Language and its varieties

Notes by R.R.Borse, Eng.Dept.,BP Arts, SMASci.,KKC Comm.College, Chalisgaon
Q. Discuss the different factors responsible for language variation. Give suitable examples.
Q. discuss with examples the parameters or factors causing the language variation.
Q. What are the major factors responsible for the varieties of language?
Ans.
1) Introduction- We have variations of every language at a certain point of time. We all live in society.
We use language for communicating our ideas, thoughts and views to others and get from them also.
No speakers speak exactly alike. Every individual has his own variety of speech of his language.
Even every individual man never uses the same variety of language on all occasions and at all places.
His individual language varies. That is called language variation. “Language variation means
variation in the forms ofexpression ofthe same language at a certain point oftime.” Language
doesn’t change but language varies. We have a number of languages in the world. Those languages
have regional varieties. Those regional varieties are called Dialects. Means language always
undergoes changes slowly but certainly. Language varies not by revolution but by evolution.
Therefore,language variation is an important aspect of language for the students and teachers of
language. The more language is spread in the world, the more varieties of that language take place.
This is true more in the case of English because it is world-widely spoken language. It is spoken in all
continents of the world. So even at present day, English has a number of varieties. English is used in
England, America, Canada,Australia, Ireland, West Indies, South Africa and many Asian countries.
Naturally, there are many varieties of English used all over the world. Most of variation of this
language is in spoken language. Generally, there are seven major factors responsible for the language
variation in general and English in particular. These factors are called Parameters of language
variation. Time, region, user,attitude of speaker,field discourse, medium and interference are the
major parameters responsible for language variation. Lets explain the language variation in general
and English in particular with reference to the parameter Time-
2) The Parameter ofTime-
Language varies due to the factor of time. Means,time is the first responsible factor for language
variation. It is also called “Historical Factor In language variation”. Language is a social
phenomenon. Society changes with the change of time. Language is the product of society. Therefore,
language also changes with the changes of society. This change is so slow that we don’t notice it. But
every language varies from time to time. The tendency to change for the sake of change. This is
common in every field of life. That is true in the cast of language also. Hence,every age has its own
variety of language. So, we say Shakespearean English, Classical English, Middle Age English,
Victorian English, Romantic English, Modern English and Post Modern English, etc. This shows that
every historical period has a unique variety of language. That variety is created due to the factor
called Time.
Sentences and phrases also vary from time to time. Some phrases are very popular during
particular period of time. But the same phrases and idioms become outdated during the following
periods of time. For example, we now use modern phrase ‘a year ago’. But Elizabethan people never
used this phrase. Instead of this phrase, they used the phrase ‘some twelve months since.’ Thus, every
period has its own stock of words and phrases.

In Shakespearean age,people used the word ‘innocent’. We also use the same word today. We
understand this word with the meaning ‘simple humble gentleman.’ But in Shakespearean age,this
word meant ‘fool’ or ‘an abnormal man’. These two examples show that the meaning of the words
and phrases always go on changing from time to time.
The pronunciations of language also vary with the passing time. The changes in pronunciations
are generally in vowel sounds. For example, the word ‘cat’ was pronounced in the 17th
century like /k
t/ but the present pronunciation of this word has undergone a change. We pronounce that word today
as /k t/. the word ‘go’ was pronounced as /g / up to the 17th
century. Then it was pronounced as /g
/ in the 19th
century. But now it is being pronounced as /g /. Similarly, the grammar of language
also changes with the change of time. In old English, some of the grammatical structures were not
present. The inflectional suffix of making the words plural was rarely used by those people. They
were using the sentences like ‘There are hundred book in cupboard’. But in new course of time, the
inflectional plural suffixes like ‘-s’, ‘-es’,‘-ies’, ‘-ives’ were developed. This example shows that
grammar of language also changes. These are called ‘syntactic changes’. In old English, the tense
indication suffixes were not always used. Similarly, degree indicating suffixes were not also regularly
used. Means, some of the grammatical concepts always go on changing. Nouns, adjectives, articles
and pronouns all took different inflectional forms according to their grammatical function in the
sentence.
The writing skill of language also changes during the historical periods. The alphabets,
the scripts, the punctuation and the symbols of letter also change in many respects in every language.
The style of language writing of 16th
century people was different in many respects from the style of
modern English.
Thus, the changes in language are phonological changes,morphological changes,
syntactic change, lexical changes and script changes. In old English, the genitive ‘of’ was very
popular. The use of apostrophe ’s was unknown. On the other hand, in modern English, we avoided
the use of genitive ‘of’. So instead of writing ‘the top of the table’, we use the construction ‘the table
top’. Thus, time is an important factor for the language variation. It is also called a diachronic
variation of language. The students and the teachers should always remember this important feature
of language while learning and teaching any language of the world.
***
Q. Discuss Region/ Geography/ place as an important parameter of language variation.
Q. Explain region/ Geographical area as the factor responsible for language variation.
Q How does language vary/differ/change according to the parameter of region?
Ans.
1) Introduction- Ref. q.no.1
2) The Parameter ofRegion/Geography-

Language varies with the social changes. Language doesn’t change, but it only varies. There are many
major factors responsible for the language variation in general and English in particular. Region is one of
the major/ main factors responsible for variation. These varieties of language according to the parameter
of region are called Regional Varieties or Geographical Varieties. The regional varieties oflanguage
are popularly and technically called ‘Dialects’. “A dialect is the regional, temporal and the social
variety within the same language.” These dialects differ in word accent,intonation, pronunciations,
style, rhythm, pitch and generalpresentation. The dialects do not differ mostly in spellings, grammar,
vocabulary and writing from the standard language. Thus the geographical factor is the important cause
for the diversity of language. That gives birth to a dialect. Dialects denote the speech form used in
particular region by a speech community. When a group of people lives in a particular geographical
region, they are in each other’s contact for a long time. They speak more with the people of that region.
They are in each other’s contact. They speak more with the people of that region. They have rare
opportunity of speaking with the people of the other long regions. So naturally that group of people
develop the similar or identical ways of word-accents,intonations, rhythm, pitch and gestures. They
develop a separate and special unique variety of the language of that time. Then we can say that that
group speaks a dialect. There is a mutual intelligibility (easily understood) between the speakers of that
language. In this way, the factor of region is one of the parameters of language variation.
The more language is spread geographically, the more dialects that language has. For example,
Marathi is spoken all over Maharashtra. Therefore,it is spread in the various regions like Marathwada,
Conkan, Vidarbha, Khandesh and other regions. There Marathi has regional dialects like Marathwada
Marathi, Conkan Marathi, etc.
English is spoken as a native language by nearly three hundred million people of the world. It is a
world-wide spoken language. It is an international language. Naturally, it is used in many geographical
areas,localities and regions of the world. This language is used in England, America,Australia, Ireland,
Norway, South Africa,West Indies and many Asian countries. It is used as the second language in many
countries of the world. Thus, English is spread in many nations, regions, geographical areas and localities
of the world. So, we have national varieties of English like British English, American English, Canadian
English, Australian English, Scottish English, Irish English, Indian English, etc. these varieties of
language base on the geographical areas of the nation are called National Varieties of English language.
These varieties of English are due to the different regions of the nations.
Within the same country, the language is not spoken similarly, because that country has different
regions, states and localities. Many countries are multilingual. This is true in the case of India. In India,
there are more that 16-20 regional languages used by the people. So there are numberous regional dialects
of English within India. Hence,we have Marathi English, Bengali English, Bihari English, Telgu English,
etc. these typical varieties of English are due to the geography of these regions. These varieties are called
Regional variations of English. In Maharashtra itself, the speakers of English from Mumbai have different
variety from the speakers of rural Maharashtra. This variation is due to the local and area-wise
differences. These are called ‘sub-dialects of English.’ Thus, we can prepare maps indication the
boundries between two different dialects. The line that shows a boundary between the two areas of
dialects on the linguistic map is called Isogloss. The speakers living in the area of isogloss are bilingual or
multilingual. In this way, region is the important factor,parameter for language variation. This typical

feature of language must be understood properly by the students and the teachers of every language in
general and English language in particular.
***
Q. How does language vary according to the parameter of attitude?
Q. Consider attitude as the parameter of language variation.
Q. Describe the stylistic variations of language with examples.
Q. Describe the attitudinal variations of language with suitable illustrations.
Ans.-
1) Introduction- Ref. q.no.1
2) The Parameter ofAttitude-
Language always varies according to different parameters; they are the parameters of language
variation. The third parameter of language variation is the ‘attitude’ of the speaker to the listener. This
variety of language is also called ‘Participant Relation Varieties’, the relation of the speaker to the listener
decides the variety of our language. Thus, the occasion and situation in which we are speaking demands
the particular variety of language. This is also called the ‘style of language’. The speaker chooses the
proper form of language for proper situation according to his relation and attitude to the listener. So this
variety is also called ‘Stylistic Variation of language’. There are five language styles. Each style is suited
to a particular occasion. Every style has its own features which distinguish it from other styles of
language. The following are the major styles or stylistic variations according the attitude of the speakers-
a) Intimate Style- when we speak with our friend, we use informal style. That informal style is also
called as intimate style. We use this style when we speak with our friends, other, colleagues and
familiar people. This intimate style is used by people who know each other very well and whose
relationship is very close. They can predict each others reactions to a given situation. In this style, the
grammar is reduced to a minimum. There is a careless use of grammar. The sentences are very short.
The vocabulary is too much reduced. The words are used with special meaning. These words are
slurred (not clearly pronounced) and clipped. The pronunciations are made carelessly. The
conversational language is used in this style. The conversations in the private parties, between
husband and wife, between lovers, between close friends are of this style of language. This style helps
to develop close contact and intimacy. This style is regarded as the most powerful medium of
socialization.
b) Formal Style- when we speak to our teacher,father, preacher and a stranger,we use a formal speech
which is called formal style. In this speech, we use exactly opposite style to that if informal style. In
our life, whenever we are before some honorable people and audience, we use formal style. The
lecturer, the preacher,judge, legislator always use formal style before an audience. The grammar of
this style is well-organized and accurate. The vocabulary is more ample. The pronunciations are clear.
The stress and intonations are carefully followed. Complete sentences are used. The knowledge,
ideas, views, critical comments and scholarship are revealed in formal style.
c) Casual Style- when we speak with the people who are neither familiar nor stranger, we use Casual
style. In this style, we open a conversation with the listener in formal style. We begin with salutation.

Then we ask about unnecessary details. Means, in this style, the speaker keeps a respectable distance
with the listener. In this style, short sentences are used. The grammar of this type is disordered. In this
style, the speaker slowly but certainly develops familiarity.
d) Frozen Style- when we speak with a completely new stranger, at that time, we use cold and formal
style. It is also called Impersonal variety of Language. This is also known as consultative style. This
style is always grammatically accurate. The vocabulary and pronunciations are very correct. The
speaker pretends to be very free and frank with the listener. This style is used with the fellow
passengers in the railway compartment and buses. Literature uses frozen style. This variety of style is
used in literature because the writer does not know the relationship and attitude to the reader or
listener. Therefore,he uses objective type of style in writing. Thus, frozen style is the primary the
style of literature. It follows grammar rules. It is informative. It is the style of scholarship as the writer
exercises/ uses his genius and command over language to influence the people. He has a fearless
attitude to the readers. Naturally, he adopts frozen style for all occasions. The printed exercise/ form
always uses frozen style. Thus, frozen style in written form is free from the pressures of time, region
and other elements.
e) Consultative Style- The next variety of style is Consultative style. This style is used by the speaker
when we are facing a complete new stranger and the man not belonging to our region. We don’t know
anything about the listener. So it is called the style of introduction. We are carefuland alert. We
neither want to offend him by extreme intimacy nor by undue formality. We want to establish a link
or bridge with that listener. For that purpose, we use Consultative style. Means, we first of all enquire
politely the personal information of the listener. We ask him about his native place, profession, family
and purpose of establishing relation with us. So, we use formal and cold style with him. This style is
having clear,distinct, perfect pronunciations, intonations and rhythm and pitch. The major purpose is
communication with minimum of words and sentences. This style is business-like. Similarly
consultative style is used to get information.
Thus, attitude of the speaker is called one of the important parameters for language variation.
This attitude is responsible for stylistic variations. We come across formal, informal, intimate, casual,
cold, frozen, personal, consultative style of speech. These varieties are caused by the relation of the
speaker with the listener. Hence,it is called attitudinal variation of language.
***

Q. Define the terms Idiolect.
Ans. Language also varies according to the factor or parameter ‘the user’. Language is used by every
human being in society. There are many speakers of the same language who use that language commonly.
There are many similarities/ commonalities in the speech of the speakers of that language. The common
language of one peculiar variety is used by the speech community of the particular region. That is called a
dialect. Means, a group of speakers of the same language is called the ‘speech community’. The variety of
language used by that speech community is called a dialect. Within each dialect, there is a considerable
variation in the speech of individuals. Every speaker speaks the same language variety as others in the
same region. But every speaker has its own speech habits. No two persons speak exactly alike. Every
individual’s language is unique. This clearly shows that there are as many speech varieties of language as
there are speakers of that language. Every speaker uses some unique, personal, distinguishing
characteristics,unique habits and styles different from other speakers. These interpersonal differences
exist in spoken language. Such differences are always to be found in any language spoken by more than
one person. Because,no two speakers have exactly the same set of speech habits. In other words, each
individual in a speech community speaks in a characteristically individual way. He makes certain choice
of words that are his. The individual variety of language is created by the personal factors like the
speaker’s age,education, his gender, his class, his social status and his role as well as the system of his
organs of speech. This unique variety ofindividual’s language is called in technical term ‘Idiolect’.
‘Idio’ means individual and ‘lect’ means ‘language’. The word ‘Idio’ is basically a Latin word. This
clearly shows us that individual’s peculiar, unique, specific speech (mechanism) habits form or create
Idiolect. Idiolect underscores being personal preferences or tendencies to use specific syntactic form and
typical pronunciations due to our unique speech mechanism.
Q. Describe the language variation according to the parameter ofthe field ofdiscourse.
Q. Describe the varieties oflanguage according to the subject matter ofspeech with examples.
Q. Explain with examples the concept ofregister in language variation.
Q. Define the term ‘register’ and explain it as a parameter oflanguage variation.
Ans. Language does not change, it varies. At a particular moment of time the same language has
variant forms. These variants of expression of the same language are called language variations. The
factors responsible for language variation are called the parameters of language variation. The parameters
causing diversities are- time, region, attitude, the field of discourse, the user, interference,the model of
language.
The field of discourse is one of the important parameter of language variation. The field of
discourse means the subject matter of discussion. It is called the topic of discussion. The variety of
language according to the subjectmatter or the field ofdiscourse is also called technical language/
register in technical language. This type of variety is also called role-related variety. Every man
performs a certain role in society. He has his own profession, occupation or business. Register is a
particular kind of speech used by the speakers belonging to one profession or occupation. When the

people of the same profession come together, they use this variety of language. The variation according to
use in specific situation is called and studied as the register of language. Each profession has its own
topics and things to talk about. They talk about the different aspect of that profession. Therefore,there are
some unique words, terms, idioms, stock words, code words, phrases, vocabulary, sentences and style
used by the people of the same occupation. The people of the business use the same style. Thus, unique
variety of language made by unique words, vocabulary and phrases which is called register.
The same individual uses different varieties of a language depending upon the situation. This
language according to the situation is called Register. The kind of language that a lecturer uses in a
classroom is not the kind of English that he uses in the kitchen, talking to his wife or the kind of English
he uses on the college stage. One uses different registers in talking to one’s wife, one’s colleague, and
one’s boss.
When two doctors meet, they use a particular kind of speech made of unique words of that
profession. Means, they use doctor’s register. There is a religious register in which we expect to find an
expression not found elsewhere. In legal register, we come across words like plaintiff, argument,
judgment, witness, etc. In the linguistic register, we get the sentences like ‘the morphology of this dialect
contains some inflectional suffixes’. It is one of the key features of a register that we use special Jargon.
A Jargon can be defined as technical vocabulary associated with a special profession ofgroup.
Jargon helps to connect the people of the same profession. Each member of that occupation considers
himself as the insider of that variety of language.
The variety language used by the merchants is different from the language of doctors. We come
across a number of registers as many as professions are there. There are lawyers register,journalists
register, literary register and so on and so forth. Even in the field of science register, we have different
register from subject to subject. So, we have the English of Chemistry, the English of Botany, the English
of History, etc.
In this way, every student of language must remember that-
a) The language varies according to the field of discourse.
b) Every field or profession has a unique stock words or jargon.
c) There are as many registers as professions in the world. In the modern age,even the dictionaries
are created for the particular registers. We have medical dictionary, computer dictionary,
engineering dictionary, law dictionary, etc.
These fields of discourses are determined by the role of the user, the profession of the user and
the topic of discussion. This reality and feature of language must be remembered by teachers and
students of language study.
***
Q. What is sociolect?
Q. Bring out the differences between dialect and sociolect?
Ans. Sociolect is one of the forms of language variation. This is the concept of socio-linguistics.
Language and society are closely related with each other. They influence each other. Therefore,sociolect
is the important concept in socio-linguistics. Every society has various classes according to the needs and
establishment of that society. The variety oflanguage (a dialect) used by the people belonging to a
particular social class is called a sociolect. Means,a social dialect or a class dialect used by the

members ofa particular group of a speech community is called Sociolect. The speakers of a sociolect
usually share a similar socio-economic and educational background. The people of the particular society
have their own class. He may be belonging to upper class society, middle class society. The members of
that social class always try to create a separate socialentity. It is the effort of that class to adopt special
traditions, conventions and rituals. That class develops interpersonal context and relationships
emotionally and socially. This social relationship becomes stronger and stronger. For developing and
building a separate identity that social class speaks a special variety of language. That variety of language
of the particular class of the society is called a sociolect. Means, the upper class people use their own
variety of language. Similarly, the middle class people use different variety of the same language and the
lower class speakers have their own variation of language. This is the hierarchy of language variation
present in every society. The upper class British English differs considerably in accent,vocabulary,
choice of words, intonation patterns, sentence structure and the pitch of the speech. The American
merchant class has developed their own sociolect. In India also, the speaker from upper class family can
be easily recognized from the speaker of the poor class. Thus, we have proved with examples that the
variety of a language used by people belonging to a particular social class is called in the technical term a
sociolect.
Sociolect is different from dialect and register. Dialect is variety oflanguage spoken in a
certain geographical area. It is somewhat different form of that language in pronunciations and
grammatical constructions. It is different from the standard form of that language. Therefore,a dialect is
called ‘standard languages poor country cousin.’ Thus,a dialect is the regional, temporal, social
variety within a single language. Within the particular dialect, the special class of the society of the same
geographical area uses their own variety called sociolect. Thus, dialect is broader concept while sociolect
is narrow concept. If sociolect is a circle then dialect is a broader circle. In short, sociolect is the variety
of language of the class of society while dialect is the variety of language of language of the particular
region of the country.
***
Q What are the different levels oflinguistic analysis?
Q. Define howlanguage is an organization ofdifferent linguistic levels.
Ans. Language is made up by interdependent systems. There are many systems and sub-systems which
work together to make language a system. In learning a language means, we learn all these systems and
sub-systems. Therefore,these systems are also called different levels of language analysis. Therefore,
language is defined as an organization of many systems and sub-systems. Means, language works on
many different levels to form its system. Every language has phonological system, morphological system,
syntactical or grammatical level, semantical level, spelling system, writing system, punctuation system,
stylistic system and body language. These are the different systems working together and simultaneously
to make language a system. Every language involves all these systems while functioning as a system. Let
us understand the importance of these systems and sub-systems as language analysis-
1. Phonological System/Level- this is the major system of every language. It is concerned with the
sound system of language. Every language is basically/primarily a speech. The phonological
system of language imposes restrictions on the combination of meaningful sounds. Man can

produce infinite (unlimited) sounds. But all possible sounds are not used in language. Every
language selects certain definite sounds to form its phonological system. In English, only 44
sounds are selected and phonological system of English is made up of 44 sounds. The
phonological system of English has many sub-systems like 12 monophthongs, 8 diphthongs and
24 consonants. The 24 consonants have sub-systems like plosives, fricatives, affricate, nasals,
semi-vowels, lateral. Similarly, bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar are other sub-
systems. In this way,we can analyse language on these many systems and sub-systems. Thus
phonology is a system having many sub-systems working for the sounds of language. So,
language is a system of systems.
2. Morphological System- it is a system of word-formation. In every language, certain sounds are
combined to make a meaningful word. This science of word-formation is called morphology. So,
morphology is also the level of linguistic analysis.
3. Syntactical /Grammatical System- it is a system about construction of meaningful sentences.
The sounds and words alone can’t perform the functions of language. These sounds and words
have meaning when they are ordered in a meaningful sentence. Grammar is the study of many
sub-systems like nouns, numbers (singular, plural), persons (1st
/2nd
/3rd
person), tense system,
gender system, articles, etc. Grammar teaches us whether the noun is singular or plural and which
verb should be used for it. Similarly, we can analyze whether a particular noun is first person,
second person or third person. It is the study of grammar and the system of syntact. That teaches
us to use proper articles, nouns, pronouns and tense. Thus the system of grammar gives rules
about constructing sentences meaningfully.
4. The Semantical System- this is the fourth major system of every language. Semantics is the
science which studies the meaning of the words. Only the sounds, words and sentences are not
capable of communicating meaning/ message. Every word in every language expresses a definite
meaning. That meaning to the word is given by convention. This is given in the dictionary of that
language. Therefore, when we learn language, we must learn by heart the meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences. So, semantics is an important system of every language. So, we can
analyse linguistically language on this level also.
5. Spelling System- it is the system of ordering the words in writing. Every word has a definite
spelling system, which is must for learning a language.
6. Writing System- every language has a system of certain alphabets. Those alphabets must be
learned by the speaker of that language. It is a system of writing by using alphabets as symbols.
7. Punctuation System- it is a system of writing capital letters, signs, symbols, dash or dots.
Punctuation is used for making writing perfect and beautiful. Thus, language is a systems of
many major systems and sub systems.
Therefore, it is true that language is made up of many interdependent systems. Hence,
language is a system of systems.
***
Q.What is the scope ofsocio-linguistics?
Q. What is socio-linguistics? Illustrate.

Ans. Language is a verbal means of communication. The science which studies language scientifically is
called Linguistics. In other words, the scientific study of language is called Linguistics. Up to 19th
century, the science of linguistics was mainly concerned with language as an isolated object in the
laboratory. This was an objective approach to the study of language. It was also theoretical approach to
language. The linguists considered the language as the subject of a pure scientific and theoretical
approach. They thought that language is purely personal affair. It has no direct relations with society,
culture and surroundings. Therefore,the students and teachers of language were supposed to study the
internal structure, sounds, words, sentence constructions, word-formation and writing of particular
language. Up to 19th
century, the study of language was pedagogical, means they created language as the
subject like other physical sciences. This was purist approach to the study of language. They consider
“what language is?” but never studied “How does language used in society?” This was the approach of
linguists to language till the end of 19th
century. In 1909, a famous linguist J. R. Firth put forth a new
approach in linguistics. That was the reactionary approach to the study of language. He explained in his
theory that application of pure science for the social uses is also important in linguistics. They discovered
a new branch in linguistics called Socio-linguistics. It is the most important branch of linguistics. It
focuses on the relationship between language and society. The complexity of society is directly reflected
in the complex pattern of language and linguistics. The famous linguist Catford says,“No language is an
isolated object like the objects in laboratory. Language is concerned with sociology, psychology, history,
anthropology, economics and geography. So the concept of language as a whole can be understood only
then and then when we study socio-linguistics.” This was the new direction given by Catford to the study
of language. H.A. Gleason says, “Language cannot be studied in isolation. Language has many inter-
relationships with sociology, psychology, anthropology, history, culture, physics, physiology and
information technology in modern times. Therefore,the balanced study of language is possible if we
study it in the context of society and surrounding.” Thus, language is a form of man’s social behavior.
Language is a means of communication and communication is possible when another member is present
before us. We cannot ignore the fact that language is essentially a social activity. We don’t use language
in isolation. There should be a company of other human beings to talk with. The language is the product
of human need to communicate with other members of society. So, language is possible in a condition o0f
the existence of society. It is produced for interaction with other people in society. In this way, every
language in the world is deeply embedded in the society it is used. The context of that society is necessary
for the complete study of that language. The development of any particular language solely depends upon
its society. If the speakers of that language are studious, reinnovative, active and modern in the field of
knowledge. This is the close relationship between language and society. They are inseparable. The
famous linguist Malinowski, the famous anthropologist, used the phrase “the context of situation and
society” for the balanced study of language. He suggested that the study of language becomes complete
when we study the speaker’s relation with the listeners, participants, traditions and cultural values of the
society. So, socio-linguistics is accepted,nowadays as the most important branch of linguistics. Socio-
linguistics includes the topics like speech community, idiolect, dialect, sociolect, register, pidgin, creole,
stylistic variation, the language variation and the factors responsible for language variation.
This is the range and area of socio-linguistics. It is next to phonetics in the study of language.
Phonetics gives us information about ‘what language is’. One the other hand, socio-linguistics gives
information about ‘how the particular language should be used effectively in the context of society.’
Thus, socio-linguistics is a practical science. It is mainly concerned with the effective use of language by

the students and teachers and other members of society. The knowledge of socio-linguistics is therefore
necessary for teachers and students in teaching and learning language.
***
Q. What is diglossia?
Ans. We can use different varieties of the same language as per the demand of situations and different
purposes. So, each and every language has variations according to many factors like time, region, user,
etc. But these varieties exist within only one language. These are the parts of a particular (single)
language. There are many communities, countries in the world where two or more languages exist side by
side. Such society is called Multilingual or Bilingual society. India is the best example of this type of
society. In such society, the speakers use different languages for different purposes according to the
demand of the situation. This is known as Diglossia. Within a community two or more languages may
exist side by side, and the speakers may use each one for different purposes.This is known as
diglossia. The speaker can use two or more languages which are in existence in that society. One
language is used for formal occasions; he uses that language for official communication of the
government business or administration, education, literature, law and correspondence. But,the same
speaker uses other form or other language at home, with friends or the people of his community. This is
the demand of informal occasions. The speaker changes his language according to the demand of the
situation. One variety of language is used for formal occasions, it is called High variety or H- variety.
The second variety of language is used for informal occasions, it is called the Low-variety or L-variety.
Generally, the speaker uses standard language for formal occasions. In addition to the same speaker uses
sub-standard language or non-prestigious language for informal occasions. Thus, switching from one
language to another language for different occasions and purposes is called Diglossia.
Sometimes, a speech community uses two dialects, but there is a strong tendency to use one of
these languages for special, prestigious or formal occasions. This prestigious dialect is called High
language. The informal, commonly spoken dialect is called Low language. These two languages are not
allowed to intermingle. Such a use of two dialects by a speech community is called Diglossia.
For example, India presents a fine example of the concept of diglossia. India is a bilingual/
multilingual country. Two or more languages exist in every state of India side by side. In Maharashtra,
almost every speaker of Marathi is the speaker of some other oral or unofficial language. The speaker
uses Marathi for official communication, education and for other formal occasions. But, the same speaker
uses totally another language or local dialect for formal occasions in his private life used generally at
home. In Khandesh region, every speaker uses Marathi in formal occasions. But, the same speaker uses
the local dialect i.e. Ahirani while speaking with friends, family members, shopping or domestic
conversations. This use of the speaker of different languages for different languages for different purposes
is technically called Diglossia. In Uttar Pradesh,Hindi is the formal language used in the education and
offices. But in the informal situation, the people of Uttar Pradesh use Bhojpuri language. In Tamil Nadu,
the people use standard Tamil language, it is called high Tamil. And for the common use, they use a low
Tamil language.
This situation prevails all over India. In north India, people use Hindi for official communication,
education and literature. But the Hindi speakers use another language or their local dialects at home.
Thus, India is a unique country in the world where diglossia situation is found everywhere.
***

Q. What is Pidgin?
Q. What is Creole?
Ans. Pidgin is the concept from socio-linguistics. Language is a means of communication in society. Man
is a social being. He lives in society. He uses language to receive and to convey messages from each
other. Similarly, human beings travel all over the world for different purposes and specifically for
business purposes. British people are world- famous merchants. So, they travelled in almost all countries
of the world for business purposes. The languages of those countries were strange and unknown for them.
English was not understood by those people and their languages were unknown to British people. That
created difficulty for communication. British merchants went to China to trade. The Chinese language
was totally strange to British merchants. Similarly, English language was totally strange to Chinese
people. It was an impossible situation with both- Chinese and English merchants to understand each
other. In such situation, British people created a system of broken English which was easier for the
Chinese to understand. The Chinese deliberately tried to understand the communication of the British
merchants. This type of language is called Pidgin. It is a contact language. Pidgin is a compromise
language. We can define pidgin as a sort ofworking solution for the communication problem
between two different speech communities that come into contact for business purposes. In such
situation, British people created a separate broken language in order to establish some kind of language
link. This became an accepted and conventional system of a regular medium. We call it as Chinese Pidgin
English. Such pidgins takes place in different countries where two different communities come into
contact for business purpose. All over the world, under the similar situations, many compromise
languages are created. Though, they are all not regular languages, these are known as pidgins.
When the pidgin in continued for years and years together, it becomes a conventionalized
language (regular language). It does not remain only a contact language. Many British merchants got
settled in those areas of China. That Chinese Pidgin English became the language of communication, the
language of official correspondence and business. Its use and application became wider. That pidgin was
spoken an increasing number of people as their first language. It has crossed the reason of business. When
a pidgin becomes a linguafranca (regular language), it is called Creole. Creole is the type of language
developed from a pidgin. Pidgin is the beginning and Creole is the result of that beginning. Thus, a creole
is a perfectly a normal language. A creole has no motherland and no history.
Thus, pidgin is the variety of language for temporary purpose in temporary situation. Here the
speakers belong to two different languages. They are totally ignorant of each other’s languages. So, for
temporary solution of communication is resolved by the help of pidgin. Some words from one language
and some from others are used to establish contact and communication with each other. So, it is a contact
from compromise language. This variety oflanguage has certain linguistic features-
1. Pidgin is temporary, situational and non-native means of communication.
2. The phonemic system of pidgin is extremely loose with great variation in pronunciation.
3. Pidgin possesses a limited vocabulary because the speakers need the limited functional uses
of speech.
4. It is a compromise language with mixed vocabulary of the two languages.
5. Pidgin can borrow heavily from other languages to expand its word-stock. In many parts of
China, pidgin was used by British merchants. So, Chinese Pidgin English has a predominance
of English words. It has very few Chinese words. Means,in every Pidgin, there are more and
more words from the foreign language than the native language.

6. Pidgins are extremely loose in grammar also. The articles, the persons(1st
,2nd
,3rd
), tenses and
other grammatical categories of the original language are reduced or neglected to suit the
need.
When a pidgin is used for a considerable duration of time, it is conventionalized and accepted as a
separate language. When the foreign speaker of pidgin settles down in that region, the pidgin is used by
that group of foreigners for months and years together, it becomes Creole. It becomes the language of that
region. Thus, Creole has all features of language except that it has no long history. In short, when pidgin
acquires the native speakers and native land, it becomes a Creole. A Creole has the following
features-
1. Creole becomes a native language of that particular region.
2. The speakers make the phonemic system as systematic as possible.
3. The vocabulary of Creole goes on increasing with the passing of time. It becomes more and
more rich language in vocabulary.
4. Creole borrows maximum words from other languages and accepts those words permanently.
5. Creole becomes a systematic means of communication and never remains a temporary means
of communication.
6. Creole develops slowly but certainly its own grammar. The minor peculiarities of grammar
are expanded and brought to the perfection.
7. Creole always aims at acquiring the role of distinct native language of that region. There are
many creoles which are nowadays recognized languages of the world.
***
Q. Language is a speech, illustrate.
Q. Speech is primary, writing is secondary/ derivate,discuss.
Ans. We use language for communication. Speech and writing are the two important modes (mediums) of
language. Speech and writing are the two different mediums of language. We speak language for
communications, similarly we write language for communication too. But speech and writing are not
equally important mediums of language. Speech is primary and writing is secondary. Speech is the
medium of language in which sounds are directly used for expression of thoughts and feelings. On the
other hand, writing is the graphic presentation of the sound symbols on the paper. Thus, speech consists
of sounds while writing consists of marks and signs on paper. Hence,speech is primary and writing is
secondary. We can prove this by following arguments/ examples-
1. In our life, we learnt to speak first before we learnt to write. Every man begins to speak at the
age of three or four. Then only at the age of seven or six, we begin to learn writing language.
We master speech much earlier than writing. This example shows that speech comes first and
writing comes afterwards in our life.
2. There are so many languages in the world which don’t have writing system at all. In India,
there are many regional dialects/languages which are never written. They have no scripts and
alphabets. These languages existed purely as the oral form of communication. They are
functioning successfully as a language. Writing is not essential for existence. These
examples show that ‘language can exist without writing, but can not exist without speech’.
3. In the history of the world, man invented writing very very late after he began to speak. Man
must have learnt speech thousands of years ago. On the other hand, the art of writing came

into this world very late in the 3rd
to 5th
century. This shows historically that speech is
primary and writing is secondary.
4. Similarly, there are many crores of illiterate people in the world. They cannot write anything.
But these illiterate men are capable to speak language effectively and successfully. This
shows that speech is primary and compulsory while writing is optional for language.
5. Similarly, in our life and also life-time, we speak more than we write. The average of speech
is hundred times more than percentage of writing. So, writing is secondary and speech is
primary.
6. Speech is learnt without much efforts. We learn to speak unconsciously and instinctly. A
child learns at least even a language without conscious efforts at the age of three or four. But
writing is not so natural, easy and instinctive like speech. Writing skill is acquired by much
efforts by learner. According to the law of nature, primary and essential things are
instinctively learnt and secondary things are learnt by much efforts. By these arguments, we
can definitely say that speech is primary and writing is secondary for language.
***
Q. Define Broca’s area.
Ans.

Language and its varieties

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