LECTURE IN STYLISTICS - INTRO TO THE COURSE

Editor's Notes

• #2: 1. Language is made up of sounds (spoken) or symbols (written) that represent meanings. These sounds and symbols follow a structure, allowing people to understand each other. 🔹 Example: In English, the sound /kæt/ represents the word "cat", and in Spanish, the equivalent word is "gato". Even though the sounds are different, both refer to the same animal. Sign languages, like American Sign Language (ASL), use hand symbols instead of sounds to represent meanings. 🔹 Real-life Application: Babies first learn language by recognizing sounds and associating them with meanings. For example, they hear "mama" repeatedly and connect it to their mother. 2. Language is a symbolic system associated with objects, ideas, and actions. Words are symbols that represent things, thoughts, and actions, but they have no inherent meaning on their own. People agree on what a word represents. 🔹 Example: The word "tree" does not physically resemble a tree, but we all understand what it refers to. In different languages, the same object is represented by different symbols: English: Tree Spanish: Árbol Japanese: 木 (Ki) Abstract concepts like "love" or "freedom" also have symbolic meanings that people understand within their cultural context. 🔹 Real-life Application: In road signs, a red octagon means "stop," even without words. Similarly, in written language, symbols (letters and words) carry meaning. 3. Language is uniquely human and used for communication. Unlike animal sounds or signals, human language is complex and allows for the creation of new ideas. 🔹 Example: Birds can chirp to signal danger, but they cannot discuss past or future events. Humans can say, "I went to the market yesterday and will go again tomorrow." This ability to express past, present, and future events is unique to human language. 🔹 Real-life Application: Artificial intelligence (AI) like chatbots can mimic human conversation, but they do not truly "understand" language the way humans do—they rely on programmed patterns. 4. Language allows people to express thoughts, emotions, and needs. People use language not only to exchange information but also to share feelings, express creativity, and connect with others. 🔹 Example: A person might say, "I'm excited for my birthday!" to express happiness, or "I feel lonely." to share emotions. Writers and poets use language to create emotional impact, like in Shakespeare’s famous line: "Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?" 🔹 Real-life Application: When someone travels to a country where they don’t speak the language, they might struggle to express basic needs like ordering food or asking for help. This highlights how essential language is for daily life. Language is more than just words—it is a structured system that allows humans to think, communicate, and share emotions. It is symbolic, uniquely human, and essential for expressing our thoughts and interacting with others.
• #3: Communication involves five elements: sender, message, channel, receiver, and situation. To understand how communication works, we need to break it down into five key components: Sender – The person or group sending the message. Message – The information being communicated. Channel – The medium used to send the message (e.g., speech, text, email). Receiver – The person or group who receives and interprets the message. Situation – The context in which communication happens (e.g., a classroom, a business meeting, a casual chat). Example: In a classroom setting: Sender: The professor Message: Today’s lesson Channel: Spoken words and PowerPoint slides Receiver: The students Situation: A college lecture Communication is essential for sharing ideas and information. It involves a sender, message, channel, receiver, and situation and can happen through verbal, non-verbal, or visual means. Effective communication ensures that the intended message is understood clearly.
• #4: Informational (Provides facts and knowledge) “Water boils at 100°C.” “The capital of Japan is Tokyo.” Expressive (Conveys emotions and attitudes) “I’m so happy to see you!” “This movie makes me feel nostalgic.” Directive (Influences behavior through commands and requests) “Please turn off the lights.” “Submit your assignment by Friday.” Aesthetic (Used for artistic purposes, e.g., poetry) “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” (Shakespeare) “The stars danced in the midnight sky.” Phatic (Maintains social relationships, e.g., greetings) “Hey! How are you?” “Nice to meet you!”
• #6: Speech acts are ways in which language does more than just communicate information—it performs an action. When we speak, we are not just sharing facts; we can also promise, command, apologize, or declare something official. Types of Speech Acts with Examples 1. Commissive (Promises and Threats) The speaker commits to a future action. 🔹 Example: “I promise to help you with your project.” (Promise) “If you don’t finish your work, you’ll be in trouble.” (Threat) 2. Declarative (Changes Reality) The speaker’s words make something happen in reality. 🔹 Example: “I now pronounce you husband and wife.” (Marriage is official) “You are fired.” (Changes someone’s employment status) 3. Directive (Commands and Requests) The speaker tries to get someone to do something. 🔹 Example: “Close the window, please.” (Request) “Stand up now!” (Command) 4. Expressive (Expresses Feelings and Emotions) The speaker shows emotions or attitudes. 🔹 Example: “I’m so sorry for being late.” (Apology) “Congratulations on your graduation!” (Praise) 5. Representative (States Facts or Reports) The speaker provides information or describes something. 🔹 Example: “The Earth revolves around the sun.” (Fact) “It rained heavily last night.” (Report
• #9: 1. Focus on Language: Examines language patterns and how they affect meaning. Example: A love letter uses words like ‘dear’ and ‘sweetheart,’ while a legal document uses formal terms like ‘whereas’. 2. Understanding Texts: Different word choices can change meaning. Example: A news report may describe protesters as ‘activists’ (neutral) or ‘rioters’ (negative). 3. Not Just for Literature: Stylistics applies to ads, music, journalism. Example: A Coca-Cola ad uses ‘Taste the Feeling’ for emotional appeal. 4. Context Matters: Language changes depending on who, where, and when. Example: ‘What’s up?’ to a friend vs. ‘How are you?’ in an interview. 5. Scientific Approach: Uses systematic methods. 6. Creativity in Language: Language creativity isn’t just in literature.
• #10: Studying stylistics helps us understand language better, especially how creativity shapes meaning in texts.
• #11: 1. Rigorous Analysis – Uses a clear and structured method Rigorous analysis means that when studying a text, we must follow a well-defined and systematic approach rather than relying on personal opinions or vague impressions. This ensures that findings are based on specific language features rather than general feelings about a text. 🔹 Example: If analyzing poetry, we don't just say, “This poem feels sad.” Instead, we identify why it feels sad by looking at word choices (e.g., “gloomy,” “tears,” “lonely”) and sentence structures (e.g., short, fragmented sentences that create a sense of isolation). 🔹 Real-life Application: A lawyer analyzing a contract must carefully examine specific legal terms and structures to interpret its meaning correctly. Similarly, in stylistics, we examine language elements such as tone, sentence structure, and word choice in a structured way. 2. Retrievable Analysis – Follows organized steps Retrievable analysis means that the process of studying a text must be clearly documented so that someone else can follow the same steps and arrive at the same observations. This ensures transparency and avoids bias. 🔹 Example: If a researcher studies how persuasive language is used in advertisements, they must clearly state the steps taken: -Identifying persuasive techniques (e.g., emotional appeal, repetition, rhetorical questions). -Examining specific word choices (e.g., "limited time offer" creates urgency). -Analyzing sentence structures and their effects. By organizing these steps, another researcher can retrieve the same analysis and verify the findings. 🔹 Real-life Application: A science experiment follows a step-by-step method so others can replicate it. Similarly, stylistic analysis should follow a step-by-step approach so others can check or repeat the analysis. 3. Replicable Analysis – Can be tested and repeated by others Replicable analysis means that when a stylistic study is conducted, other researchers should be able to apply the same methods to different texts and get similar results. This makes the study reliable and valuable for future research. 🔹 Example: If one study finds that political speeches often use repetition to persuade audiences (e.g., “We will fight for justice, we will fight for peace, we will fight for our future”), then another researcher should be able to test this in different speeches and find similar patterns. 🔹 Real-life Application: In medicine, a new drug is tested multiple times in different environments before it is approved. Similarly, in stylistics, the same method can be applied to different texts to test if the results hold true across multiple cases.
• #17: These basic levels of language can be identified and teased out in the stylistic analysis of text, which in turn makes the analysis itself more organised and principled, more in keeping so to speak with the principle of the three Rs. However, what is absolutely central to our understanding of language (and style) is that these levels are interconnected: they interpenetrate and depend upon one another, and they represent multiple and simultaneous linguistic operations in the planning and production of an utterance.
• #20: Context of situation is essential in understanding nuances in communication. Provide additional examples, such as "hot" (weather vs. spicy food).
• #21: Situational: Formal vs. informal speech (e.g., job interview vs. chatting with friends). Temporal: Words like "thee" and "thou" in older English. Regional: "Soda" vs. "pop" in different areas. Social: Professional vs. casual conversations.
• #22: Give examples for each factor: Field: A doctor explaining a diagnosis vs. a teacher discussing literature. Tenor: Formal tone between a boss and employee vs. informal tone between friends. Mode: Speech in a debate vs. an article in a newspaper.
• #23: Give examples for each factor: Field: A doctor explaining a diagnosis vs. a teacher discussing literature. Tenor: Formal tone between a boss and employee vs. informal tone between friends. Mode: Speech in a debate vs. an article in a newspaper.
• #24: Give examples for each approach: Phonostylistics: The use of alliteration in poetry. Morphostylistics: The contrast between "formal" vs. "informal" word forms. Lexicostylistics: A writer’s preference for simple or complex vocabulary. Syntacticostylistics: Short sentences for emphasis vs. long sentences for detailed descriptions. Macrostylistics: Analysis of style in an entire novel or academic paper.
• #25: Explain that language serves different purposes depending on the context. Provide examples for each stylistic approach: Expressive: A poet expressing emotions in a personal diary. Cognitive: A research paper presenting data objectively. Affective: A politician delivering a persuasive speech. Highlight that texts can contain multiple functions simultaneously.
• #30: Explain how dialect, education, and subject-matter affect communication. Provide examples for each factor and encourage students to identify their own.
• #35: true adjectives: can be rendered in the comparative degree and can be used attributively and predicatively, e.g.: tall , taller; interesting, more interesting. An interesting book The book is interesting. untrue adjectives = noun adjunct constructions. They cannot be rendered in the comparative degree and cannot be used predicatively. income tax, water bird, gold watch, silver spoon, home economics. adjectives modified by adverbs:22 very quickly, completely full, definitely right subordinate clauses: The boy , who is playing in the garden , is my brother. This is the book that I bought yesterday.
• #38: Instructions: Read the sentences below carefully. Identify the style marker(s) used in each sentence. Determine whether the sentence belongs to a formal, informal, persuasive, literary, or technical style. Explain your answer in one sentence.