Theory High socioeconomic status people have “a greater number of reference groups, and more interpersonal contacts, which increase the likelihood of discussing public affairs topics with others” (Tichenor, Donohue and Olien, 1970, p. 162). Selective Exposure, Acceptance and Retention
- 5. 4 The „selective exposure‟ argument says that people of different educational levels or socioeconomic backgrounds choose to consume media differently. For example: people will pay more attention to news that is relevant to they‟re their hobbies and interests. Higher educated people are presumed to be more politically engaged. Women tend to gravitate more to drama serials, men toward news and sports. Similarly, this selective exposure argument is seen in new media where we appear to be only consuming media from our „tribe‟. The differences in our media consumption habits will cause gaps in what we know and believe. Direct Quote from the Theory Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970, p. 162) argue: “A persistent theme in mass media research is the apparent tendency to interpret and recall information in ways congruent with existing beliefs and values.” Media Target Markets Different media have different target markets. For every product, news or any commodity a certain segment is targeted and it is usually the higher strata of the society who is targeted and hence the lower strata remain unaware. For example: Pinterest: Predominantly women. Instagram: Skews toward younger people. Print news: Skews toward older and higher educated people. Daytime Television: Skews toward older people. With such a large number of different media with their own niche target markets, the gap is only going to be growing in the era of new media. Direct Quote from the Theory
- 6. 5 Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970, p. 162) argue: “Print media are geared to the interests and tastes of this higher-status segment” Ways to Reduce the Knowledge Gap In 1975, Donohue, Tichenor, and Olien tried to find ways to minimize the knowledge gap. They studied the knowledge of people in communities around Minnesota between 1969 and 1975. From their research, they presented 3 hypotheses on how to reduce the gap. Impact of local issues It was seen that local issues that directly impacted the people had aroused more of social concern than national issues that did not have such a great impact and hence in these issues widened gap could be reduced. Level of Conflict Issues that are „hot button issues‟ tend to engage more interest of all people regardless of education levels, which may reduce the gap. This only works until the conflict „boils over‟, after which people turn off out of disgust. Homogeneity of the community A homogenous community is one where most people in the community are similar to one another (in terms of race, social class and culture). Homogenous communities tended to have less of an information gap than heterogenous communities. Evidence of the Gap Tichenor, Donohue and Olien (1970) used the theory to propose this hypothesis: At any point in time, higher people of a higher socioeconomic status will be more informed on issues currently in the mass media than people of a lower socioeconomic status. To test this hypothesis, they presented a study of the amount of people in the 1950s and 1960s who believed humans will reach the moon. The study appeared to confirm the hypothesis that
- 7. 6 higher socioeconomic status people (identified by level of education) are more informed than lower socioeconomic status people on issues in the mass media. Strengths Recent Political Polarization As more forms of mass media emerge and people can pick and choose their media, the gap is only going to grow. Limitations of Mass Media The theory provides an apparent explanation for why information cannot be spread to all corners of a society through mass media alone. Different people consume different media! As Tichenor, Donohue and Olien argue, the theory provides “a fundamental explanation for the apparent failure of mass
- 8. 7 publicity to inform the public at large.” (170, p. 161) Explains fake news The theory can explain a supposed link between lower-educated people and belief in fake news. Without access to „relevant social contacts‟ or „stored information‟, these people are less capable of identifying and critiquing fake news. Weaknesses Conflates Socioeconomic Status and Education Levels these terms are used interchangeably by the theory‟s founders. The terms correlate, but are not the same thing – so this conflation is problematic. It may not be relevant today a 50 year old theory of media may fail to understand the complexity of the media landscape today. The original article outlining this theory talks about newspapers as the „dominant‟ media form! New media has less „gatekeepers‟ than old media. Anyone can start a website and start sharing their information with the world. This theory doesn‟t account for the way new media works. Competing Theories Media Malaise Hypothesis Mass media has a general negative effect on the knowledge and wellbeing of all of society, including the wealthy and poor. It is geared toward sensationalism, conflict and stretching of the truth. Virtuous Circle Hypothesis Mass media is good for everyone. It educates the poor and creates a generally more educated society on the whole. Differential Effect Hypothesis Newspapers have a positive effect, while television and new media have a negative effect on society. Timeline of Knowledge Gap Theory Research 1970-2013 1970 The Original Hypothesis “As the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease”
- 9. 8 (Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1970). Clarification Does not mean the poor become poorer or that the people of the lower status are completely uniformed. It just means the knowledge growth rate is relatively greater for the higher status population.The authors based their original hypothesis on 20 years of findings. (Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1970). Knowledge Gap Theory explained findings that level of education was strongly correlated with public affairs political campaigns science.More interest, more knowledge, and more exposure strongly correlated with higher socioeconomic status. Mass media did not seem to reach the general public. The original KGH was only applied to print media.(Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1970). Author Makes Modification Smaller communities may be less informed about national news, but still informed about local news (Donohue, Tichenor, & Olien, 1973).Whole community affected, Climate of social conflict and Small, homogeneous community. Gaps may decline as attention decreases (Donohue, Tichenor, & Olien, 1975) Conflicting Findings and New Considerations Not all information reported, Ceiling effect, Interesting and usefulness effect Motivation (rather than education) has a direct effect on knowledge acquisition.(Ettema & Kline, 1977). Motivation has a effect on knowledge gaps. The information campaign launched in this study eliminated the knowledge gap of cardiovascular health knowledge. This shows that increasing information in the mass media system can also close knowledge gaps. (Ettema, Brown, & Luepker, 1983)
- 10. 9 Print Media Research Newspaper circulation is designed to maximize profits, not the distribution of information (Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1986). Still not much is known about the radio and TV (Donohue, Olien, & Tichenor, 1987). 1999 Study of Motivation Three models Causal Association Model (motivational variables are caused by SES). Rival Explanation Model (education and motivational factors compete for effect on knowledge acquisition) Motivation-Contingency Model (high motivational variables can lessen education-based knowledge gaps). (Kwak, 1999). Stanford Study of Internet Use Once people are connected to the internet they hardly differ in how much they use it and what they use it for - except for a drop-off after age 65, and a faint hint of a gender gap. (Nie & Erbring, 2000) Swiss study of Internet Use Educational gap in internet access widened between 1997 and 2000.People of higher education use the Internet as a tool and people of lower education use it for entertainment. Digital Divide & Community Boundness The digital divide means that some people are accessing the internet and others are not. It is critical to examine the consequences and the KGH is one theory that can be applied (Mason & Hacker, 2003).Community boundness is a measure of how a particular issue affects members of a community. People of lower SES showed a higher knowledge of a medical assistance program (Rucinski, 2004). Variety of Applications and Tests Presidential campaigns in Brazil, Mexico, and Russia all showed that the knowledge gap between
- 11. 10 higher and lower levels of SES stayed the same or widened (McCann & Lawson, 2006). Knowledge gaps of cancer causes are a potential cause of cancer disparities (Viswanath et. al, 2006). A higher level of civic engagement through ties to community groups was associated with better recall of health messages (Viswanath, Steele , & Finnegan, 2006). Print vs. TV News: Wider gaps are associated with print.(Jerit, Barabas, & Bolsen, 2006). More Studies, Some More Support, a New Variable Young adults with higher levels of education use the Internet for more activities related to political awareness (Hargittai & Hinnant, 2008). The knowledge gap between SESs was wider among heavy Internet and newspaper users in South Korea(Kim, 2008). Results show information aptitude processing may also be a key variable (Grabe, Yegiyan, & Kamhawi, 2008). The Internet increased cancer knowledge gaps (Shim, 2008). Health & Political Findings Education level has a positive relationship with Internet engagement. Internet engagement has a positive relationship with health knowledge (Lee, 2009). The way political issues are covered in the news can alter how much media coverage influences SES knowledge gaps (Jerit, 2009). Health knowledge is affected by regional coverage. Attention to health news can lessen the knowledge gap affects associated with how much knowledge is available (Slater, Hayes, Reineke,Long, & Bettinghaus, 2009). Internet, Crisis Communication, International Affairs, H1N1 SES knowledge gaps are more closely tied to Internet use than access (Wei & Hindman, 2011). Results show a narrowing knowledge gap and SES was not correlated with storm preparation and knowledge needs (Spence, Lachlan, & Burke, 2011). Countries with more political conflict, changes in economic stability, and a lack of free press had a stronger relationship between education level and media exposure (Pardos-Prado & Cano, 2012). Newspaper attention to the H1N1 flu pandemic did not widen SES knowledge gaps. TV exposure actually narrowed gaps (Ho, 2012). "Belief gap hypothesis" tested: Political affiliation had a greater relationship to healthcare reform
- 12. 11 knowledge than education level (Hindman, 2012). Most Recent Research Mass media coverage related to HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia widened the knowledge gap between urban and rural people (Bekalu & Eggermont, 2013).Urban students update their knowledge, get wider knowledge, and have greater depth of knowledge (International Academic Workshop on Social Science). Device type can influence "capital enhancing" (Pearce & Rice, 2013).Increased science Internet and television use among low education groups can help narrow gaps (Cacciatore, Scheufele, & Corley, 2013).
- 13. 12 References https://www.communicationtheory.org/knowledge-gap-theory/ https://prezi.com/c_6wtotwypif/knowledge gaphypothesis/?frame=4f3385b72a42e55db25de8b7fec14fa485c5286a https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jtYebTk3Z7g https://www.masscommunicationtalk.com/knowledge-gap-hypothesis.html Donohue, G. A., Tichenor, P. J., & Olien, C. N. (1975). Mass media and the KG: A hypothesis revisited. Communication Research. 2(1): 3–23. doi: 10.1177/009365027500200101 Fraile, M. (2011). Widening or reducing the KG? Testing the media effects on political knowledge in Spain (2004-2006). International Journal of Press/Politics, 16(2): 163– 184. doi: 10.1177/1940161210388413 Gaziano, C. (1983). The KG: An analytical review of media effects. Communication Research, 10(4): 447–486. doi:10.1177/009365083010004003Gaziano, C. (1997). Forecast 2000: Widening KGs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74(2): 237– 264. doi: 10.1177/107769909707400202 Hwang, Y., & Jeong, S-H. (2009). Revisiting the knowledge gap hypothesis: A meta- analysis of thirty-five years of research. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 86(3): 513–532. doi: 10.1177/107769900908600304 Tichenor, P. A., Donohue, G. A., and Olien, C. N. (1970). Mass media flow and differential growth in knowledge. Public Opinion Quarterly, 34(2): 159–170. Gaziano, C. (1997). Forecast 2000: Widening KGs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74(2): 237–264. doi: 10.1177/107769909707400202 Hwang, Y., & Jeong, S-H. (2009). Revisiting the knowledge gap hypothesis: A meta-analysis of thirty-five years of research. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 86(3): 513– 532. doi: 10.1177/107769900908600304 Tichenor, P. A., Donohue, G. A., and Olien, C. N. (1970). Mass media flow and
- 14. 13 differential growth in knowledge. Public Opinion Quarterly, 34(2): 159–170.