Lecture 9.pptx
- 1. Disclaimer • In preparation of these slides, materials have been taken from different online sources in the shape of books, websites, research papers and presentations etc. However, the author does not have any intention to take any benefit of these in her/his own name. This lecture (audio, video, slides etc) is prepared and delivered only for educational purposes and is not intended to infringe upon the copyrighted material. Sources have been acknowledged where applicable. The views expressed are presenter’s alone and do not necessarily represent actual author(s) or the institution.
- 2. Module I Introduction to distributed computing
- 3. Definition of a distributed system A distributed system is: A collection of independent computers that appears to its users as a single coherent system. Important aspects of the definition are 1. A distributed system consists of components (computers) that are autonomous. 2. Users think they are dealing with a single system.
- 4. 1.1 Definition of a Distributed System (2) Figure 1-1. A distributed system organized as middleware. The middleware layer extends over multiple machines, and offers each application the same interface.
- 5. Characteristics of distributed system 1. One of the important characteristic is that differences between the various computers and the ways in which they communicate are mostly hidden from users. The same holds for the internal organization of the distributed system. 2. Users and applications can interact with a distributed system in a consistent and uniform way, regardless of where and when interaction takes place.
- 6. Goals • A distributed system should • Easily accessible • Hide the fact that resources are distributed across a network- distribution transparency • Open • Scalable
- 7. 1. Making resources accessible • The main goal of distributed system is to make it easy for the users to access remote resources, and to share them in a controlled and efficient way. • Connecting users and resources also makes it easier to collaborate and exchange information. • The connectivity of the Internet is now leading to numerous virtual organizations in which geographically widely- dispersed groups of people work together by means of groupware, ie, s/w for collaborative editing, teleconferencing, and so on.
- 8. • As connectivity and sharing increases security becoming important. • System should provide protection against intrusion on communication(passwords, credit card number protection ) • Can lead to unwanted communication (spam)
- 9. 2. Distribution Transparency • The main goal of distributed system is to hide the fact that its processes and resources are physically distributed across multiple computers. • A distributed system that is able to present itself to users and applications as if it were only a single computer system is said to be transparent.
- 10. Types of Transparency Figure 1-2. Different forms of transparency in a distributed system (ISO, 1995).
- 11. • Access transparency • It deals with hiding differences in data representation and the way that resources can be accessed by users. • At a basic level, hide differences in machine architectures. • For eg, a distributed system may have computer systems that run different OS, each having their own naming conventions, as well as how files can be manipulated, should all be hidden from users and applications.
- 12. • Location transparency • It deals with the fact that users cannot tell where a resource is physically located in the system. • Naming plays an important role in achieving location transparency. • location transparency can be achieved by assigning only logical names to resources , ie, names in which the location of a resource is not secretly encoded. • An eg for such a name is the URL http://www.prenhall.com/index.html, which give s no clue about the location of prentice hall’s main web server.
- 13. • The URL also gives no clue as to whether index.html has always been at its current location or was recently moved there.
- 14. • Migration transparency. • Distributed systems in which resources can be moved without affecting how those resources can be accessed are said to provide migration transparency • Even stronger is the situation in which resources can be relocated while they are being accessed without the user or application noticing anything. In such cases, the system is said to support relocation transparency. • An eg for relocation transparency is when mobile users can continue to use their wireless laptops while moving from place to place without ever being (temporarily) disconnected.
- 15. • Replication transparency. • It deals with hiding the fact that several copies of a resource exist. • To hide replication from users, it is necessary that all replicas have the same name. • Consequently, a system that supports replication transparency should generally support location transparency as well, because it would otherwise be impossible to refer to replicas at different locations.
- 16. • Two independent users may each have stored their files on the same file server or may be accessing the same tables in a shared database. • In such cases, it is important that each user does not notice that other is making use of the same resource. This phenomenon is called concurrency transparency. • It is imp. Issue is that concurrent access to a shared resource leaves that resource in a consistent state. • Consistency can be achieved through locking mechanisms, by which users are, in turn given exclusive access to the desired resource.
- 17. • Failure transparency. • Making a distributed system failure transparent means that a user does not notice that a resource(he has possibly never heard of) fails to work properly, and that the system subsequently recovers from that failure. • Masking failures is the hardest issue • Inability to distinguish between a dead resource and slow resource
- 18. Degree of Transparency • A trade-off between a high degree of transparency and the performance of a system • Full distribution transparency is simply impossible
- 19. 3. Openness • Degree to which new resource sharing services can be added and made available to the users. • An open distributed system is a system that offers services according to standard rules that describe the syntax and semantics of those services. • A system offer services according to standard rules and such rules are formalized in protocols. • In distributed systems, services are generally specified through interfaces, which are often described in an interface definition language(IDL).
- 20. Openness • Interoperability • Different manufacturers can co-exist and work together • Portability • System A can be executed, without modification, on a different distributed system B • Extensible • in an extensible system, it should be relatively easy to add parts that run on a different OS, or even to replace an entire file system.
- 21. • Separating policy from mechanism – To achieve flexibility in open distributed systems, it is crucial that the system is organized as a collection of relatively small and easily replaceable or adaptable components.
- 22. Scalability • Scalability is the capability of a system, network, or process to handle a growing amount of work, or its potential to be enlarged to accommodate that growth. • One of the most important design goals for developers of distributed systems Can be measured along three different dimensions 1) With respect its size • Means we can easily add more users and resources to the system. 2) Geographically scalable system • In which users and resources may lie far apart. 3) administratively scalable • Adding more nodes should not increase the administrative costs of the system
- 23. Scalability Problems Figure 1-3. Examples of scalability limitations.
- 24. Scalability Problems Characteristics of decentralized algorithms: • No machine has complete information about the system state. • Machines make decisions based only on local information. • Failure of one machine does not ruin the algorithm. • There is no implicit assumption that a global clock exists.
- 25. • Geographical scalability has its own problems. – one of the main reasons why it is hard to scale existing distributed systems that were designed for LAN is that they are based on synchronous communication. – In synchronous communication , a party requesting service , generally referred to as a client, blocks until a reply is sent back. – Another problem is that communication in WAN is unreliable, and virtually always point-to-point.
- 26. Scaling Techniques • Three techniques for scaling • Hiding communication latencies • Distribution • Replication
- 27. Hiding communication latencies • It is imp. to achieve geographical scalability. • Here the idea is try to avoid waiting for responses to remote service requests as much as possible. • For eg, when a server has been requested at a remote machine, an alternative to waiting for a reply from a server is to do another useful work at the requester’s side. • Ie. It uses only asynchronous communication.
- 28. • When a reply comes in , the application is interrupted and a special handler is called to complete the previously- issued request. • Asynchronous communication is often used in batch- processing systems and parallel applications.
- 29. Distribution • It involves taking a component, splitting it into smaller parts, and subsequently spreading those parts across the system. • Eg is DNS. • The DNS name space is hierarchically organized into a tree of domains , which are divided into non overlapping zones. • The names in each zone are handled by a single name server
- 30. Distribution Figure 1-5. An example of dividing the DNS name space into zones.
- 31. • Scalability problems often appear in the form of performance degradation, it is generally a good idea to actually replicate components across a distributed system. • Replication not only increases availability, but also helps to balance the load between components leading to better performance.
- 32. • Caching is a special form of replication • Drawback of caching and replication is: it leads to consistency problems.(modifying one copy makes that copy different from the others.)
- 33. Pitfalls when Developing Distributed Systems False assumptions made by first time developer: • The network is reliable. • The network is secure. • The network is homogeneous. • The topology does not change. • Latency is zero. • Bandwidth is infinite. • Transport cost is zero. • There is one administrator.
- 34. Distributed System Challenges Lack of global state information – Different nodes have different view of system • What are the contents of file A? • How many jobs are running on node X? • Which nodes are currently part of the system? – See delays, different ordering of messages, lost messages, network partitions – Tension with goal of “single coherent system” Handling slow, failed and misbehaving nodes – How do you avoid slow nodes? – How do you get back data or work from failed node? – When nodes disagree, how do you know who is wrong? – Tension with goal of “available and reliable” When is it okay to have some centralized components? – Simplifies state management, but single point-of-failure and performance bottleneck
- 35. Types of Distributed Systems: 1- Distributed Computing Systems : Focus on computation Cluster Computing Systems Grid Computing Systems 2- Distributed Information Systems:Focus on interoperability Transaction Processing Systems Enterprise Application Integration (Exchange info via RPC or RMI) 3- Distributed Pervasive Systems (usually small, battery-powered systems, Mobile & wireless): Focus on mobile, embedded, communicating Home Systems (e.g. Smart phones, PDAs) Electronic Health care systems (Heart monitors, BAN: Body Area Networks) Sensor Networks (distributed Databases connected wirelessly)
- 36. Distributed Computing systems • An important class of distributed systems is the one used for high- performance computing tasks. • In cluster computing the underlying hardware consists of a collection of similar workstations or PCs, closely connected by means of a high speed LAN. • Here each node runs the same OS.
- 37. • In grid computing, the subgroup consists of distributed systems that are often constructed as a federation of computer systems , where each system may fall under a different administrative domain, and may be very different when it comes to hardware, software and network technology.
- 38. Cluster computing systems • Cluster computing is used for parallel programming in which a single program is run in parallel on multiple machines. • A characteristic feature of cluster computing is its homogeneity. • In the following figure, each cluster consists of a collection of compute nodes that are controlled and accessed by means of a single master node.
- 39. Cluster Computing Systems - Hooking up a collection of simple computers via high-speed networks to build a supercomputing environment - Mostly homogenous - Example: server clusters at Banks
- 40. Grid Computing Systems - have a high degree of heterogeneity -Users and recourses from different organizations are brought together to allow collaboration (i.e. a V.O. = Virtual Organization) - Members belonging to the same V.O. have access rights to a common set of recourses (e.g. Police, FBI, and some local agencies may form a computing grid)
- 41. 2) Distributed information systems • Integration at the lowest level would allow clients to wrap a number of requests, possible for different servers, into a single larger request and have it executed as a distributed transaction.
- 42. Transaction Processing Systems RPC, procedure calls to remote servers, are often encapsulated in a transaction, leading to what is known as a transactional RPC. Figure 1-8. Example primitives for transactions.
- 43. • BEGIN – TRANACTION AND END- TRANSACTION are used to delimit the scope of a transaction. • The operations between them form the body of the transaction. • The characteristic feature of a transaction is either all of these operations are executed or none are executed.
- 44. Transaction Processing Systems – ACID Characteristic properties of transactions: • Atomic: To the outside world, the transaction happens indivisibly. • Consistent: The transaction does not violate system invariants. • Isolated or serializable: Concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other. • Durable: Once a transaction commits, the changes are permanent.
- 45. Transaction Processing Systems Figure 1-9. A nested transaction.
- 46. Transaction processing monitor or TP monitor • Its main task was to allow an application to access multiple server/databases by offering it a transactional programming model as shown in the following figure.
- 47. Transaction Processing Systems Figure 1-10. The role of a TP monitor in distributed systems. Fig: the role of a TP monitor in distributed systems
- 48. Distributed Pervasive Systems • Embrace contextual changes • (a phone now is a web access device. A device must continuously be aware of the fact that its environment may change) • Encourage ad hoc composition • (used differently by different users, e.g. PDA) • Recognize sharing as the default • (easily read, store, manage, and share info)
- 49. Home Systems • Typical consumer electronics such as • TVs, audio and video equipment, gaming devices, (smart) phones, PDAs, and other personal wearable's into a single system • Personal space • Agenda, family photo’s, a diary, music and videos, etc.
- 50. Electronic Health Care Systems Questions to be addressed for health care systems: • Where and how should monitored data be stored? • How can we prevent loss of crucial data? • What infrastructure is needed to generate and propagate alerts? • How can physicians provide online feedback? • How can extreme robustness of the monitoring system be realized? • What are the security issues and how can the proper policies be enforced?
- 51. Electronic Health Care Systems Figure 1-12. Monitoring a person in a pervasive electronic health care system, using (a) a local hub or (b) a continuous wireless connection.
- 52. Sensor Networks Questions concerning sensor networks: • How do we (dynamically) set up an efficient tree in a sensor network? • How does aggregation of results take place? Can it be controlled? • What happens when network links fail?
- 53. Tanenbaum & Van Steen, Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms, 2e, (c) 2007 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Sensor Networks (2) Figure 1-13. Organizing a sensor network database, while storing and processing data (a) only at the operator’s site or …
- 54. Sensor Networks (3) Figure 1-13. Organizing a sensor network database, while storing and processing data … or (b) only at the sensors.