Lecture5 mba
- 1. 5-1 Capital Budgeting : Part I Investment Criteria
- 2. 5-2 Investment Criteria How should a firm make an investment decision What assets do we buy? What is the underlying goal? What is the right decision criterion? Capital Budgeting Evaluate different decision rules → tools! Implement using the Super Project case study
- 3. 5-3 Net Present Value NPV = –Initial Cost + Market Value NPV = – Initial Cost + PV(Expected Future CF’s) T T CFt CFt NPV= - Cost + ∑ = ∑ (1+ r) t t t =1 (1+ r) t =0 where r reflects the risk of the project’s cash flows Note that this is a generic formula, and we really use the tools from time value of money (annuities, perpetuities, etc.) from before. Net Present Value (NPV) Rule: NPV > 0 Accept the project. NPV < 0 Reject the project.
- 4. 5-4 More on the Appropriate Discount Rate, r Discount rate = opportunity cost of capital Expected rate of return given up by investing in the project Reflects the risk of the cash flows from the project Discount rate does not reflect the risk of the firm or the risk of the firm’s previous projects (remember: the past is irrelevant)
- 5. 5-5 Using the NPV Rule Your firm is considering whether to invest in a new product. The costs associated with introducing this new product and the expected cash flows over the next four years are listed below. (Assume these cash flows are 100% likely). The appropriate discount rate for these cash flows is 20% per year. Should the firm invest in this new product? Costs: ($ million) Promotion and advertising 100 Production & related costs 400 Other 100 Total Cost 600 Initial Cost: $600 million and r = 20% The cash flows ($million) over the next four years: Year 1: $200; Year 2: $220; Year 3: $225; Year 4: $210
- 6. 5-6 Using NPV, concluded Present Value Year Cash Flow Factor PV(Cash Flow) 0 (600.00) 1.00 (600.00) 1 $200.00 (1.20)1 166.67 2 $220.00 (1.20)2 152.78 3 $225.00 (1.20)3 130.21 4 $210.00 (1.20)4 101.27 NPV = (49.07)
- 7. 5-7 Payback Rule Payback period = the length of time until the accumulated cash flows from the investment are equal to or exceed the original cost Payback rule: If the calculated payback period is less than or equal to some pre- specified payback period, then accept the project. Otherwise reject it.
- 8. 5-8 Example: Payback Example: Consider the previous investment project. The initial cost is $600 million. It has been decided that the project should be accepted if the payback period is 3 years or less. Using the payback rule, should this project be undertaken? Year Cash Flow Accumulated Cash Flow 1 $200.00 $200 2 220.00 $420 3 225.00 $645 > $600 4 210.00 $855
- 9. 5-9 Analyzing the Payback Rule Consider the following table. The payback period cutoff is two years. Both projects cost $250. Which would you pick using the payback rule? Why? Year Long Short 1 $100.00 $200.00 2 100.00 100.00 3 100.00 0.00 4 100.00 0.00 Which project would you pick using the NPV rule? Assume the appropriate discount rate is 20%.
- 10. Advantages and Disadvantages of the5-10 Payback Rule Advantages Disadvantages Popular among many large companies Commonly used when the: • capital investment is small • merits of the project are so obvious that more formal analysis is unnecessary
- 11. 5-11 The Discounted Payback Rule Discounted Payback period: The length of time until the accumulated discounted cash flows from the investment equal or exceed the original cost. (We will assume that cash flows are generated continuously during a period) The Discounted Payback Rule: An investment is accepted if its calculated discounted payback period is less than or equal to some pre-specified number of years.
- 12. 5-12 Example: Discounted Payback Example: Consider the previous investment project analyzed with the NPV rule. The initial cost is $600 million. The discounted payback period cutoff is 3 years. The appropriate discount rate for these cash flows is 20%. Using the discounted payback rule, should the firm invest in the new product? Discounted Year Cash Flow Present Value Accumulated Factor Cash Flow 1 $200.00 (1.20)1 166.67 2 $220.00 (1.20)2 152.78 319.45 3 $225.00 (1.20)3 130.21 449.66 4 $210.00 (1.20)4 101.27 550.93
- 13. 5-13 Analyzing the Discounted Payback Rule Advantages Disadvantages Bottom Line: Why Bother? You might as well compute the NPV! Will always work!
- 14. 5-14 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Rule IRR is that discount rate, r, that makes the NPV equal to zero. In other words, it makes the present value of future cash flows equal to the initial cost of the investment. T CFt NPV = ∑ t t = 0 (1 r) + T CFt 0=∑ t t = 0 (1 IRR) +
- 15. 5-15 IRR Rule Accept the project if the IRR is greater than the required rate of return (discount rate). Otherwise, reject the project. Calculating IRR: Like Yield-to-Maturity, IRR is difficult to calculate. Need financial calculator Trial and error Excel or Lotus Spreadsheet Easy to first calculate NPV then use the answer to get a first good guess about the IRR!!!
- 16. 5-16 IRR Illustrated Initial outlay = -$200 Year Cash flow 1 50 2 100 3 150 Find the IRR such that NPV = 0 50 100 150 0 = -200 + + + (1+IRR) 1 (1+IRR) (1+IRR)3 2 50 100 150 200 = + + (1+IRR) 1 (1+IRR) 2 (1+IRR)3
- 17. 5-17 IRR Illustrated Trial and Error Discount rates NPV 0% $100 5% 68 10% 41 15% 18 20% –2 IRR is just under 20% -- about 19.44%
- 18. 5-18 Net Present Value Profile Net present value 120 Year Cash flow 0 – $200 100 1 50 2 100 80 3 150 4 0 60 40 20 0 – 20 – 40 Discount rate 2% 6% 10% 14% 18% 22% IRR
- 19. 5-19 Comparison of IRR and NPV IRR and NPV rules lead to identical decisions IF the following conditions are satisfied: Conventional Cash Flows: The first cash flow (the initial investment) is negative and all the remaining cash flows are positive Project is independent: A project is independent if the decision to accept or reject the project does not affect the decision to accept or reject any other project. When one or both of these conditions are not met, problems with using the IRR rule can result!
- 20. 5-20 Unconventional Cash Flows Unconventional Cash Flows: Cash flows come first and investment cost is paid later. In this case, the cash flows are like those of a loan and the IRR is like a borrowing rate. Thus, in this case a lower IRR is better than a higher IRR. Multiple rates of return problem: Multiple sign changes in the cash flows introduce the possibility that more than one discount rate makes the NPV of an investment project zero.
- 21. 5-21 Example: Unconventional Cash Flows Example: A strip-mining project requires an initial investment of $60. The cash flow in the first year is $155. In the second year, the mine is depleted, but the firm has to spend $100 to restore the land. $60 = 155/(1 + IRR) – 100/(1 + IRR)2 Discount Rate (IRR) NPV 0.0% – $5.00 10.00 – 1.74 20.00 – 0.28 25.00 0.00 30.00 0.06 33.33 0.00 40.00 – 0.31 Generally, the number of possible IRRs is equal to the number of changes in the sign of the cash flows.
- 22. 5-22 Mutually Exclusive Projects Mutually exclusive projects: If taking one project implies another project is not taken, the projects are mutually exclusive. The one with the highest IRR may not be the one with the highest NPV. Example: Project A has a cost of $500 and cash flows of $325 for two periods, while project B has a cost of $400 and cash flows of $325 and $200 respectively, in years 1 and 2.
- 23. 5-23 Mutually Exclusive Projects Period Project A Project B 0 -500 -400 1 325 325 2 325 200 IRR 19.43% 22.17% Project B appears better because of the higher return. However...
- 24. 5-24 Mutually Exclusive Projects Discount Rate NPV(A) NPV(B) 0.0% $150.00 $125.00 5.00 104.32 100.00 10.00 64.05 60.74 15.00 28.36 33.84 20.00 -3.47 9.72 Which project is preferred depends on the discount rate. Project A has a higher NPV at a 10% discount rate Project B has a higher NPV at a 15% discount rate.
- 25. 5-25 Crossover Rate Crossover Rate: The discount rate that makes the NPV of the two projects the same. Finding the Crossover Rate Use the NPV profiles Calculate the IRR based on the incremental cash flows. If the incremental IRR is greater than the required rate of return, take the larger project.
- 26. 5-26 Mutually Exclusive Cash Flows Example: If project A has a cost of $500 and cash flows of $325 for two periods, while project B has a cost of $400 and cash flows of $325 and $200 respectively, the incremental cash flows are: Period Project A Project B Incremental (A - B) 0 -500 -400 –$100 1 325 325 0 2 325 200 125 IRR 19.43 22.17 100=125/(1+IRR)2 → IRR=11.8%
- 27. 5-27 NPV Profiles of Mutually Exclusive Projects $150.00 $130.00 $110.00 $90.00 $70.00 Crossover Rate = 11.8 $50.00 $30.00 IRRB=22.17 $10.00 ($10.00) 0 5 10 15 20 25 ($30.00) ($50.00) Project A Project B IRRA=19.43
- 28. 5-28 Advantages and Disadvantages of IRR Advantages closely related to NPV easy to understand and communicate Disadvantages may result in multiple answers may lead to incorrect decisions not always easy to calculate Very Popular: People like to talk in terms of returns 99% use IRR Rule instead of 85% using NPV rule
- 29. 5-29 Capital Budgeting: Determining the Relevant Cash Flows Relevant cash flows - the incremental cash flows associated with the decision to invest in a project. The incremental cash flows for project evaluation consist of any and all changes in the firm’s future cash flows that are a direct consequence of taking the project. Difference between cash flows with project and cash flows without
- 30. 5-30 Stand-Alone Principle Evaluation of a project on the basis of its incremental cash flows Project = "Mini-firm” has own assets and liabilities; revenues and costs Allows us to evaluate the investment project separately from other activities of the firm
- 31. 5-31 Aspects of Incremental Cash Flows Sunk Costs Opportunity Costs Side Effects: Erosion Net Working Capital Financing Costs All Cash Flows should be after-tax cash flows
- 32. 5-32 Sunk Costs Heinz hires The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) to evaluate whether a new product line should be launched. The consulting fees are paid no matter what. Should not be included in incremental cash flows! Valuation is always forward looking!
- 33. 5-33 Opportunity Costs Firm paid $300,000 land to be used for a warehouse. The current market value of the land is $450,000. Opportunity Cost = $450,000 Sunk Cost = $300,000 Should be included in incremental cash flows - but beware of tax consequences!
- 34. 5-34 Side Effects and Erosion A drop in Big Mac revenues when McDonald's introduced the Arch Deluxe. Should be included in incremental cash flows
- 35. 5-35 Net Working Capital (incremental) Investments in inventories and receivables. This investment is assumed to be recovered at the end of project. Should be included in incremental cash flows
- 36. 5-36 Financing Costs Interest, principal on debt and dividends. dividends Should not be included in incremental cash flows
- 37. 5-37 Aspects of Incremental Cash Flows Sunk Costs N Opportunity Costs Y Side Effects (Erosion) Y Net Working Capital Y Financing Costs N All Cash Flows should be after-tax cash flows
- 38. Pro Forma Financial Statements5-38 and DCF Valuation Pro forma financial statements Best current forecasts of future years operations used for capital budgeting determine sales projections, costs, capital requirements Use statements to obtain project cash flow If stand-alone principle holds: Project Cash Flow = Project Operating Cash Flow – Project Net Capital Spending – Project Additions to Net Working Capital
- 39. 5-39 Depreciation Depreciation is a non-cash charge, but has cash flow consequences because it affects the tax bill To estimate depreciation expense: Calculate depreciable basis. Ignore economic life and future market value (salvage value). Use tax accounting rules for depreciation. • Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) • Straight line • Half-year convention Book value versus market value
- 40. 5-40 Modified ACRS Property Classes Class Examples Equipment used in 3-year research 5-year Autos, computers Most industrial 7-year equipment
- 41. 5-41 Modified ACRS Depreciation Allowances Year 3-year 5-year 7-year 1 33.33% 20% 14.29% 2 44.44% 32% 24.49% 3 14.82% 19.2% 17.49% 4 7.41% 11.52% 12.49% 5 11.52% 8.93% 6 5.76% 8.93% 7 8.93% 8 4.45%
- 42. 5-42 Straight Line vs. MACRS Depreciation The Union Company purchased a new computer for $30,000. The computer is treated as a 5-year property under MACRS and is expected to have a salvage value of zero in six years. What are the yearly depreciation deductions using Modified ACRS depreciation? Straight line depreciation?
- 43. 5-43 Straight Line vs. MACRS Depreciation Year MACRS Percentage MACRS Straight-line Depreciation Depreciation 1 20.00% $6000 $3000 2 32.00% $9600 $6000 3 19.20% $5760 $6000 4 11.52% $3456 $6000 5 11.52% $3456 $6000 6 5.76% $1728 $3000
- 44. 5-44 Additions to Net Working Capital Given NWC at the beginning of the project (date 0), we can calculate future NWC in two ways NWC will grow at a rate of X% per period (e.g 3%) NWC(year 2) = NWC(year1)*1.03 NWC will equal Y% of sales each period (e.g. 15%) NWC(year 2) = 0.15*Sales(year 2) All NWC is recovered at the end of the project. Inventories are run down Unpaid bills are paid. Bring NWC account to zero.
- 45. 5-45 Recovering NWC at the end of the project Year NWC Additions to NWC 0 $500,000 -$500,000 1 $600,000 -$100,000 2 $800,000 -$200,000 Recovery in year 2 +$800,000=$600,000 Year NWC Additions to NWC 0 $500,000 -$500,000 1 $700,000 -$200,000 2 $600,000 $100,000 Recovery in year 2 $600,000
- 46. 5-46 Ways to Capital Budgeting Problems Item by item Discounting Whole Project Discounting Calculate project cash flows from pro forma financials Operating Cash Flows Net Capital Spending Additions to NWC
- 47. 5-47 Evaluating equipment with different economic lives Assumptions initial cost versus maintenance perpetuity Equivalent Annual Costs - present value of project’s costs calculated on an annual basis annuity
- 48. 5-48 Evaluating equipment with different economic lives Machine A Machine B Costs $100 $140 Annual Operating $10 $8 Costs Replace Every 2 years Every 3 years
- 49. 5-49 Evaluating equipment with different economic lives The equivalent annual cost (EAC) is the present value of a project's costs calculated on an annual basis. EAC 1 PV(Costs) = × 1 - t r (1 + r) PV(Costs) = EAC × ( Annuity factor )
Editor's Notes
- #3: Roles of managers: Identify and invest in products and business acquisitions that will maximize the current market value of equity. Learn to identify which products will succeed and which will fail. Managers need objective criteria to evaluate decisions
- #4: Investment is worth undertaking if it creates value for its owners, I.e. it is worth more than it costs. Finding the market value of the investment Use discounted cash flow valuation (calculate present values). Compute the present values of future cash flows Net Present Value Rule (NPV): An investment should be accepted if the net present value is positive and rejected if the net present value is negative. Positive NPV projects create shareholder value. NPV Rule is the best decision rule because it leads to decisions that max. current value of investors’ claims on the firm’s cash flows and investor welfare.
- #7: Two comments: 1) Process of discounting is not that important. Coming up with the appropriate discount rate and cash flows is the key. 2) NPV is an estimate.
- #8: Payback - time it takes to recover initial investment
- #9: Payback = 2 years + 180/225 = 2.8 years = 2 years 10 months Example: Calculating the payback period: The projected cash flows from a proposed investment are listed below. The initial cost is $500. What is the payback period for this investment? Payback = 2 years + 200/500 = 2.4 years = 2 years 5 months
- #10: Payback (Long) = 2.5 years Payback (short) = 1.5 years NPV(Long ) = $8.87 NPV(short) = -13.89
- #11: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Payback Rule Advantages Easy to Understand Biased toward liquidity Allows for quick evaluation of managers Adjusts for uncertainty of later cash flows (by ignoring them altogether) Disadvantages Ignores the time value of money Ignores cash flow beyond the payback period Biased against long-term projects Subjective decision rule
- #14: Involves discounting as in the NPV rule It does not consider the risk differences between investments. Yet, we can discount with a higher interest rate for a riskier project. How do you come up with the right discounted payback period cut-off? Arbitrary number. Advantages If a project ever pays back on a discounted basis, then it must have a positive NPV. Biased toward liquidity Easy to understand Disadvantages May reject positive NPV projects Arbitrary discounted payback period Biased against long-term projects
- #23: Example: If you own an empty lot in Oakland, you can either build an apartment building or a bar, but not both.
- #32: sunk costs - a cost that has already occurred (1)should be ignored (2)example: test market expenses opportunity cost - cost of the best foregone alternative highest return that could be earned if project is not taken - what is firm giving up? (1)Example: education; opportunity cost is lost wages side effects (1)erosion - cash flow transferred to new project from customers and sales of other products of the firm (cannibalization) (2)Example: Nike shoes, Air Jordans working capital - difference between current assets and current liabilities (1) represents cash outflow, since cash generated elsewhere in firm is tied up in project. New product generally requires add’l inventory and leads to increased accts receivable. Increase in payables and accruals will offset some of this, but NWC will increase during life of project (2) often 100% is recovered at end of project financing costs - separate investment from financing decision. Only interested I CFs from assets. Will show later that discount rate incorporates any financing costs.
- #35: Nike - Michael Jordan and Kevin Garnett Fila - Grant Hill and Allen Iverson
- #39: OCF = EBIT + depreciation - taxes
- #40: Depreciable basis - cost of asset plus an shipping or installation charges. This is the amount that is depreciated. Use tax accounting rules for depreciation since we are interested in its effect on taxes. 3 - 10 year property can be depreciated using SL or accelerated methods. Since accelerated depreciation results in lower tax bill and higher CF, most firms use this. Half-year convention - assumes asset is placed in service during middle of year, and ends in middle of last year. Result is that 3 year assets are depreciated over 4 tax years Book vs. Market - when assets is sold, pay taxes on difference between market value and book value CF(salvage) = market value - (market - book)*tax rate
- #41: Under MACRS, all assets are assigned to a particular class, which establishes their life for tax purposes
- #42: Based on double-declining balance
- #47: Item by item discounting Separately forecast revenues, costs and depreciation and discount each item. Can use different discount rates Whole project discounting Determine project cash flows from financial statements a.Operating Cash Flow b.Net Capital Spending i.We will only buy equipment at date 0. ii.We will only sell equipment at the end of the project. If, at the end of the project, we sell the equipment and the market value is greater than the book value, we record the after-tax cash flow from the sale. c.Additions to NWC i.We recover NWC at the end of the project.
- #48: Assumptions deciding between 2 pieces of equipment. One costs more initially, but has lower maintenance costs and will last longer than the other When the equipment wears out, we replace it, so we are basically buying the equipment in perpetuity Equivalent annual cost - present value of projects costs calculated on an annual basis What annuity amount paid over the life of the equipment would have a PV equal to the PV of the equipment’s costs?
- #49: Example: A firm is considering which of two stamping machines to buy. Machine A costs $100 to buy and $10 per year to operate. It wears out and must be replaced every two years. Machine B costs $140 to buy and $8 per year to operate. It lasts for 3 years and then must be replaced. Ignoring taxes, which machine should the firm buy if the appropriate discount rate is 10%? Note that all numbers are costs, so we want the cheapest alternative What is the present value of the cost of Machine A? PV(A) = -100 + [-10/1.1] + [-10/1.1 2 ] = -117.36 PV(B) = -140 + [-8/1.1] + [-8/1.1 2 ] + [-8/1.1 3 ]= -159.89 Can’t compare because of different lives
- #50: What annuity amount over 2 (3) years has a present value of -117.36 (-159.89)? What is the EAC for Machine A? Machine B? -117.36 = [EAC / r] [1 - 1/(1 + r) t ] -117.36 = EAC / 0.10 [1 - 1/1.1 2 ] EAC(A) = -67.62 EAC(B) = -64.29