Lecture 8-Rhetorical Patters on Organization (1).ppt
- 1. “RHETORICAL PATTERS OF ORGANIZATION ” Functional English (SS1012) Department of Computer Science Ms. Maryam Ali Khan
- 2. ORGANIZATION: LOGICAL RELATION IN THE TEXT If you are clear, concise, and accurate, but no one can follow your train of thoughts because your text rambles, you still have not communicated effectively. The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication is powerful, both for the "sender" and the "receiver." It provides focus and direction as the writer composes the document, which helps to ensure that the stated purpose is fulfilled. For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with which one can understand and remember the information being presented. People seek out patterns to help make sense of information.
- 3. PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION 1. Spatial Order 2. Chronological Order 3. Order of Importance 4. Comparison/ Contrast 5. Problem/Solution 6. Cause & Effect 7. Illustration(through Definition) 8. Classification 9. Refutation
- 4. 1. SPATIAL ORDER Text organized spatially if you are writing to describe the parts of a machine or a plot of ground. Describe what you see in order of space: left to right, top to bottom, inside to outside, or clockwise. Spatial sequence helps reader visualize what you see and, therefore, better understand the physical qualities of the subject matter.
- 5. EXAMPLE OF SPATIAL TEXT
- 6. 2. CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER Chronological refers to time period Reference to specific times or dates Includes transition words such as first, then, and last to indicate the passage of time Each main section of information represents a particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each main section refer to significant events that occurred within that time frame.
- 7. EXAMPLE OF TEXT SHOWING CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
- 8. 3. ORDER OF IMPORTANCE Your page of text is like real estate. Certain areas of the page are more important that others. Arranged according to their order of importance Writers may begin with most important supporting points and end with the least important. Some may begin with least important and end with the most important, allowing them to build a high point, or climax
- 9. EXAMPLE OF TEXT ACCORDING TO ORDER OF IMPORTANCE Several considerations should influence your choice of a career. First, you should choose a career that will provide the lifestyle you want. If living in an expensive house and driving a big car are your goals, you should decide to be a schoolteacher or an engineer. Although it is possible to make a good living in these professions, most teachers and engineers make rather modest salaries, especially at the beginning of their careers. Second, and more important, you should choose a career for which you have an aptitude. Even though you may love art, if you have no talent as an artist, you will not be successful. Finally, and most important, you should choose a career you will enjoy.
- 11. 4. COMPARISON/CONTRAST Compare similarities and contrast differences For example, if you are writing a sales brochure, you might want to present your potential client alternatives regarding services, personnel, timetables, and fee structures.
- 13. 5. PROBLEM/SOLUTION Every proposal and sales letter is problem/solution oriented Proposing a solution to an existing problem
- 16. 6. CAUSE & EFFECT An author uses the cause and effect pattern to show why something happens or the effects of something that has happened
- 17. See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.As a result, federal authorities required that ships carry enough lifeboats to save everyone on board. B.The sinking of the ship Titanicled to safer sea travel. C.When the Titanicsank, many died because there were too few lifeboats.
- 18. ANSWER The sinking of the ship Titanic led to safer sea travel. When the Titanic sank, many died because there were too few lifeboats. As a result, federal authorities required that ships carry enough lifeboats to save everyone on board. Each sentence has a cause and effect word or phrase, suggesting the cause and effect the pattern or organization. The sinking of the ship had the effect of making sea travel safer. The lack of lifeboats caused many deaths. The many deaths caused federal authorities to institute requirements about lifeboats.
- 19. Which item below is easier to understand? A. The young woman decided to run away. The dogs started chasing her. B. The young woman decided to run away because the dogs started chasing her.
- 20. Which item below is easier to understand? A. The young woman decided to run away. The dogs started chasing her. B. The young woman decided to run away because the dogs started chasing her. In the first item, we’re not sure about the relationship between the two sentences. The word because in the second item makes it clear that the woman decided to go away as a result of the dogs chasing her. Because and words like it are cause and effect words.
- 21. “Your problem is the result of not drinking enough water.” In the cartoon, the result of not drinking enough water is that the patient has turned into a cactus!
- 22. Cause and effect words signal that the author is explaining the reason why something happened or the result of something happening. Here are some common words that show cause and effect:
- 23. In the sentences below, notice how the cause and effect words introduce a reason for something or the result of something.
- 24. 7. ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern The definition and example pattern of organization includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one or more examples.
- 25. ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last?
- 26. Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. The paragraph begins with a definition of approach- avoidance conflict. The second and third sentences provide examples of the term. Each example is signaled by an illustration word or phrase.
- 27. ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern •Textbook authors often provide definitions of important terms, followed by examples. They usually set off the terms they are defining in italic or boldface type. •When reading and taking notes on a textbook, always do two things: 1. Write down key definitions. 2. Write down a helpful example for each definition.
- 28. Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. (1)A loss leader is a product or service that sells at a loss but generates customer interest that can lead to a later profit. (2)A classic example of a loss leader is the ice-cream counter at a Thrifty’s variety store. (3)Ice cream cones are sold for less than the cost of the stand, equipment, supplies, and labor. (4)But the ice-cream counter, strategically placed near the store entrance, helps draw customers into the store. (5)Once inside, they often buy other items as well, so the store turns an overall profit. (6)The loss-leader principle is used in many other applications. (7)For instance, television networks take a loss on special events like the Olympic Games because they believe that the viewers they attract will then “stay tuned” for their other, moneymaking shows. 1.What term is being defined? 2.Which sentence contains the definition? 3.In which sentence does the first example appear? 4.In which sentence does the second example appear?
- 29. (1)A loss leader is a product or service that sells at a loss but generates customer interest that can lead to a later profit. (2)A classic example of a loss leader is the ice- cream counter at a Thrifty’s variety store. (3)Ice cream cones are sold for less than the cost of the stand, equipment, supplies, and labor. (4)But the ice-cream counter, strategically placed near the store entrance, helps draw customers into the store. (5)Once inside, they often buy other items as well, so the store turns an overall profit. (6)The loss-leader principle is used in many other applications. (7)For instance, television networks take a loss on special events like the Olympic Games because they believe that the viewers they attract will then “stay tuned” for their other, moneymaking shows. 1.What term is being defined? 2.Which sentence contains the definition? 3.In which sentence does the first example appear? 4.In which sentence does the second example appear? loss leader sentence 1 sentence 2 sentence 7 Notice that each example is introduced by an illustration word.
- 30. 8. Classification/Division • Classification/Division, essentially, is a system of exclusive organization using categorized examples. • Refers to both grouping (or classifying) your examples together according to their similarities and excluding (or dividing) them apart based on their differences. • Classification helps your readers completely understand the subject of your paper because you have organized the things you are considering according to a logical method. • Classification helps the readers understand unassociated ideas because the logical method has identified relationships between them all. • In many rhetorical situations, classification/division brings a sense of order to what your readers might have perceived as a chaotic scenario.
- 31. • Each classification system can differ depending on what you are classifying. Some of these are: •Type •Kind •Sort •Category •Group
- 32. 9. REFUTATION To refute something is to give evidence that proves it is untrue or impossible. A refutation is the act of definitively proving something wrong. There are three specific ways to successfully refute an argument: • A. Evidence • B. Logic • C. Minimization
- 33. REFUTATION VS. REBUTTAL Although they’re often used interchangeably, refutation and rebuttal do not mean the same thing. The difference between a refutation and rebuttal hinges on whether the opposite argument can be conclusively disproved. To do so, you must provide factual evidence of its inaccuracy; otherwise, it isn’t a refutation, it’s a rebuttal. A refutation is a response to an argument that decisively demonstrates that the opposing argument cannot be true. A rebuttal is a response to an argument that tries to prove it untrue by offering a different, logical perspective.
- 34. Refutation is the act of definitively proving an argument to be false or invalid. It involves providing conclusive evidence or logical reasoning that completely disproves the opposing viewpoint. A rebuttal is a counter- argument that challenges the opposing viewpoint without necessarily disproving it completely. It offers an alternative perspective or evidence but does not conclusively prove the other side wrong. Goal: To invalidate the argument by showing that it cannot be true. Goal: To counter the argument by weakening its impact or offering an alternative, but without completely disproving it. Example: If someone argues that "smoking has no negative health effects," you could refute this claim with scientific studies that show smoking causes lung cancer, heart disease, and other serious health problems. Example: If someone argues that "remote work leads to decreased productivity," you could rebut this by showing examples of companies where remote work increased productivity, without necessarily disproving all cases of decreased productivity.
- 36. REFUTATION THROUGH EVIDENCE A good argument stands on evidence, whether that’s statistical data, quotes from an expert, firsthand experiences, or any objective findings of a topic. Just as an argument can be built up by evidence that supports it, an argument can be destroyed by evidence that disproves it.
- 37. 9A.1:EVIDENCE CAN REFUTE AN ARGUMENT BY: 1. Definitively supporting the accuracy or truth of the opposing argument. (i.e., argument A and argument B cannot both be true). EXAMPLE: Some people argue that remote education is just as good as in-person instruction, but numerous studies have linked a rise in behavioral issues to young students in remote learning situations. Unless we argue that a child’s well- being is irrelevant, remote education is not “just as good as” in-person schooling.
- 38. 2. 9A.2: Definitively disproving the truth of the argument with more recent or more accurate evidence. EXAMPLE: Argument: "Earth is flat, and this has been believed for centuries based on observations from ancient civilizations." Refutation with More Accurate Evidence: This argument can be refuted using modern scientific evidence. Satellite imagery, space exploration, and the physics of planetary motion have conclusively proven that Earth is a spherical shape. For example, astronauts aboard the International Space Station take photographs showing the curvature of Earth from space. Additionally, the theory of gravity and the way objects move in space further supports that planets, including Earth, are not flat but spherical. Explanation: The flat Earth argument is refuted by scientific advancements and irrefutable visual evidence from modern space technology, which completely disproves the older belief based on limited ancient observations. This example is easy to understand because it contrasts an outdated belief with modern, well-documented scientific evidence, similar to how refutation works with more accurate and updated information.
- 40. In a refutation through logic, an argument can be discredited because of a flaw in logic, which is called a logical fallacy. Suppose someone makes the following argument: There is a logical fallacy in this argument, and can be refuted like this: As a result of the logical fallacy, the conclusion—that books are better at telling stories than movies—can be refuted unless the arguer presents a more logically sound argument. When the statement does not support the conclusion, this is called a non-sequitur, which is a type of logical fallacy. “Books always have more information about what the characters are thinking than movies. The best stories are those that offer lots of insight into what the characters are experiencing. Therefore, books will always be better at storytelling than movies.” The statement—that the best stories are those that include the character’s thoughts—is not logically solid because there are many acclaimed stories that do not include the characters’ thoughts at all. Take, for example, the film The Sound of Music (1965); there is no internal narrative coming from the characters, and yet this is a beloved story and classic movie.
- 42. Refutation by minimization occurs when the writer or speaker points out that the opposing argument is not as central to the issue as their opponent thought. This might be because it is a more peripheral, or less-important concern. This type of refutation is effective because it essentially proves that the opposing argument is not relevant to the discussion and can be dismissed. Consider the following argument: “Only women can write characters in the opposite gender with any depth, because for centuries they have been reading books written by men, and therefore have more insight into the opposite gender.” This argument can easily be refuted by minimizing the pivotal statement (i.e., writers have a difficult time writing characters of the opposite gender).
- 43. The assumption that a writer must share the same gender as their characters to have the insight to fully develop their personality is a mistake. There are countless examples of beloved characters written by members of the opposite gender to suggest otherwise; Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy (Anna Karenina (1878)), Victor Frankenstein by Mary Shelley (Frankenstein (1818)), and Beatrice by William Shakespeare (Much Ado About Nothing (1623)), to name just a few.
- 44. A paragraph or passage may often be made up of more than one pattern of organization. This paragraph contrasts women in poor countries with men in the same countries. It also uses a list of items pattern, listing points of contrast between men and women regarding literacy, education, and so forth.
- 45. Here are five short exercises to help students practice refutation skills: Exercise 1: Spot the Weakness Read the following argument and identify one major flaw in its reasoning. Then, write a 1-2 sentence refutation using evidence or logic. •Argument: "Video games are bad for kids because they always make them violent.“
- 46. Exercise 2: Refute with Evidence Given the argument below, refute it by providing a piece of factual evidence. Write a 2-3 sentence response. •Argument: "Vaccines cause autism, so parents should avoid vaccinating their children."
- 47. Exercise 3: Logical Fallacy Refutation Identify the logical fallacy in this argument and refute it in 2-3 sentences. •Argument: "All wealthy people are happy because they have everything they need.“
- 48. Exercise 4: Refute by Minimization Read the argument and minimize its importance in 1-2 sentences. •Argument: "Only students with the highest grades will be successful in life.“
- 49. Exercise 5: Complete the Refutation You’re given the start of a refutation. Complete it by adding another point or evidence in 2-3 sentences. •Argument: "Fast food is the main cause of obesity.“ •Refutation (Start): "While fast food contributes to obesity, many other factors like lack of exercise and genetics also play significant roles..."