Lecture 6 - Introduction to Immunology.ppt
- 1. INTRODUCTION TO IMMUNOLOGY MBS 240 Mrs Chishala.M.Kapambwe-Muchemwa
- 2. OBJECTIVES • AFTER THIS LECTURE, YOU WILL BE BETTER ABLE TO: 1. DEFINE WHAT IMMUNITY IS 2. KNOW AND UNDERSTAND INNATE AND AQUIRED IMMUNITY 3. LIST THE MAIN CELL TYPES INVOLVED IN INNATE AND AQUIRED IMMUNITY 4. NAME THE CELLS INVOLVED IN AN INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE 5. DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF INFLAMMATION AND PHAGOCYTOSIS 6. LIST THE MAIN TYPES OF PHAGOCYTIC CELLS AND WHERE THEY ARE FOUND IN THE BODY 7. DESCRIBE INNATE IMMUNITY BY NATURAL KILLER CELLS 8. DESCRIBE HUMORAL/ANITBODY MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE 9. DESCRIBE CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE 10. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN HUMORAL AND CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE 11. DESCRIBE THE ANTIBODY STRUCTURE 12. LIST THE 5 CLASSESS OF ANTIBODIES AND THEIR PROPERTIES 13. DESCRIBE VACCINATION AND ITS USES AND ITS DIFFERENT TYPES 14. LIST AND DESCRIBE SOME DEFECTS IN THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 15. DESCRIBE IMMUNODIAGNOSIS AND ITS USES
- 3. IMMUNOLOGY.... • THIS IS THE STUDY OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM OR IMMUNITY IMMUNITY DESCRIBES OUR ABILITY TO RESIST INFECTION IMMUNE RESPONSE IS THE RESPONSE THAT THE BODY MAKES AGAINST INFECTIOUS AGENTS OR PATHOGENS LIKE BACTERIA, FUNGI, PARASITES AND VIRUSES THE IMMUNE SYSTEM DESCRIBES THE TISSUES, CELLS AND MOLECULES INVOLVED IN DEFENCE MEACHANISMS AGAINST INFECTION THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IS WEAKENED SOMETIMES DUE TO STRESS, SURGERY, MALNAURISHMENT AND OTHER DISEASES LIKE HIV
- 4. The Immune System • The Immune System is made up of 2 main parts: • 1. Innate/Natural immunity and • 2. Acquired Immunity Note: an Antigen: is a molecule that can induce an immune response or can bind to an antibody or T cell receptor :an Antibody/Immunoglobulin/Ig: is a protein produced by B cells in response to a foreign molecule or invading microorganism
- 5. Comparison between Innate and Acquired immunity Innate Immunity Acquired immunity 1st response, human beings are born with it 2nd response Has no memory Has memory Depends of preformed cells and molecules Depends on clonal selection, i.e. growth of T/B cells, release of antibodies selected for antigen specifity Fast (starts in mins/hrs) Slow (starts in days) but becomes faster after re-infection Limited specificity-pathogen associated, i.e. recognition of danger signals Highly specific to foreign proteins, i.e. antigens
- 6. Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity Cells involved: Neutrophils (PMN) Macrophages Natural killer (NK) cells Cells involved : T lymphocytes B lymphocytes Dendritic cells Eosinophils Basophils/mast cells Soluble factors involved: Acute phase proteins Cytokines Complement Soluble factors involved: Antibodies Stimulates the acquired immune response
- 8. Innate Immunity • Defense against microbes includes an early response action called innate immunity and a later response called as adaptive immunity. • Innate immunity is also called natural or native immunity and provides first line of defense against any microbial infection in human body. • It usually involves many cellular and biochemical events that react to microbes and their products in order to clear them from the body.
- 9. • The main components of innate immune system are : 1) Barriers skin and outer epithelial surface. • Anatomical Barriers – Skin as a mechanical barrier – keeps out 95% of household germs while IN TACT – Mucus membrane in respiratory and Gastrointestinal tract traps microbes – Cilia propulsion on epithelia cleans lungs of invading microorganisms • Physiological barriers – Low PH – Secretion of lysozyme, e.g. in tears – Interferons – Antimicrobial peptides – Complement; responsible for lysing microorganisms
- 10. 2) Scavenger cells: • Neutrophils • macrophages • Dendritic cell and • Natural killer cells 3) Complement system 4) Cytokines 5) Chemical mediators of inflammation
- 11. IMPORTANT CELLS OF INNATE IMMUNITY • MONOCYTES (MATURE TO MACROPHAGES IN TISSUES) • MACROPHAGES • DENDRITIC CELLS • NATURAL KILLER CELLS • *POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUCOCYTE(NEUTROPHILS) • *EOSINOPHIL • *BASOPHIL • *MAST CELLS • NOTE:* ARE GRANULOCYTES
- 12. 1. COMPLEMENT • THE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY, COMPLEMENTS AND ACTS WITH/ENHANCES THE ACTION OF ANTIBODIES • COMPLEMENT IS A GROUP OF SERUM PROTEINS THAT INTERACT WITH AB-AG COMPLEXES OR WITH THE CHARGED SURFACE OF MIRO ORGANISMS-TO PROMOTE THE LYSIS OR PHAGOCYTOSIS • THE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY IS COMPOSED OF MANY PROTEINS THAT INTERACT IN A SEQUENCIAL MANNER SO AS TO: 1. CAUSE LYSIS OF PATHOGENS 2. LABEL ORGANISMS FOR FURTHER ANTIMICROBIAL ACTION 3. GENERATE ACTIVATION SIGNALS FOR OTHER COMPONENTS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
- 13. COMPLEMENT
- 14. 2. ACUTE PHASE PROTEINS • ACUTE-PHASE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE IS MADE BY ACUTE PHASE PROTEINS • THIS IS AN INNATE RESPONSE TO TISSUE DAMAGE • THEREFORE, ONE OF THE EARLIEST DETECTABLE REACTIONS TO A TRAUMA OR INFECTION IS THE ACUTE PHASE RESPONSE • THIS IS THE NAME GIVEN TO THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE LEADING TO FEVER, A RISE IN BODY TEMPERATURE • THIS IS FOLLOWED BY INCREASED PRODUCTION OF A NUMBER OF PROTEINS (ACUTE-PHASE PROTEINS), MAINLY BY THE LIVER. • THE RESPONSE TO TOXINS IN THE BODY, PRODUCED BY BACTERIA, IS TO INCREASE THE INTERNAL TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY. • THIS EFFECT IS ENHANCED WHEN CELLS RELEASE PYROGEN, A CYTOKINE THAT RESETS THE BODY`S TEMP. ALSO KNOWN AS INTERLEUKIN 1! THUS THE FEVER......
- 15. INFLAMMATION
- 16. 3. CYTOKINES • THESE ARE SOLUBLE HORMONES AND CHEMICAL MESSENGERS OF IMMUNE CELLS. • THEY ARE ESSENTIALLY COMMUNICATION MOLECULES BECAUSE THEY LACK IN ANY DIRECT PATHOGEN-RECOGNITION OR DISPOSAL PROPERTIES – OVER 100 HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED. – STIMULATE AND/OR REGULATE IMMUNE RESPONSES. • INTERLEUKINS: INVOLVED IN INTERCELLULAR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN WHITE BLOOD CELLS. • INTERFERONS: INTERFER AND PROTECT AGAINST VIRAL INFECTIONS. • CHEMOKINES: A CYTOKINE THAT MEDIATES CHEMOTAXIS ATTRACT WBCS TO INFECTED AREAS.
- 17. 4. PHAGOCYTIC CELLS • THEY ARE PRESENT IN VIRTUALLY EVERY TISSUE AND ORGAN OF THE BODY • THE JOB OF PHAGOCYTIC CELLS INVOLVES RECRUITMENT OF CELLS AT THE SITE OF INFECTION, INGESTION, AND DESTRUCTION OF THE PATHOGENS • PHAGOCYTOSIS IS A COMPLEX, MULTI STEP PROCESS BY WHICH A PARTICLES IS `EATEN`, PRIOR TO BEING KILLED AND/OR DIGESTED • THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF PHAGOCYTES: 1. MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTES COMPRISING OF MONOCYTES AND MACROPHAGES 2. POLYMORPHONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTES COMPRISING NEUTROPHILS • MACROPHAGES AND NEUTROPHILS ARE THE FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE AGAINST THE PATHOGENS AND ARE SPECIALIZED IN PHAGOCYTIC FUNCTION.
- 18. 1.Phagocytic cells: Macrophages/Monocytes • MACROPHAGES THESE ARE DIVIDED INTO TWO MAIN TYPES: 1. RESIDENT MACROPHAGES ARE PRESENT IN STEADY-STATE TISSUES (I.E. BEFORE INFECTION OCCURS) AND CAN DETECT THE PRESENCE OF MICROBES. • IN TURN THEY CAN HELP TO TRIGGER INFLAMMATION. 2. RECRUITED (OR ELICITED) MACROPHAGES ARE NOT TISSUE-RESIDENT CELLS, BUT THEY DEVELOP FROM CIRCULATING PRECURSORS IN BLOOD, CALLED MONOCYTES THAT CAN BE RECRUITED INTO SITES OF INFECTION. • AFTER DEVELOPMENT INTO MACROPHAGES THEY CAN ACT AS EFFECTOR CELLS TO HELP ELIMINATE THE INFECTION. • THESE PHAGOCTYTIC CELLS PLAY A CENTRAL ROLE IN THE INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM. • THE MAJOR FUNCTION OF MACROPHAGES INCLUDES FOLLOWING 1. TO INGEST AND KILL THE MICROBES. 2. TO INGEST AND CLEAR DEAD CELLS AND UNUSED CELLS. 3. THEY SECRETE CYTOKINES UPON ACTIVATION. 4. THEY SERVE AS ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS TO DISPLAY THE ANTIGENS TO THE T LYMPHOCYTE. 5. THEY ALSO HELP IN ANGIOGENESIS (FORMATION OF BLOOD VESSELS).
- 20. 2. Neutrophils • THESE ARE THE GRANULOCYTES PRESENT IN THE BLOOD STREAM AND ARE THE FIRST LINE OF THE DEFENSE IN THE BODY. • THEY ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT CELLS PRESENT IN THE BLOOD STREAM. • THE OTHER TWO GRANULOCYTES PRESENT IN THE BLOOD ARE BASOPHILS AND EOSINOPHILS • MACROPHAGES AND NEUTROPHILS ARE PROFESSIONAL PHAGOCYTIC CELLS
- 22. 5. DENDRITIC CELLS • THESE ARE SPECIALIZED ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS (APC) THAT CAN INITIATE AN IMMUNE RESPONSE • THEY CAPTURE THE MICROBES AND MICROBIAL ANTIGENS, AND TRANSPORT THEM TO LYMPHOID TISSUES TO BE RECOGNIZED BY LYMPHOCYTES. • DC`S ARE NOT AS GOOD AS MACROPHAGES, BUT ARE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT AT INITIATING T CELL ACTIVATION • THEY ARE WIDELY DISTRIBUTED INTO MANY ORGANS AND EPITHELIAL SURFACE.
- 23. 6. MAST CELLS • THESE ARE DERIVED FROM BONE MARROW CELLS AND CONTAIN HISTAMINE AND OTHER CHEMICAL MEDIATORS OF ALLERGIC DISEASES. • THEY EXPRESS THE RECEPTORS FOR IgE AND IgG ANTIBODIES. • THEY ALSO PROVIDE DEFENSE AGAINST HELMINTH INFECTION. • ARE PROMINENT IN THE SKIN, AROUND BLOOD VESSELS AND IN THE GUT ARE OF IMPORTANCE IN ACUTE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE, A SERIES OF CHANGES DESIGNED TO INCREASE THE SUPPY OF BLOOD AND ITS CONTENTS AT LOCAL SITES OF TRAUMA OR INFECTION
- 24. 7. NATURAL KILLER CELLS • NK CELLS REPRESENT A PRIMITIVE BUT EFFECTIVE CELLULAR DEFENCE MECHANISM AGAINST INFECTION • NK CELLS ARE PRESENT IN TISSUES AS RESIDENT CELLS AND CAN ALSO BE RECRUITED TO SITES OF INFLAMMATION. • THEY CAN KILL OTHER CELLS, SUCH AS VIRALLY INFECTED CELLS (I.E. THEY HAVE CELL-KILLING (CYTOTOXIC) ACTIVITY) AND THEY ALSO REGULATE IMMUNE RESPONSES. • IN SUMMARY, NK CELLS ROAM THE BODY IN BLOOD AND LYMPH AND KILL CANCER CELLS AND VIRUS INFECTED CELLS AS PART OF INNATE IMMUNITY
- 25. •WHEN VIRUSES ENTER THE BODY, THEY ENTER THE HOST CELLS SO THAT THEY USE HOST CELL MACHINERY TO REPLICATE NK CELLS WILL THEN KILL THESE HOST CELL WHICH ARE INFECTED SO AS TO AVOID SPREAD OF DISEASE BEFORE THE VIRUS HAS A CHANCE TO REPLICATE
- 26. ADAPTIVE/ACQUIRED IMMUNITY • ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES ARE OF TWO TYPES 1. HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE : – IS MEDIATED BY THE ANTIBODIES WHICH ARE PRODUCED BY ACTIVATED B CELLS. – ANTIBODIES RECOGNIZE THE MICROBIAL ANTIGEN, NEUTRALIZE THE INFECTIVITY, AND TARGET THE MICROBES TO OTHER EFFECTOR SYSTEM FOR DEGRADATION – IS THE MAJOR TYPE OF IMMUNE RESPONSE AGAINST EXTRACELLULAR MICROBES AND TOXINS BECAUSE THE SECRETED FORM OF THE ANTIBODY CAN EASILY BIND AND ELIMINATE THE MICROBES AND TOXINS
- 27. ADAPTIVE/ACQUIRED IMMUNITY 2. CELL MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE • THIS IS ALSO CALLED CELLULAR IMMUNITY, AND IS MEDIATED BY T LYMPHOCYTES. • IT PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE AGAINST INTRACELLULAR MICROBES, VIRUSES, AND SOME INTRACELLULAR BACTERIA. • IT PROMOTES THE DESTRUCTION OF MICROBES BY DIRECT KILLING OR PHAGOCYTOSIS OF THE INFECTED CELLS.
- 28. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY CELLS • LYMPHOCYTE IS THE MAIN CELL TYPE INVOLVED IN AQUIRED IMMUNITY • THERE ARE B LYMPHOCYTES AND T LYMPHOCYTES • B LYMPHOCYTES: DEVELOP IN THE FETAL LIVER OR BONE MARROW SECRETE ANITBODIES WORK OVER LONG DISTANCES • T LYMPHOCYTES DEVELOP IN THE THYMUS IMPORTANT IN CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY HAS TWO SUBPOPULATIONS: CD4 HELPER CELLS CD 8 SUPPRESSOR
- 29. • B PLASMA CELLS- WHEN THE B CELL PRODUCES THE ANTIBODY FOR A SPECIFIC ANTIGEN, IT BEGINS TO CLONE ITSELF INTO B PLASMA CELLS, THAT PRODUCE MORE OF THAT PARTICULAR BINDING ANTIBODY. • THESE CELLS RELEASE IMMUNOGLOBULIN, OR ANTIBODIES. • B PLASMA CELLS HAVE A 5 TO 7 DAY LIFE-SPAN • ALL ITS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ENERGY IS GOING INTO THE PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES, NOT SELF PRESERVATION •B MEMORY CELLS- THESE ARE THE SAME AS B PLASMA CELLS, EXCEPT THEY REMAIN INACTIVE UNTIL THE SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE •SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE IS CONSIDERED ANYTIME THE BODY ENCOUNTERS A PATHOGEN AFTER THE FIRST TIME. •QUICKER RESPONSE TIME. •PRIMARY RESPONSE IS THE FIRST TIME THE BODY ENCOUNTERS A SPECIFIC PATHOGEN, LAG PERIOD BEFORE B CELLS RESPOND.
- 32. WHAT ARE ANTIBODIES? • THE ANTIGEN RECEPTORS OF B CELLS ARE MEMBRANE- BOUND ANTIBODIES (ALSO CALLED IMMUNOGLOBULINS, OR Ig) • ANTIBODIES ARE Y-SHAPED STRUCTURES. • THE TOPS OF THE Y RECOGNIZE THE ANTIGEN AND THE “TAIL” OF THE Y ANCHORS THE MOLECULE IN THE PLASMA MEMBRANE. • ANTIBODIES ARE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE WHOLE MICROBES AND MACROMOLECULES AS WELL AS SMALL CHEMICALS. • THESE COULD BE IN THE CIRCULATION (E.G. A BACTERIAL TOXIN) OR ATTACHED TO CELLS (E.G. A MICROBIAL CELL WALL COMPONENT).
- 35. ANITBODY CLASSES IgG : • IS THE MAJOR Ig IN SERUM - 75% OF SERUM Ig IS IgG • IS THE MAJOR Ig IN EXTRA VASCULAR SPACES • IS THE ONLY CLASS OF Ig THAT CROSSES THE PLACENTA. • FIXES COMPLEMENT • BINDING TO CELLS - MACROPHAGES, MONOCYTES, POLYMOPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES (PMN`s). • IS A GOOD OPSONIN (OPSONIN IS USED TO DESCRIBE SUBSTANCES THAT ENHANCE PHAGOCYTOSIS) ) IgM : • IS THE THIRD MOST COMMON SERUM Ig. • IS THE FIRST Ig TO BE MADE BY THE FETUS • IS A GOOD COMPLEMENT FIXING Ig. THUS, IgM ANTIBODIES ARE VERY EFFICIENT IN LEADING TO THE LYSIS OF MICROORGANISMS. • IS ALSO A GOOD AGGLUTINATING Ig . THUS, IgM ANTIBODIES ARE VERY GOOD IN CLUMPING MICROORGANISMS FOR EVENTUAL ELIMINATION FROM THE BODY.
- 36. IgA: • IS THE 2ND MOST COMMON SERUM Ig. • IS THE MAJOR CLASS OF Ig IN SECRETIONS - TEARS, SALIVA, COLOSTRUM, MUCUS. SINCE IT IS FOUND IN SECRETIONS SECRETORY IgA IS IMPORTANT IN LOCAL (MUCOSAL) IMMUNITY. • CAN BIND TO SOME CELLS - PMN'S AND SOME LYMPHOCYTES IgD: • IS FOUND IN LOW LEVELS IN SERUM; ITS ROLE IN SERUM UNCERTAIN. • IS PRIMARILY FOUND ON B CELL SURFACES WHERE IT FUNCTIONS AS A RECEPTOR FOR ANTIGEN • IgD DOES NOT BIND COMPLEMENT. IgE: • IS THE LEAST COMMON SERUM Ig • IS INVOLVED IN ALLERGIC REACTIONS • ALSO PLAYS A ROLE IN PARASITIC HELMINTH DISEASES. SINCE SERUM IgE LEVELS RISE IN PARASITIC DISEASES, MEASURING IGE LEVELS IS HELPFUL IN DIAGNOSING PARASITIC INFECTIONS. • IGE DOES NOT FIX COMPLEMENT.
- 37. VACCINES • VACCINATION/IMMUNIZATION USES THE ABILITY OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY TO LEARN AND IMPROVE • IT MAY BE ACTIVE: THE INDUCING OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ITSELF TO ACQUIRE A PERMANENTLY ENHANCED RESISTANCE TO A PARTICULAR PATHOGEN • OR PASSIVE: A PREMADE ANTIBODY IS INTRODUCED INTO AN INDIVIDUAL TO BE PROTECTED • THE FUNCTION OF A VACCINE IS TO INDUCE IMMUNE MEMORY WITHOUT CAUSING DISEASE • THEREFORE, VACCINATION IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS THAT IS DESIGNED TO MIMIC, AS CLOSELY AS POSSIBLE, THE INFECTIOUS AGENT IN ORDER TO INDUCE PROTECTION AND TO PRODUCE THE MOST EFFECTIVE FORM OF IMMUNITY AGAINST THAT AGENT.
- 38. TYPES OF VACCINES • 1. LIVING VACCINES-USED AGAINST VIRAL AGENTS • 2. ATTENUATED (REDUCED VIRULENCE) VACCINES-BCG AGAINST TB • 3. NON LIVING VACCINES-TETANUS AND DIPHTHERIA VACCINES • 4. LONG AND SHORT TERM VACCINES- YELLOW FEVER VACCINE
- 39. IMMNUE DEFECTS • THE IMPORTANCE OF AN EFFECTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM IS SHOWN MOST CLEARLY BY THE INCREASED FREQUENCIES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES SEEN IN PATIENTS WITH DEFECTIVE IMMUNITY. • 1. PRIMARY IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES • ARE ASSOCIATED WITH MUTATIONS IN THE GENES THAT ENCODE SOLUBLE OR CELL- ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS OF IMMUNITY OR MUTATIONS IN METABOLIC PATHWAYS • MAY RESULT FROM DEFECTS IN INNATE OR ADAPTIVE COMPONENTS, OR BOTH
- 40. 2. SECONDARY (ACQUIRED) IMMUNODEFICIENCY DISEASES • THESE ARE IMMUNODEFICIENCIES THAT ARE NOT CAUSED BY A GENETIC DEFECT • THEY DO NOT APPEAR IN EARLY CHILDHOOD • THE INDIVIDUAL IS BORN WITH A NORMAL IMMUNE SYSTEM, BUT A LATER EVENT CAUSES DAMAGE LEADING TO DEFECTIVE IMMUNITY. • E.G. HIV, WHICH, BECAUSE IT LEADS TO DESTRUCTION OF KEY IMMUNE COMPONENTS (CD4 T CELLS) RENDERS THE INFECTED INDIVIDUAL SUSCEPTIBLE TO OTHER TYPES OF INFECTION THAT CAN BE LIFE- THREATENING AS THE INDIVIDUAL PROGRESSES TO ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS).
- 41. 3. AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES • THIS IS WHEN IMMUNE RESPONSES ARE TRIGGERED AGAINST NORMAL SELF COMPONENTS BY BEING RECOGNIZED AS ANTIGENS 4.IMMUNE-RELATED SENSITIVITIES (HYPERSENSITIVITY DISEASES) • IN SOME CASES, FOR REASONS THAT ARE OFTEN NOT UNDERSTOOD, AN APPARENTLY HARMFUL/OFFENSIVE ANTIGEN, WHICH IS NOT RELATED TO AN INFECTIOUS AGENT, CAN TRIGGER ABERRANT RESPONSES THAT CAUSE TISSUE DAMAGE. • E.G ALLERGY
- 42. 5. TRANSPLANTATION REACTIONS a) ACUTE REJECTION- OCCURS WITHIN DAYS OR WEEKS OF TRANSPLANTATION OF A GRAFT FROM A GENETICALLY DIFFERENT INDIVIDUAL OF THE SAME SPECIES b) HYPER ACUTE REJECTION- WHEN A TRANSPLANT IS REJECTED WITHIN A FEW MINUTES OR HOURS c) GRAFT VERSUS HOST DISEASE
- 43. IMMUNODIAGNOSIS • ANTIBODY/ANTIGEN INTERACTIONS CAN BE VISUALIZED IN VITRO AND CAN BE USED AS A BASIS FOR MANY MEDICAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS • AGGLUTINATION TESTS ARE USED TO MEASURE ANTIBODIES THAT CAN CAUSE CLUMPING OF PARTICLES (RBCS AND LATEX BEADS) • COOMBS TEST IS AN AGGLUTINATION TEST: DIRECT COOMBS TEST DETECTS THE INFANTS AT RISK OF DEVELOPING ERYTHROBIASTOSIS FETALIS. INDIRECT COOMBS TEST IS USED TO DIAGNOSE THE PRESENCE OF ANTIBODY IN MOTHERS WHO ARE AT RISK OF CAUSING THIS CONDITION IN THEIR CHILDREN
- 44. • DIRECT FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TESTS IS USED TO DETECT AND LOCALIZE ANTIGENS IN PATIENT TISSUES • INDIRECT FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TEST IS USED TO DETECT ANTIBODY PRODUCTION IN A PATIENT • RADIOIMMUNOASSAY AND ELISA ARE TESTS USED TO DETECT ANTIGEN OR ANTIBODY • ELIZA IS USED TO DIAGNOSE HIV AND WESTERN BLOT IS USED TO CONFIRM THIS DIAGNOSIS • FLOWCYTOMETRY IS USED TO ANALYSE AND SEPARATE CELL TYPES OF COMPLEX MIXTURE LIKE CD4/CD8 CELLS
- 46. Reference and further reading • Mims et al, (4th Edition), Medical Microbiology (currently in library) • USMLE Step 1 Lecture notes, Immunology and Microbiology, Kaplan Medical • Pommerville Jeffrey C. Alcamo`s Fundamentals of Microbiology, 7th Edition (London: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2004) • MCD Immunology, Introduction to Immunology, Alexandra Burke-Smith • NPTEL, Biotechnology, Cellular and Molecular Immunology • G.MacPherson, J Austyn(1st Edition)Exploring Immunology: Concepts and Evidence .©2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
- 47. THANK YOU