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The document outlines the instruction set architecture (ISA) of a computer, detailing components such as memory organization, register sets, and instruction operations. It covers the LC-3 assembly language, explaining memory and register characteristics, various opcodes, data movement, and control instructions, including examples of how to use these instructions in programming. Additionally, it addresses concepts such as addressing modes and condition codes, providing details on program flow and sample programs.

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Instruction Set
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-2 Instruction Set Architecture ISA = All of the programmer-visible components and operations of the computer • memory organization  address space -- how may locations can be addressed?  addressibility -- how many bits per location? • register set  how many? what size? how are they used? • instruction set  opcodes  data types  addressing modes ISA provides all information needed for someone that wants to write a program in machine language (or translate from a high-level language to machine language).
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-3 LC-3 Overview: Memory and Registers Memory • address space: 216 locations (16-bit addresses) • addressability: 16 bits Registers • temporary storage, accessed in a single machine cycle accessing memory generally takes longer than a single cycle • eight general-purpose registers: R0 - R7 each 16 bits wide how many bits to uniquely identify a register? • other registers not directly addressable, but used by (and affected by) instructions PC (program counter), condition codes
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-4 LC-3 Overview: Instruction Set Opcodes • 15 opcodes • Operate instructions: ADD, AND, NOT • Data movement instructions: LD, LDI, LDR, LEA, ST, STR, STI • Control instructions: BR, JSR/JSRR, JMP, RTI, TRAP • some opcodes set/clear condition codes, based on result: N = negative, Z = zero, P = positive (> 0) Data Types • 16-bit 2’s complement integer Addressing Modes • How is the location of an operand specified? • non-memory addresses: immediate, register • memory addresses: PC-relative, indirect, base+offset
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-5 Operate Instructions Only three operations: ADD, AND, NOT Source and destination operands are registers • These instructions do not reference memory. • ADD and AND can use “immediate” mode, where one operand is hard-wired into the instruction. Will show dataflow diagram with each instruction. • illustrates when and where data moves to accomplish the desired operation
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-6 NOT (Register) Note: Src and Dst could be the same register.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-7 ADD/AND (Register) this zero means “register mode”
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-8 ADD/AND (Immediate) Note: Immediate field is sign-extended. this one means “immediate mode”
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-9 Using Operate Instructions With only ADD, AND, NOT… • How do we subtract? • How do we OR? • How do we copy from one register to another? • How do we initialize a register to zero?
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-10 Data Movement Instructions Load -- read data from memory to register • LD: PC-relative mode • LDR: base+offset mode • LDI: indirect mode Store -- write data from register to memory • ST: PC-relative mode • STR: base+offset mode • STI: indirect mode Load effective address -- compute address, save in register • LEA: immediate mode • does not access memory
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-11 PC-Relative Addressing Mode Want to specify address directly in the instruction • But an address is 16 bits, and so is an instruction! • After subtracting 4 bits for opcode and 3 bits for register, we have 9 bits available for address. Solution: • Use the 9 bits as a signed offset from the current PC. 9 bits: Can form any address X, such that: Remember that PC is incremented as part of the FETCH phase; This is done before the EVALUATE ADDRESS stage. 255 offset 256     255 PC X 256 PC    
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-12 LD (PC-Relative)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-13 ST (PC-Relative)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-14 Indirect Addressing Mode With PC-relative mode, can only address data within 256 words of the instruction. • What about the rest of memory? Solution #1: • Read address from memory location, then load/store to that address. First address is generated from PC and IR (just like PC-relative addressing), then content of that address is used as target for load/store.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-15 LDI (Indirect)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-16 STI (Indirect)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-17 Base + Offset Addressing Mode With PC-relative mode, can only address data within 256 words of the instruction. • What about the rest of memory? Solution #2: • Use a register to generate a full 16-bit address. 4 bits for opcode, 3 for src/dest register, 3 bits for base register -- remaining 6 bits are used as a signed offset. • Offset is sign-extended before adding to base register.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-18 LDR (Base+Offset)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-19 STR (Base+Offset)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-20 Load Effective Address Computes address like PC-relative (PC plus signed offset) and stores the result into a register. Note: The address is stored in the register, not the contents of the memory location.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-21 LEA (Immediate)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-22 Example Address Instruction Comments x30F6 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 R1  PC – 3 = x30F4 x30F7 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 R2  R1 + 14 = x3102 x30F8 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 M[PC - 5]  R2 M[x30F4]  x3102 x30F9 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 R2  0 x30FA 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 R2  R2 + 5 = 5 x30FB 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 M[R1+14]  R2 M[x3102]  5 x30FC 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 R3  M[M[x30F4]] R3  M[x3102] R3  5 opcode
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-23 Control Instructions Used to alter the sequence of instructions (by changing the Program Counter) Conditional Branch • branch is taken if a specified condition is true signed offset is added to PC to yield new PC • else, the branch is not taken PC is not changed, points to the next sequential instruction Unconditional Branch (or Jump) • always changes the PC TRAP • changes PC to the address of an OS “service routine” • routine will return control to the next instruction (after TRAP)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-24 Condition Codes LC-3 has three condition code registers: N -- negative Z -- zero P -- positive (greater than zero) Set by any instruction that writes a value to a register (ADD, AND, NOT, LD, LDR, LDI, LEA) Exactly one will be set at all times • Based on the last instruction that altered a register
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-25 Branch Instruction Branch specifies one or more condition codes. If the set bit is specified, the branch is taken. • PC-relative addressing: target address is made by adding signed offset (IR[8:0]) to current PC. • Note: PC has already been incremented by FETCH stage. • Note: Target must be within 256 words of BR instruction. If the branch is not taken, the next sequential instruction is executed.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-26 BR (PC-Relative) What happens if bits [11:9] are all zero? All one?
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-27 Using Branch Instructions Compute sum of 12 integers. Numbers start at location x3100. Program starts at location x3000. R1  x3100 R3  0 R2  12 R2=0? R4  M[R1] R3  R3+R4 R1  R1+1 R2  R2-1 NO YES
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-28 Sample Program Address Instruction Comments x3000 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 R1  x3100 (PC+0xFF) x3001 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 R3  0 x3002 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 R2  0 x3003 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 R2  12 x3004 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 If Z, goto x300A (PC+5) x3005 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Load next value to R4 x3006 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Add to R3 x3007 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Increment R1 (pointer) X3008 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Decrement R2 (counter) x3009 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 Goto x3004 (PC-6)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-29 JMP (Register) Jump is an unconditional branch -- always taken. • Target address is the contents of a register. • Allows any target address.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-30 TRAP Calls a service routine, identified by 8-bit “trap vector.” When routine is done, PC is set to the instruction following TRAP. (We’ll talk about how this works later.) vector routine x23 input a character from the keyboard x21 output a character to the monitor x25 halt the program
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-31 Another Example Count the occurrences of a character in a file • Program begins at location x3000 • Read character from keyboard • Load each character from a “file”  File is a sequence of memory locations  Starting address of file is stored in the memory location immediately after the program • If file character equals input character, increment counter • End of file is indicated by a special ASCII value: EOT (x04) • At the end, print the number of characters and halt (assume there will be less than 10 occurrences of the character) A special character used to indicate the end of a sequence is often called a sentinel. • Useful when you don’t know ahead of time how many times to execute a loop.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-32 Flow Chart Count = 0 (R2 = 0) Ptr = 1st file character (R3 = M[x3012]) Input char from keybd (TRAP x23) Done? (R1 ?= EOT) Load char from file (R1 = M[R3]) Match? (R1 ?= R0) Incr Count (R2 = R2 + 1) Load next char from file (R3 = R3 + 1, R1 = M[R3]) Convert count to ASCII character (R0 = x30, R0 = R2 + R0) Print count (TRAP x21) HALT (TRAP x25) NO NO YES YES
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-33 Program (1 of 2) Address Instruction Comments x3000 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 R2  0 (counter) x3001 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 R3  M[x3102] (ptr) x3002 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 Input to R0 (TRAP x23) x3003 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 R1  M[R3] x3004 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 R4  R1 – 4 (EOT) x3005 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 If Z, goto x300E x3006 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 R1  NOT R1 x3007 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 R1  R1 + 1 X3008 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 R1  R1 + R0 x3009 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 If N or P, goto x300B
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-34 Program (2 of 2) Address Instruction Comments x300A 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 R2  R2 + 1 x300B 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 R3  R3 + 1 x300C 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 R1  M[R3] x300D 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 Goto x3004 x300E 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 R0  M[x3013] x300F 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 R0  R0 + R2 x3010 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Print R0 (TRAP x21) x3011 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 HALT (TRAP x25) X3012 Starting Address of File x3013 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 ASCII x30 (‘0’)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-35 LC-3 Data Path Revisited Filled arrow = info to be processed. Unfilled arrow = control signal.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-36 Data Path Components Global bus • special set of wires that carry a 16-bit signal to many components • inputs to the bus are “tri-state devices,” that only place a signal on the bus when they are enabled • only one (16-bit) signal should be enabled at any time control unit decides which signal “drives” the bus • any number of components can read the bus register only captures bus data if it is write-enabled by the control unit Memory • Control and data registers for memory and I/O devices • memory: MAR, MDR (also control signal for read/write)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-37 Data Path Components ALU • Accepts inputs from register file and from sign-extended bits from IR (immediate field). • Output goes to bus. used by condition code logic, register file, memory Register File • Two read addresses (SR1, SR2), one write address (DR) • Input from bus result of ALU operation or memory read • Two 16-bit outputs used by ALU, PC, memory address data for store instructions passes through ALU
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-38 Data Path Components PC and PCMUX • Three inputs to PC, controlled by PCMUX 1. PC+1 – FETCH stage 2. Address adder – BR, JMP 3. bus – TRAP (discussed later) MAR and MARMUX • Two inputs to MAR, controlled by MARMUX 1. Address adder – LD/ST, LDR/STR 2. Zero-extended IR[7:0] -- TRAP (discussed later)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-39 Data Path Components Condition Code Logic • Looks at value on bus and generates N, Z, P signals • Registers set only when control unit enables them (LD.CC) only certain instructions set the codes (ADD, AND, NOT, LD, LDI, LDR, LEA) Control Unit – Finite State Machine • On each machine cycle, changes control signals for next phase of instruction processing who drives the bus? (GatePC, GateALU, …) which registers are write enabled? (LD.IR, LD.REG, …) which operation should ALU perform? (ALUK) … • Logic includes decoder for opcode, etc.

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Lec3-coa give sthe information abt instruction set.ppt

  • 2. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-2 Instruction Set Architecture ISA = All of the programmer-visible components and operations of the computer • memory organization  address space -- how may locations can be addressed?  addressibility -- how many bits per location? • register set  how many? what size? how are they used? • instruction set  opcodes  data types  addressing modes ISA provides all information needed for someone that wants to write a program in machine language (or translate from a high-level language to machine language).
  • 3. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-3 LC-3 Overview: Memory and Registers Memory • address space: 216 locations (16-bit addresses) • addressability: 16 bits Registers • temporary storage, accessed in a single machine cycle accessing memory generally takes longer than a single cycle • eight general-purpose registers: R0 - R7 each 16 bits wide how many bits to uniquely identify a register? • other registers not directly addressable, but used by (and affected by) instructions PC (program counter), condition codes
  • 4. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-4 LC-3 Overview: Instruction Set Opcodes • 15 opcodes • Operate instructions: ADD, AND, NOT • Data movement instructions: LD, LDI, LDR, LEA, ST, STR, STI • Control instructions: BR, JSR/JSRR, JMP, RTI, TRAP • some opcodes set/clear condition codes, based on result: N = negative, Z = zero, P = positive (> 0) Data Types • 16-bit 2’s complement integer Addressing Modes • How is the location of an operand specified? • non-memory addresses: immediate, register • memory addresses: PC-relative, indirect, base+offset
  • 5. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-5 Operate Instructions Only three operations: ADD, AND, NOT Source and destination operands are registers • These instructions do not reference memory. • ADD and AND can use “immediate” mode, where one operand is hard-wired into the instruction. Will show dataflow diagram with each instruction. • illustrates when and where data moves to accomplish the desired operation
  • 6. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-6 NOT (Register) Note: Src and Dst could be the same register.
  • 7. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-7 ADD/AND (Register) this zero means “register mode”
  • 8. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-8 ADD/AND (Immediate) Note: Immediate field is sign-extended. this one means “immediate mode”
  • 9. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-9 Using Operate Instructions With only ADD, AND, NOT… • How do we subtract? • How do we OR? • How do we copy from one register to another? • How do we initialize a register to zero?
  • 10. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-10 Data Movement Instructions Load -- read data from memory to register • LD: PC-relative mode • LDR: base+offset mode • LDI: indirect mode Store -- write data from register to memory • ST: PC-relative mode • STR: base+offset mode • STI: indirect mode Load effective address -- compute address, save in register • LEA: immediate mode • does not access memory
  • 11. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-11 PC-Relative Addressing Mode Want to specify address directly in the instruction • But an address is 16 bits, and so is an instruction! • After subtracting 4 bits for opcode and 3 bits for register, we have 9 bits available for address. Solution: • Use the 9 bits as a signed offset from the current PC. 9 bits: Can form any address X, such that: Remember that PC is incremented as part of the FETCH phase; This is done before the EVALUATE ADDRESS stage. 255 offset 256     255 PC X 256 PC    
  • 12. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-12 LD (PC-Relative)
  • 13. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-13 ST (PC-Relative)
  • 14. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-14 Indirect Addressing Mode With PC-relative mode, can only address data within 256 words of the instruction. • What about the rest of memory? Solution #1: • Read address from memory location, then load/store to that address. First address is generated from PC and IR (just like PC-relative addressing), then content of that address is used as target for load/store.
  • 15. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-15 LDI (Indirect)
  • 16. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-16 STI (Indirect)
  • 17. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-17 Base + Offset Addressing Mode With PC-relative mode, can only address data within 256 words of the instruction. • What about the rest of memory? Solution #2: • Use a register to generate a full 16-bit address. 4 bits for opcode, 3 for src/dest register, 3 bits for base register -- remaining 6 bits are used as a signed offset. • Offset is sign-extended before adding to base register.
  • 18. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-18 LDR (Base+Offset)
  • 19. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-19 STR (Base+Offset)
  • 20. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-20 Load Effective Address Computes address like PC-relative (PC plus signed offset) and stores the result into a register. Note: The address is stored in the register, not the contents of the memory location.
  • 21. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-21 LEA (Immediate)
  • 22. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-22 Example Address Instruction Comments x30F6 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 R1  PC – 3 = x30F4 x30F7 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 R2  R1 + 14 = x3102 x30F8 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 M[PC - 5]  R2 M[x30F4]  x3102 x30F9 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 R2  0 x30FA 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 R2  R2 + 5 = 5 x30FB 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 M[R1+14]  R2 M[x3102]  5 x30FC 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 R3  M[M[x30F4]] R3  M[x3102] R3  5 opcode
  • 23. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-23 Control Instructions Used to alter the sequence of instructions (by changing the Program Counter) Conditional Branch • branch is taken if a specified condition is true signed offset is added to PC to yield new PC • else, the branch is not taken PC is not changed, points to the next sequential instruction Unconditional Branch (or Jump) • always changes the PC TRAP • changes PC to the address of an OS “service routine” • routine will return control to the next instruction (after TRAP)
  • 24. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-24 Condition Codes LC-3 has three condition code registers: N -- negative Z -- zero P -- positive (greater than zero) Set by any instruction that writes a value to a register (ADD, AND, NOT, LD, LDR, LDI, LEA) Exactly one will be set at all times • Based on the last instruction that altered a register
  • 25. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-25 Branch Instruction Branch specifies one or more condition codes. If the set bit is specified, the branch is taken. • PC-relative addressing: target address is made by adding signed offset (IR[8:0]) to current PC. • Note: PC has already been incremented by FETCH stage. • Note: Target must be within 256 words of BR instruction. If the branch is not taken, the next sequential instruction is executed.
  • 26. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-26 BR (PC-Relative) What happens if bits [11:9] are all zero? All one?
  • 27. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-27 Using Branch Instructions Compute sum of 12 integers. Numbers start at location x3100. Program starts at location x3000. R1  x3100 R3  0 R2  12 R2=0? R4  M[R1] R3  R3+R4 R1  R1+1 R2  R2-1 NO YES
  • 28. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-28 Sample Program Address Instruction Comments x3000 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 R1  x3100 (PC+0xFF) x3001 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 R3  0 x3002 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 R2  0 x3003 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 R2  12 x3004 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 If Z, goto x300A (PC+5) x3005 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Load next value to R4 x3006 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Add to R3 x3007 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 Increment R1 (pointer) X3008 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Decrement R2 (counter) x3009 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 Goto x3004 (PC-6)
  • 29. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-29 JMP (Register) Jump is an unconditional branch -- always taken. • Target address is the contents of a register. • Allows any target address.
  • 30. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-30 TRAP Calls a service routine, identified by 8-bit “trap vector.” When routine is done, PC is set to the instruction following TRAP. (We’ll talk about how this works later.) vector routine x23 input a character from the keyboard x21 output a character to the monitor x25 halt the program
  • 31. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-31 Another Example Count the occurrences of a character in a file • Program begins at location x3000 • Read character from keyboard • Load each character from a “file”  File is a sequence of memory locations  Starting address of file is stored in the memory location immediately after the program • If file character equals input character, increment counter • End of file is indicated by a special ASCII value: EOT (x04) • At the end, print the number of characters and halt (assume there will be less than 10 occurrences of the character) A special character used to indicate the end of a sequence is often called a sentinel. • Useful when you don’t know ahead of time how many times to execute a loop.
  • 32. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-32 Flow Chart Count = 0 (R2 = 0) Ptr = 1st file character (R3 = M[x3012]) Input char from keybd (TRAP x23) Done? (R1 ?= EOT) Load char from file (R1 = M[R3]) Match? (R1 ?= R0) Incr Count (R2 = R2 + 1) Load next char from file (R3 = R3 + 1, R1 = M[R3]) Convert count to ASCII character (R0 = x30, R0 = R2 + R0) Print count (TRAP x21) HALT (TRAP x25) NO NO YES YES
  • 33. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-33 Program (1 of 2) Address Instruction Comments x3000 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 R2  0 (counter) x3001 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 R3  M[x3102] (ptr) x3002 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 Input to R0 (TRAP x23) x3003 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 R1  M[R3] x3004 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 R4  R1 – 4 (EOT) x3005 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 If Z, goto x300E x3006 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 R1  NOT R1 x3007 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 R1  R1 + 1 X3008 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 R1  R1 + R0 x3009 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 If N or P, goto x300B
  • 34. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-34 Program (2 of 2) Address Instruction Comments x300A 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 R2  R2 + 1 x300B 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 R3  R3 + 1 x300C 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 R1  M[R3] x300D 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 Goto x3004 x300E 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 R0  M[x3013] x300F 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 R0  R0 + R2 x3010 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Print R0 (TRAP x21) x3011 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 HALT (TRAP x25) X3012 Starting Address of File x3013 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 ASCII x30 (‘0’)
  • 35. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-35 LC-3 Data Path Revisited Filled arrow = info to be processed. Unfilled arrow = control signal.
  • 36. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-36 Data Path Components Global bus • special set of wires that carry a 16-bit signal to many components • inputs to the bus are “tri-state devices,” that only place a signal on the bus when they are enabled • only one (16-bit) signal should be enabled at any time control unit decides which signal “drives” the bus • any number of components can read the bus register only captures bus data if it is write-enabled by the control unit Memory • Control and data registers for memory and I/O devices • memory: MAR, MDR (also control signal for read/write)
  • 37. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-37 Data Path Components ALU • Accepts inputs from register file and from sign-extended bits from IR (immediate field). • Output goes to bus. used by condition code logic, register file, memory Register File • Two read addresses (SR1, SR2), one write address (DR) • Input from bus result of ALU operation or memory read • Two 16-bit outputs used by ALU, PC, memory address data for store instructions passes through ALU
  • 38. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-38 Data Path Components PC and PCMUX • Three inputs to PC, controlled by PCMUX 1. PC+1 – FETCH stage 2. Address adder – BR, JMP 3. bus – TRAP (discussed later) MAR and MARMUX • Two inputs to MAR, controlled by MARMUX 1. Address adder – LD/ST, LDR/STR 2. Zero-extended IR[7:0] -- TRAP (discussed later)
  • 39. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5-39 Data Path Components Condition Code Logic • Looks at value on bus and generates N, Z, P signals • Registers set only when control unit enables them (LD.CC) only certain instructions set the codes (ADD, AND, NOT, LD, LDI, LDR, LEA) Control Unit – Finite State Machine • On each machine cycle, changes control signals for next phase of instruction processing who drives the bus? (GatePC, GateALU, …) which registers are write enabled? (LD.IR, LD.REG, …) which operation should ALU perform? (ALUK) … • Logic includes decoder for opcode, etc.

Editor's Notes

  • #8: .
  • #9: Subtract: R3 = R1 - R2 Take 2’s complement of R2, then add to R1. (1) R2 = NOT(R2) (2) R2 = R2 + 1 (3) R3 = R1 + R2 OR: R3 = R1 OR R2 Use DeMorgan’s Law -- invert R1 and R2, AND, then invert result. (1) R1 = NOT(R1) (2) R2 = NOT(R2) (3) R3 = R1 AND R2 (4) R3 = NOT(R3) Register-to-register copy: R3 = R2 R3 = R2 + 0 (Add-immediate) Initialize to zero: R1 = 0 R1 = R1 AND 0 (And-immediate)
  • #26: If all zero, no CC is tested, so branch is never taken. (See Appendix B.) If all one, then all are tested. Since at least one of the CC bits is set to one after each operate/load instruction, then branch is always taken. (Assumes some instruction has set CC before branch instruction, otherwise undefined.)