Lecture 9- Human information Processing (Part 1) 02-14-23.pdf

Copyright © 2023 K. B. Chen.
All rights reserved.
NCSU ISE 540 course use only.
Human Information Processing
ISE 540 – Human Factors in Systems Design
Lectures 9-10
Spring 2023

Learning objectives
• Understand and explain the major stages of the human information
processing model.
• Recognize and explain the role of attention and its two aspects (selective
and divided).
• Factors affecting selective attention
• Explain the role of perception and its three mechanism (bottom-up, top-
down, unitization), and provide examples of each.
• Explain types of memory (sensory, working, long-term), including their
roles and characteristics, and provide examples of each.
• Explain how information is stored, used, and removed from long-term
memory.
• Integrate implications of attention, perception, and types of memory in
human factors design.

Learning objectives
• Understand and explain the major stages of the human information
processing model.
• Recognize and explain the role of attention and its two aspects (selective
and divided).
• Factors affecting selective attention
• Explain the role of perception and its three mechanism (bottom-up, top-
down, unitization), and provide examples of each.
• Explain types of memory (sensory, working, long-term), including their
roles and characteristics, and provide examples of each.
• Explain how information is stored, used, and removed from long-term
memory.
• Integrate implications of attention, perception, and types of memory in
human factors design.
Foigotton

Human information processing model
Visual,
Auditory,
:
:
1. Top-down
2. Bottom-up
limited capacity system for
temporary information processing
relatively permanent information
storage system;
memory failure is considered forgetting
Mental efforts is treated
as limited resources
SENSES
Decision
making
Different
stages -
on
"
a)
I sensation

Attention
• Attention is a state in which cognitive resources are focused
on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others and
the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond
to stimuli.
• Selective attention
• Attention as a filter
• Selectively paying attention to information of interest
• Divided attention
• Attention of a fuel
• Multi-tasking and allocating resources to various items of interest
is not specific phase or step in info
processing, but rather resources
that
is expanded during the steps of
perception a
decisionmentary
Eli S84Ety-
(filtering of
channel to
ignoize)

Types of selective attention
Also called perceptual blindness
Inattentional blindness
• Fail to notice an unexpected stimulus in plain sight.
• Can fail to perceive conspicuous events / objects unless paying attention.
• The Monkey Business Illusion: https://youtu.be/IGQmdoK_ZfY
Change blindness
• Fail to notice changes in the field of view in two successive scenes.
• Transient (brief movement) is interrupted (masked) thus fail to see.
• Example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JSoyOOQz1Ic
Choice blindness
• Fail to notice mismatches in own decisions and preferences.
• While nevertheless being prepared to offer introspectively derived reasons for choice.
• Example: https://youtu.be/58Lrzn7P0h8
• Example: https://youtu.be/_VPcl04Adh8?t=13
unable to recognize unless attention is allocated to
percieving
something very
obvious
that
unexpected stimulus
initial choice/judgemental emo intention and outcomes
-
mismatches between the desire and what we
got,

Factors that affect selective attention
Salience
• Quality being noticeable
• “How well targets stand out”
• Promotes bottom-up processing
• Use color, size, brightness, motion, etc.
(Physical) Effort
• Prefer to visually scan short distance
• Avoid head movements to select information sources
• Non-comprehensive understanding of environment
Expectancy
• Scan where we would expect to find valuable information
• Promotes top-down processing
Value
• Duration of selective attention may depend on its value
• Cost of not paying attention is a lot greater
·Clearly captures observer's attention
of
the object or item of interest:can grab our
selective attention
bybeingavion
R prominence
Estimuli-driven)
Salient stimulidimensions ->
- >
abisup on sets
- >
visual sitmuli
->
auditory i
Ex-scanning using out
eye
that controlled
>
Tactile stimuli
by eye muscles.
- >
to preserve out
energy.
(knowledge-disiven) -> related to
prior
experience
may not be
monetary but other
costs.

salience-
captures attention as the item has the
quality
of
being
noticeable. En-ca horn
captures absent minded boy crossing
the
street.
Effort
-
prefer to
scan short distances than
long ones and prefer to
avoid
head movement to select information resources.
En-Fatique
driver is too lazy to look behind him to check the blind spot
when
changing the lanes.
Expectency -
tend to look at where we expect to
find valuable information. En-
Lanica looked downward of the instructions because she expected
to see the phone Number there.
/ Grequency
value - Duration of selective attention depend on itsvalue as cost
of
not
paying attention is lot greater:En-a trained with pilot
will
continue to scan the world outside the cockpit for other airplanes
to avoid collisions.

Perception
• Perception is a stage in human information processing in which
we become aware of objects, relationships, and events by
means of the senses.
• Sensing can include recognizing, observing, and discriminating.
• Perception requires attention.
• Bottom-up processing (feature analysis) and top-down
processing both support perception.
Extraction of
meaning
(aditoiy, visual,tactile)
Physical stimuli
marisee
knowledge/content
-
Experience
Not untilinformation is perceived, it can not be processed.

Perception: Bottom-up processing
• In bottom-up processing, the (incoming) stimuli initiate
and determine subsequent processes that are needed to
recognize, interpret, and categorize.
• Recognition and interpretation of features and patterns.
• Try to recognize the basic stimulus patterns until a “bigger
picture” come into mind.
• Bottom-up processing is typically used when information
is unfamiliar or highly complex.
Use bottom-up processing
until a letter emerges from
these seemingly random
lines (basic stimuli).
Feature analysis(stimulus-dieiven)
Raw features of stimulus or event -
a world (letters), a symbol on map (color,
size, shape, and location), a sound (loudness of
alarm)

Perception: Top-down processing
• A general conceptualization of a stimulus is applied to and influences the
analysis of (incoming) stimuli. It is supported by expectations and prior
knowledge (stored in long-term memory).
• Leverages the surrounding context to make sense.
• Allows the understanding of somewhat ambiguous information.
What letter comes
before C?
What do you see here? What is in this cat meme?
The
ability
to
compactly guess what a stimulus or even is.
LKnowledge-driven)
and content
/incoming information
oil
experience.

Bottom-up vs. top-down processing
Displays for Visual Search Task:
Each display has one item that is the target.
Without instructions, do you know which one is the target?
(a) Bottom-up processing is
sufficient.
(b) Top-down processing is
needed.

A variety of perception: Unitization
• Instead of perceiving individual elements in a piece of information, we can perceive a
collection of elements as a meaningful unit.
• Unitization is the automatic processing of familiar unitized feature combinations. Results
in automaticity.
• Gestalt is an example of unitization, where features of physical stimuli and experience
(and/or context) help to perceive the stimuli as a whole. Gestalt examples include:
similarity continuation closure anomaly
http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm
looking out information as a whole
Bottom-up Top-down
0
-
all same except one
different

Human factors design considerations
• Maximize bottom-up processing
• Ease of viewing and discrimination
• E.g., size, contrast
• Maximize top-down processing
• Use actual words, not random text strings
• Minimize number of words that need to be recognized
• Provide context information
• Maximize automaticity and unitization
• Use familiar perceptual representations
• E.g., familiar fonts and lowercase text, meaningful icons,
words rather than abbreviations
• Exploit redundancy: similar to create context but repeats
content in a different format.
Implications of
selective attention and perception for
design -
to avoid confusion caused
by similarity of message sets
providing best
opportunities for
guessing
&
Your
full is low'->' Fuel low
(alpha =
a)

Human information processing model
~
~

Memory
Working
memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
memory
Long-term
memory
Retrieval
Encoding
Rehearsal Rehearsal
Forget Forget Forget
Repeatation of
stimulii
Infinite storage,
permanent

Sensory memory
• Sensory receptors register and store stimuli as sensory
memory.
• Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or
interpretation.
• Needs attention to transfer information to working memory.
• Can hold many unprocessed information at once but for a very
short duration.
• Iconic memory is visual sensory memory that lasts approximately 0.3
seconds
• Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory that lasts 2-3 seconds

Working memory
• Working memory (WM) is a limited capacity system for the temporary
maintenance and processing of information in the support of cognition and
action.
• Has a limit to what info comes under the spotlight of WM at any given time.
• WM is an alliance of subsystem of interactive components.
• WM needs attention to undergo conscious processing of information.

Working memory
• Phonological loop
• Represents verbal information in an
acoustical form while it is being rehearsed.
• Acoustic or articulatory store
• Visuospatial sketchpad
• Holds info in an analog spatial form while it is
being used.
• Mental imagery
• Central executive
• Attentional control system that coordinates
info from other two subsystems.
The episodic buffer acts as a 'backup' store which communicates with
both long term memory and the components of working memory.
Different subsystems -
crch-FLJTST5
-
bal
Auditory
CHEW/38755 4
But -
I ver
LTM
Ye decides either
auditory or visual
by allocating sufficient
attention
A
~>
afwo/ loosely connected it enables meaningful sequence of events. (n-story
we remerten

Working memory
• Limited capacity of WM holds 7±2 “items” for about 20 seconds.
• Maintenance rehearsal through repetition to keep information in
working memory.
• Exploit chunking by breaking information into meaningful units.
• 3 to 4 numbers or letters per chunk (optimal)
• Without rehearsal, we remember 4 ± 2 chunks
• With rehearsal, we remember 7 ± 2 chunks
Example 1: FBI CIA USA vs. FBICIAUSA
Example 2: 919-515-2011 (NCSU phone#)
bits
↓ Utilize
fair, was, block

More on human factors considerations
• In the case of writing, the combination of upper and lower cases
can help distinguish or emphasize words.
• Practice “chunking” in user interface (website, app) design.
• Add space or other delimiters between words or strings
Printed CAPS are recognized more easily than
lowercase in isolated words, but mixture of lower and
upper cases is best for sentences.

Long-term memory
• Long-term memory is a nearly-permanent storage of
information with unlimited capacity.
• Encoding – placing info into memory
• Storage – keeping info in memory
• Retrieval – accessing information from long-term memory (goes back
into working memory)
action of
writing
into
him
-
Pulling & Episodic buffer

Long-term memory
Long-term
memory
Declarative
(explicit) memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Non-declarative
(implicit) memory
Procedural (also
called sensorimotor
memory)
Recall
Factual info
child hard memories
particular vacation
clear
Unique experience or episode
indirect/implied Skill associated with

Long-term memory
• Declarative memory concerns memory of facts and events that can
be consciously recalled (thus “declared”).
• Also called explicit memory
• Subdivided into semantic memory and episodic memory
• Semantic memory concerns general knowledge about the world.
• E.g., DC is the capital of the U.S.
• Episodic memory concerns the retention of information about unique
events.
• E.g., I visited DC in April 2019.
• Non-declarative memory concerns information that does not need to
be consciously recalled.
• Specifically there is the procedural memory (sensorimotor memory)
-
sti
A
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