![Linked to the myth of flooding, he accompanied SHOU, taking the form of a monkey, to be better able to catch the runaway Tefn out, who had to return to
Heliopolis to rejoin his father Re and bring the flood waters which the country so much needed.
6. The god HERYSHEF of Heracleopolis (20th district of Middle Egypt)
This name means "he who is on the lake".Presented as a man with the head of a ram, he wore the 2 crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. These were the
symbols of his royal power which he exercised mainly during the time of the Middle Kingdom when his city was chosen as the capital of the Kingdom.
He was considered to be a local creation god and (with the god Min of Coptos), and brought fertility and reproduction.
7. The god MONTOU of Ermant near Thebes (4th district of Egypt)
Usually represented a man with a falcon’s head (with the sun on his forehead) he was the god of war. He was a local creation god and his cult continued until
the period of the Old Kingdom, when he was gradually replaced by AMON : the invisible, omnipresent god.
8. The goddess METHYER or Mehytouret of Esna (3rd district of Upper Egypt)
This ancient goddess was represented as a primeval cow floating on the waters of the Noun, symbolizing life leaving the waters. Like the goddess Neith, who
succeeded her, she also gave birth to the sun. She protected the sun by placing it between her horns, which were curved into the shape of a lyre.
9. The goddess NEKBET of ElkabouNekheb (3rd district of Upper Egypt)
Just like the goddess Neith, the creation goddess of Elkab created the world using 7 words or 7 arrows. She was a white vulture who extended her wings to
protect the pharaoh. Sometimes she was represented as perched on a nest held up by large flowers. She held in her claws the Ouas, the sceptre of the gods.
10. The god KHNOUM of Elephantine (1st district of Upper Egypt)
This ancient god was presented as a man (with the head of a ram) seated before a potter’s wheel. He was making two small human beings from the clay with
his hands! His companions were sometimes the goddess SATIS, (wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt with 2 antelope horns), and sometimes the gazelle
goddess ANOUKIS, whose cult was supplanted by that of NEPHTYS, (the sister of Osiris and SET).
SATIS was believed to be the goddess of fertility and love. She was thought to be able to purify (with the help of her Uraeus) the bodies of the first pharaohs as
they reached the entrance to the kingdom of the dead. Later, (as the Greek goddess Diana), SATIS became the goddess of hunting.
Sohrab and Rustum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sohrab and Rustum: An Episode is a narrative poem with strong tragic themes first published in 1853 by Matthew Arnold.[1] The poem retells a famous
episode from Ferdowsi's Persian epic Shahnameh relating how the great warrior Rustum unknowingly slew his long-lost son Sohrab in single combat. Arnold,
who was unable to read the original, relied on summaries of the story in John Malcolm'sHistory of Persia and Sainte-Beuve's review of a French prose
translation of Ferdowsi.[2] In Sohrab and Rustum, Arnold attempted to imitate the "grandeur and rapidity" of Homer's style which he was to discuss in his
lectures On Translating Homer (1861).[3] The poem consists of 892 lines of blank verse.
[edit]Synopsis
The armies of the Persians and the Tartars have met on a plain by the River Oxus. The young warrior Sohrab, who is fighting for the Tartars, asks the Tartar
general Peran-Wisa to delay the battle so he can challenge the Persian lords to single combat. He hopes that the fame he will win from this feat will reach the
ears of his long-lost father Rustum ("I seek one man, one man, and one alone – /Rustum, my father..."). Peran-Wisa is reluctant to let Sohrab risk his life in
such a way and tells him he would be better to seek Rustum far away in Seistan, where the old warrior is living in retirement with his father Zal. Nevertheless,
he reluctantly agrees to Sohrab's request and challenges the Persians to choose a champion to fight with the young man. The Persians are at a loss whom to
send, but Gudurz learns that Rustum has arrived in the camp the night before and goes to Rustum's tent to try to persuade him to take up the challenge.
Rustum at first refuses, claiming he is too old and battle-weary and feels unappreciated by the young Persian king Kai Khosroo. Unaware of the young man's
true identity, he says he wishes he had a son like Sohrab. Gudurz eventually persuades Rustum to fight but Rustum only agrees on condition that he meets
Sohrab incognito, wearing plain armour ("Let not men say of Rustum, he was match'd / In single fight with any mortal man.")](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-2-320.jpg)
![Sohrab and Rustum face each other between the two armies. Rustum is moved to pity at the sight of the youth and offers to take him back to Seistan to live as
his son if he will give up the fight. Sohrab has an intuition that the man is his father and asks him if he is indeed Rustum. Rustum fears that this is simply a
trick so the lad can boast of having challenged the great warrior and refuses to reveal his identity. The combat begins.
Rustum misses Sohrab with his club, giving his opponent the opportunity to spear him. Instead, Sohrab offers Rustum a truce. Rustum angrily refuses, calling
Sohrab a "girl", and the fight continues with ever greater intensity. Finally, as he is about to deliver a mighty blow, Rustum shouts out the battle cry
"Rustum!" Hearing the name so unexpectedly confuses Sohrab and he drops his guard, allowing Rustum to deal him a mortal wound. As Sohrab lies dying,
he proudly declares his ancestral lineage, promising that his own father – Rustum – will somehow hear of his demise and revenge him.
Admiring the lad's spirit – but frankly disbelieving his words – the victorious Rustum demands certain proofs to establish Sohrab's claim. Sohrab readily
complies – finally revealing a heraldic emblem tattooed upon his upper arm by his mother when still a child. Rustum – recognising his own heraldry – and
convinced too late of the truth of Sohrab's words – drops his arms and tears his hair, wailing in grief and shame. Holding his only son – whom he had never
before met, and whom he has now unwittingly slain – Rustum disdains any further part in the warfare, and the opposing armies withdraw in peace.
Psalm 23
A psalm of David.
1
The LORD is my shepherd, I lack nothing.
2
He makes me lie down in green pastures,
he leads me beside quiet waters,
3
he refreshes my soul.
He guides me along the right paths
for his name’s sake.
4
Even though I walk
through the darkest valley,[a]
I will fear no evil,
for you are with me;
your rod and your staff,
they comfort me.
5
You prepare a table before me
in the presence of my enemies.
You anoint my head with oil;
my cup overflows.
6
Surely your goodness and love will follow me
all the days of my life,
and I will dwell in the house of the LORD
forever.
The Book of Ruth (1988) is a novel by Jane Hamilton. It won the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award for a best first novel in 1988 and was the Oprah's Book
Clubselection for November 1996.
[edit]Plot summary
An awkward midwest girl, Ruth, is growing up the small town of Honey Creek, Illinois. All of her childhood, and most of her adult life, is spent wondering
what would happen if she could get away. Her father, Elmer, left her family when she was ten, which left her mother, May, very bitter. May is extremely
unhappy with an disappointed in Ruth because she is nothing like her shining brother, Matt. Matt is a mathematical genius with a scholarship to MIT, while
Ruth is considered remedial. Their mother May is crushed when Matt moves away to Boston after graduation and she is left with Ruth, who takes a job with
her at the local dry cleaner shop.
Ruth and May make two friends during this short time period: Deedee and her daughter Daisy (a fast girl with a loose reputation.) One hot night at the local
lake, Ruth meets Daisy's friend, Ruby Dahl, a local male ne'er do well. Ruby and Daisy met through a court mandated course for drivers convicted of a DUI.
One of many infractions in Ruby's history of petty crime. When Ruby later takes Ruth out on a date, he tricks her into losing her virginity to him. But Ruth
continues to see him, believing his early declaration of love. After several dates they decide to get married.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-3-320.jpg)
![Ruby has no guests at the wedding, as his mother has dementia and died from pneumonia shortly after moving to Florida with Ruby's father, and Ruby's
father has no respect for his son. It is revealed at this time that Ruby was a 'normal' baby until his mother, while drunk, falls asleep in the bathtub with Ruby
where he almost drowned. Thus explaining the common assumption that he is slow witted.
Because Ruby doesn't have a job, after the marriage, he moves in with Ruth and her mother. May and Ruby do not get along and Ruth becomes very agitated
because she had envisioned marriage as the end to her troubles and wants peace within the house. She discovers that she is pregnant and May becomes a
warmer mother - advising Ruth to relax and coaching her on child rearing. Even May and Ruby get along much better during her pregnancy. After the birth
of Ruth's son, Justin, May and Ruby appear to grow closer - much to Ruth's dismay.
Over the years, Ruth becomes increasingly discontent, ultimately regretting her marriage to Ruby, who has descended into alcoholism and drug abuse,
frequenting pornography theatres and demanding sex from Ruth. During the holiday season, Ruth discovers she is pregnant for the second time. The family
tensions come to a head when, now toddler, Justin wants some Christmas baked goods kept in the freezer and May and Ruth refuse him, with the excuse of
not wanting his teeth to be rotten like Ruby's. Ruby becomes dark and declares that he is the man of the house, telling Justi n to get the sweets, so they can
share them. May gets upset and Ruby attacks her, cornering her in the basement and eventually beating and strangling her to death. He turns on Ruth, and
breaks her hands, and beats her. He stops short of killing her when Justin tells him to stop.
After escaping to a neighbors house, Ruth is rescued by police and Ruby arrested. Ruth is sent to a special hospital for pregnant women with special needs to
recover and give birth. Eventually she and her son Justin are taken in by Ruth's Aunt Sid. Justin has a hard time being with his mother and frequently has
nightmares about the murder. It is revealed that Ruby was ultimately diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and committed to a mental hospital for the
crime.
The book ends with Ruth pining over her lost life, and how she has to move forward with her sons.
Book of the Dead
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Book of the Dead (disambiguation).
It is detail scene, from the Papyrus of Hunefer (ca. 1275 B.C.), shows the scribe Hunefer's heart being weighed on the scale of Maat against the feather of
truth, by the jackal-headed Anubis. The Ibis-headed Thoth, scribe of the gods, records the result. If his heart is lighter than the feather, Hunefer is allowed to
pass into the afterlife. If not, he is eaten by the waiting chimeric devouring creature Ammitcomposed of the deadly crocodile, lion, and hippopotamus.
Vignettes such as these were a common illustration in Egyptian books of the dead.
The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE.[1] The
original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated rwnwprt m hrw[2] is translated as "Book of Coming Forth by Day". [3] Another translation would be "Book
of emerging forth into the Light". The text consists of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld,
and into the afterlife.
The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, which were painted onto objects,
not papyrus. Some of the spells included were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in
Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which made up the Book continued to be
inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi, as had always been the spells from which they originated. The Book of the Dead was placed in the coffin or burial
chamber of the deceased.
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead. The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in
their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead, perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in
their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often
illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-4-320.jpg)
![[edit]Development
Part of the Pyramid Texts, a precursor of the Book of the Dead, inscribed on the tomb of Teti
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom. The first funerary texts were
the Pyramid Texts, first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th dynasty, around 2400 BCE.[4] These texts were written on the walls of the burial
chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the Pharaoh (and, from the 6th dynasty, the Queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an
unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them
causing any harm to the dead pharaoh.[5] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead King take his place amongst the gods, in particular to
reunite him with his divine father Ra; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the
Dead.[5] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and
other high-ranking officials.
In the Middle Kingdom, a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts. The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included
illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb
walls or on papyri.[5] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in
the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [6]
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence
of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep, of the 13th dynasty, where the new spells were included amongst older
texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell
30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure, many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological
record.[7]
By the 19th dynasty, the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this
stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus.[8]
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the 'Weighing of the Heart', is first known from the reign
of Hatshepsut and Tuthmose III, c.1475 BCE. From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated
with vignettes. During the 19th dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [9]
In the Third Intermediate Period, the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were
a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials
used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat.[10]
During the 25th and 26th dynasties, the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were consistently ordered and numbered for the first
time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saiterecension', after the Saite (26th) dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period, the Book of the
Dead remained based on the Saiterecension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including
the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity. The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn
from it were still in use in Roman times.[11]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-5-320.jpg)
![[edit]Spells
See also: List of Book of the Dead spells
The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette at the top illustrates, from left to right, the god Heh as a representation of the Sea; a gateway to
the realm of Osiris; the Eye of Horus; the celestial cow Mehet-Weret; and a human head rising from a coffin, guarded by the four Sons of Horus. [12]
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word ro, which can mean
mouth, speech, a chapter of a book, spell, utterance, or incantation. This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and
magical power.[13] In the context of the Book of the Dead, it is typically translated as either "chapter" or "spell". In this article, the word "spell" is used.
At present, some 192 spells are known,[14] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the
deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17, an obscure and lengthy description of the
god Atum.[15] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control
over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces, or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles.
Famously, two spells also deal with the judgement of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.
Such spells as 26-30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126 relate to the heart, and were inscribed on scarabs. [16]
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic
was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [17] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [18] The
concept of magic (heka) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [19] there is a
sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing.[18] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to
have been invented by the god Thoth, and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [19] This was even true
when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present.[20] The
Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many
of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power of them. [21]
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for
magical amulets, which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on
amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [17] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the
tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [22] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of
saliva.[17]
[edit]Organization
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of
the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [23] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between
texts,[24] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [25] It is only from the Saite period (26th dynasty) onwards that there is a defined
order.[26]
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections:
Chapters 1–16 The deceased enters the tomb, descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-6-320.jpg)
![Chapters 17–63 Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places, the deceased are made to live again so that they may arise, reborn, with the
morning sun.
Chapters 64–129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun ark as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to
appear before Osiris.
Chapters 130–189 Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on
protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [25]
[edit]Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife
A depiction of the ba, an element of the soul
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information
about Egyptian beliefs in this area.
[edit]Preservation
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu, or modes of existence.[27] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of
being.Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into a sah, an idealised form with divine aspects;[28] the Book of the Dead contained
spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [29]The heart, which was regarded as
the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was
common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka, or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required
sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied.[30] The
name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout
the Book, and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [31] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba,
depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [32]Finally, the shut, or
shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [33] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated,
then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh. An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods.[34]
[edit]Afterlife
The nature of the afterlife which the dead person enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In
the Book of the Dead, the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris, who was confined to the subterranean Duat. There are also spells to enable
the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight offApep.[35] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the
Dead also depicts the dead living on in the 'Field of Reeds', a paradisaical likeness of the real world. [36] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful
version of the Egypt of the living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead, a group
of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For
this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti, or later ushebti. These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the
Dead, requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [37] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place
where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris - [Name]" in
the Book of the Dead.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-7-320.jpg)
![Two 'gate spells'. On the top register, Ani and his wife face the 'seven gates of the House of Osiris'. Below, they encounter ten of the 21 'mysterious portals of
the House of Osiris in the Field of Reeds'. All are guarded by unpleasant protectors. [38]
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds
guarded by supernatural creatures.[39] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human
figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in
blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead; once pacified they
posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [40] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed
the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; theBook of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions.[41] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also
threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [42]
[edit]Judgement
The Weighing of the Heart ritual, shown in the Book of the Dead of Sesostris
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the "Weighing of the Heart" ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased
was led by the godAnubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins,[43] reciting a text
known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat, who embodied truth and
justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [44] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would
bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good
life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru, meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice".[45] If the
heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit, the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an
early and unpleasant end.[46]
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the only parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgement of the
dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the
Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [47] While the Ten Commandments of Judaeo-Christian ethics are rules of conduct
laid down by divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [48] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far
the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of
Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the
deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [46] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no
hope for a successful afterlife",[47] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and
that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral
behaviour.[49]
[edit]Producing a Book of the Dead
Part of the Book of the Dead of Pinedjem II. The text is hieratic, except for hieroglyphics in the vignette. The use of red pigment, and the joins between
papyrus sheets, are also visible
A close-up of the Papyrus of Ani, showing the cursive hieroglyphs of the text](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-8-320.jpg)
![A Book of the Dead papyrus was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral, or by the relatives of
someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as onedeben of silver,[50] perhaps half the annual
pay of a labourer.[51] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creatingpalimpsests. In one case,
a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus.[52]
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the
tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the
history of the Book of the Dead, there are roughly 10 copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, 2/3
were for women; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic paypri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods.[53]
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40m long while some are as short as 1m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined
together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than
those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The
words peretemheru, or 'coming forth by day' sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [52]
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later.[54] For instance, in
the Papyrus of Ani, the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of
text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely.[51]
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs, most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left.
The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines - a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or
monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [55]
From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic
manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus
sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic.
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in
black, with red used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names
of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep.[56] The black ink used was based oncarbon, and the red ink on ochre, in both cases mixed with water.[57]
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf.
Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [58]
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together.[52] It is usually possible to
identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one.[59]The text and illustrations were produced
by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [60]
[edit]Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation
Karl Richard Lepsius, first translator of a complete Book of the Dead manuscript
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages, well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was
evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread misapprehension that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of
a Bible or Qu'ran.[61]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-9-320.jpg)
![The first modern facsimile of a Book of the Dead was produced in 1805 and included in theDescription de l'Égypte produced by the staff of Napoleon's
expedition to Egypt. In 1822,Jean Francois Champollion began to translate hieroglyphic text; he examined some of theBook of the Dead papyri and identified
them as a funerary ritual.[62]
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaicera and coined the name "Book of The Dead". He also introduced
the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells.[14] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead,
drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by EdouardNaville, starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume
work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In
1876,Samuel Birch of the British Museum published a photographic copy of the papyrus of Nebseny.[63]
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge, Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English
translations, though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date.[64] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen
(1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972).[65] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead, more spells have been identified, and the total now stands
at 192.[14]
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were
copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida. In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made
lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined
with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing aBook of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source
material in museums around the world remains unpublished.[66]
The Story of the Ramayana Briefly
So, just to let you know what you are in for, here is a very brief summary of the Ramayana, the adventures of lord Rama. Rama is the son of King Daśaratha,
but he is also an incarnation of the god Vishnu, born in human form to do battle with the demon lord Ravana. Ravana had obtained divine protection against
other demons, and even against the gods - but because he scorned the world of animals and men, he had not asked for protection from them. Therefore,
Vishnu incarnated as a human being in order to put a stop to Ravana. King Daśaratha has three other sons besides Rama. There is Lakshmana, who is
devoted to Rama. There is also Bharata, the son of Daśaratha's pretty young wife Kaikeyi, and finally there is Śatrughna, who is as devoted to Bharata as
Lakshmana is to Rama.
When Daśaratha grows old, he decides to name Rama as his successor. Queen Kaikeyi, however, is outraged. She manages to compel Daśaratha to name their
son Bharata as his successor instead, and to send Rama into exile in the forest. Rama agrees to go into exile, and he is accompanied by his wife Sita and his
brother Lakshmana. When their exile is nearly over, Sita is abducted by the evil Ravana who carries her off to Lanka city (on the island of Sri Lanka). Rama
and Lakshmana follow in pursuit, and they are aided by the monkey lord, Hanuman, who is perfectly devoted to Rama.
After many difficulties and dangers, Rama finally confronts Ravana and defeats him in battle. What happens after that is a ma tter of some dispute in the
different versions of the Ramayana. Did Rama accept Sita back into his household? Or did he send her away because she had been in the possession of
another male? You will see different versions of the ending in the two different editions of the Ramayana that you will read for this class.
A Digression About Time
In historical terms, the events of the Ramayana are supposed to precede the events of the Mahabharata. The time periods of Hindu mythology are called
"yugas," and the world as we know it goes through a cycle of four yugas. Sometimes these four yugas are compared to a cow standing on four legs. In the
"Best Age," the Krita Yuga, the cow is standing on all four legs. In the next age, the Treta Yuga, or "Age of Three," the cow is standing on only three legs and
is slightly teetering, and so the world is slightly corrupted. In the next age, the "Age of Two," or Dwapara Yuga, there is only half as much righteousness in
the world as there used to be, like a cow standing on only two legs. This is followed by the worst age, the Kali Yuga, where there is only one-fourth of the
world's original righteousness remaining. As a result, the world of the Kali Yuga has become extremely corrupt and utterly unstable. The cow is standing on
just one leg!
The events of the Ramayana take place in the Treta Yuga, when the world is only somewhat corrupted. The events of the Mahabharata take place much later,
at the end of the Dwapara Yuga, the "Age of Two," when the world is far more grim and corrupt than in Rama's times. The violent and tragic events at the
end of the Mahabharata mark the end of the Dwapara Yuga and the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the worst age of the world.
We are living in the Kali Yuga, in case you were wondering...
The Story of the Mahabharata Briefly](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lit3-130211031540-phpapp02/85/Lit3-10-320.jpg)
Lit3
- 1. The Ten Great Egyptian Versions of Creation The creation and origin of the world (at least of our planet) always intrigued the primitive tribes of all continents. In Egypt , we found belief in ten creation gods, who were supposed to have dragged the world out of the primordial chaos. Besides all these beliefs and primitive myths there may have been many others which were less known and existed in the provinces in predynastic period. 1. The god "ATOUM of Heliopolis" and Pithom (The Nile Delta) At Heliopolis, (Leontopolis of the 13th district), ATOUM, whose name means "He who is and is not" - was a god who floated in the waters of the Noun. The texts of the Pyramids show him as a pharaoh wearing the 2 crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. Then, despite the primitive idea that he exclusively created the world, the following eras gave him two female partners, the goddesses TEMET (one of the 4 faces of Hathor) and IOUASSAS, who gave birth to the first couple SHOU and TEFNOUT. In ancient times, at Pithom, (the 8th district ), Atoum was considered to be "the great Lord of the Universe." The priests later associated him with Re, the source of life and light, who could predict the number of years each would pharaohs reign, as the fruit of the tree of eternity (called ISHED), where all parted lovers would find each other again one day. The Descendants of the Supreme God : ATOUM-RE : 2. The Goddess NEITH of Sais (5th district of the Nile) NEITH had the form of a woman wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. She was the precursor of Diane. In her hands she held a bow and arrows. Like ATOUM, she was a hermit goddess who created the world using 7 words or 7 arrows. Replacing the Cow-Goddesses HESAT and METHYER she created the sun along with Sobek, the master of the marshes. Finally she was associated withDOUAMOUTEF, one of the four sons of Horus. She watched over the funeral vase containing the entrails of the dead. 3. The God PTAH of MEMPHIS (the district on the border of the 2 kingdoms) He was thought to be the god who initiated life; he had conceived the world in his heart before creating it in fact. In the Old Kingdom, he borrowed many virtues from the preceding god ATOUM without completely replacing him. He is presented as a man wrapped in a case, with a skull-cap on his head. In his hands he held the Egyptian cross symbol, the ANKH- the symbol of eternity, and also the sceptreOuas of the gods. Already worshipped at Dei el-Medineh, near the valley of the queens. His cult probably started before the building of Memphis, where be became the principal god. Beginning with the 3rd Dynasty, PTAH was at first associated with Sokar, (the ancient mummified falcon god), then with Osiris, to blend together the three divine acts: of creation, metamorphosis and rebirth. 4. OGDOADE of Hermopolis (15th district of Middle Egypt) This was a strange compendium of gods: 2 couples of serpents and 2 couples of frogs who had left the waters of the Noun. This god personified the elements of creation: infinite liquid, primordial obscurity, and the fertility from the floods, which fertilized the soil and brought along with it reptilians and amphibians from the high Plateau. The clergy of Thebes could only surmise that humanity came from snakes (who had grown feet!) The hidden god Amon of Thebes replaced the Ogdoade. 5. The God THOT of Hermopolis (15th district of Middle Egypt) This curious god, with the head of a pointed beaked Ibis, held the sun on his head, succeeded the Ogdoade at Hermopolis. Considered in ancient times to be thegreat god of wisdom and science, he was the master of words and writing. He created the world by the WORD and became beside Osiris the judge of souls. In Memphis in the Old Kingdom he was thought of as the tongue of PTAH, and becoming the "guardian of truth".
- 2. Linked to the myth of flooding, he accompanied SHOU, taking the form of a monkey, to be better able to catch the runaway Tefn out, who had to return to Heliopolis to rejoin his father Re and bring the flood waters which the country so much needed. 6. The god HERYSHEF of Heracleopolis (20th district of Middle Egypt) This name means "he who is on the lake".Presented as a man with the head of a ram, he wore the 2 crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. These were the symbols of his royal power which he exercised mainly during the time of the Middle Kingdom when his city was chosen as the capital of the Kingdom. He was considered to be a local creation god and (with the god Min of Coptos), and brought fertility and reproduction. 7. The god MONTOU of Ermant near Thebes (4th district of Egypt) Usually represented a man with a falcon’s head (with the sun on his forehead) he was the god of war. He was a local creation god and his cult continued until the period of the Old Kingdom, when he was gradually replaced by AMON : the invisible, omnipresent god. 8. The goddess METHYER or Mehytouret of Esna (3rd district of Upper Egypt) This ancient goddess was represented as a primeval cow floating on the waters of the Noun, symbolizing life leaving the waters. Like the goddess Neith, who succeeded her, she also gave birth to the sun. She protected the sun by placing it between her horns, which were curved into the shape of a lyre. 9. The goddess NEKBET of ElkabouNekheb (3rd district of Upper Egypt) Just like the goddess Neith, the creation goddess of Elkab created the world using 7 words or 7 arrows. She was a white vulture who extended her wings to protect the pharaoh. Sometimes she was represented as perched on a nest held up by large flowers. She held in her claws the Ouas, the sceptre of the gods. 10. The god KHNOUM of Elephantine (1st district of Upper Egypt) This ancient god was presented as a man (with the head of a ram) seated before a potter’s wheel. He was making two small human beings from the clay with his hands! His companions were sometimes the goddess SATIS, (wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt with 2 antelope horns), and sometimes the gazelle goddess ANOUKIS, whose cult was supplanted by that of NEPHTYS, (the sister of Osiris and SET). SATIS was believed to be the goddess of fertility and love. She was thought to be able to purify (with the help of her Uraeus) the bodies of the first pharaohs as they reached the entrance to the kingdom of the dead. Later, (as the Greek goddess Diana), SATIS became the goddess of hunting. Sohrab and Rustum From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sohrab and Rustum: An Episode is a narrative poem with strong tragic themes first published in 1853 by Matthew Arnold.[1] The poem retells a famous episode from Ferdowsi's Persian epic Shahnameh relating how the great warrior Rustum unknowingly slew his long-lost son Sohrab in single combat. Arnold, who was unable to read the original, relied on summaries of the story in John Malcolm'sHistory of Persia and Sainte-Beuve's review of a French prose translation of Ferdowsi.[2] In Sohrab and Rustum, Arnold attempted to imitate the "grandeur and rapidity" of Homer's style which he was to discuss in his lectures On Translating Homer (1861).[3] The poem consists of 892 lines of blank verse. [edit]Synopsis The armies of the Persians and the Tartars have met on a plain by the River Oxus. The young warrior Sohrab, who is fighting for the Tartars, asks the Tartar general Peran-Wisa to delay the battle so he can challenge the Persian lords to single combat. He hopes that the fame he will win from this feat will reach the ears of his long-lost father Rustum ("I seek one man, one man, and one alone – /Rustum, my father..."). Peran-Wisa is reluctant to let Sohrab risk his life in such a way and tells him he would be better to seek Rustum far away in Seistan, where the old warrior is living in retirement with his father Zal. Nevertheless, he reluctantly agrees to Sohrab's request and challenges the Persians to choose a champion to fight with the young man. The Persians are at a loss whom to send, but Gudurz learns that Rustum has arrived in the camp the night before and goes to Rustum's tent to try to persuade him to take up the challenge. Rustum at first refuses, claiming he is too old and battle-weary and feels unappreciated by the young Persian king Kai Khosroo. Unaware of the young man's true identity, he says he wishes he had a son like Sohrab. Gudurz eventually persuades Rustum to fight but Rustum only agrees on condition that he meets Sohrab incognito, wearing plain armour ("Let not men say of Rustum, he was match'd / In single fight with any mortal man.")
- 3. Sohrab and Rustum face each other between the two armies. Rustum is moved to pity at the sight of the youth and offers to take him back to Seistan to live as his son if he will give up the fight. Sohrab has an intuition that the man is his father and asks him if he is indeed Rustum. Rustum fears that this is simply a trick so the lad can boast of having challenged the great warrior and refuses to reveal his identity. The combat begins. Rustum misses Sohrab with his club, giving his opponent the opportunity to spear him. Instead, Sohrab offers Rustum a truce. Rustum angrily refuses, calling Sohrab a "girl", and the fight continues with ever greater intensity. Finally, as he is about to deliver a mighty blow, Rustum shouts out the battle cry "Rustum!" Hearing the name so unexpectedly confuses Sohrab and he drops his guard, allowing Rustum to deal him a mortal wound. As Sohrab lies dying, he proudly declares his ancestral lineage, promising that his own father – Rustum – will somehow hear of his demise and revenge him. Admiring the lad's spirit – but frankly disbelieving his words – the victorious Rustum demands certain proofs to establish Sohrab's claim. Sohrab readily complies – finally revealing a heraldic emblem tattooed upon his upper arm by his mother when still a child. Rustum – recognising his own heraldry – and convinced too late of the truth of Sohrab's words – drops his arms and tears his hair, wailing in grief and shame. Holding his only son – whom he had never before met, and whom he has now unwittingly slain – Rustum disdains any further part in the warfare, and the opposing armies withdraw in peace. Psalm 23 A psalm of David. 1 The LORD is my shepherd, I lack nothing. 2 He makes me lie down in green pastures, he leads me beside quiet waters, 3 he refreshes my soul. He guides me along the right paths for his name’s sake. 4 Even though I walk through the darkest valley,[a] I will fear no evil, for you are with me; your rod and your staff, they comfort me. 5 You prepare a table before me in the presence of my enemies. You anoint my head with oil; my cup overflows. 6 Surely your goodness and love will follow me all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the house of the LORD forever. The Book of Ruth (1988) is a novel by Jane Hamilton. It won the Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award for a best first novel in 1988 and was the Oprah's Book Clubselection for November 1996. [edit]Plot summary An awkward midwest girl, Ruth, is growing up the small town of Honey Creek, Illinois. All of her childhood, and most of her adult life, is spent wondering what would happen if she could get away. Her father, Elmer, left her family when she was ten, which left her mother, May, very bitter. May is extremely unhappy with an disappointed in Ruth because she is nothing like her shining brother, Matt. Matt is a mathematical genius with a scholarship to MIT, while Ruth is considered remedial. Their mother May is crushed when Matt moves away to Boston after graduation and she is left with Ruth, who takes a job with her at the local dry cleaner shop. Ruth and May make two friends during this short time period: Deedee and her daughter Daisy (a fast girl with a loose reputation.) One hot night at the local lake, Ruth meets Daisy's friend, Ruby Dahl, a local male ne'er do well. Ruby and Daisy met through a court mandated course for drivers convicted of a DUI. One of many infractions in Ruby's history of petty crime. When Ruby later takes Ruth out on a date, he tricks her into losing her virginity to him. But Ruth continues to see him, believing his early declaration of love. After several dates they decide to get married.
- 4. Ruby has no guests at the wedding, as his mother has dementia and died from pneumonia shortly after moving to Florida with Ruby's father, and Ruby's father has no respect for his son. It is revealed at this time that Ruby was a 'normal' baby until his mother, while drunk, falls asleep in the bathtub with Ruby where he almost drowned. Thus explaining the common assumption that he is slow witted. Because Ruby doesn't have a job, after the marriage, he moves in with Ruth and her mother. May and Ruby do not get along and Ruth becomes very agitated because she had envisioned marriage as the end to her troubles and wants peace within the house. She discovers that she is pregnant and May becomes a warmer mother - advising Ruth to relax and coaching her on child rearing. Even May and Ruby get along much better during her pregnancy. After the birth of Ruth's son, Justin, May and Ruby appear to grow closer - much to Ruth's dismay. Over the years, Ruth becomes increasingly discontent, ultimately regretting her marriage to Ruby, who has descended into alcoholism and drug abuse, frequenting pornography theatres and demanding sex from Ruth. During the holiday season, Ruth discovers she is pregnant for the second time. The family tensions come to a head when, now toddler, Justin wants some Christmas baked goods kept in the freezer and May and Ruth refuse him, with the excuse of not wanting his teeth to be rotten like Ruby's. Ruby becomes dark and declares that he is the man of the house, telling Justi n to get the sweets, so they can share them. May gets upset and Ruby attacks her, cornering her in the basement and eventually beating and strangling her to death. He turns on Ruth, and breaks her hands, and beats her. He stops short of killing her when Justin tells him to stop. After escaping to a neighbors house, Ruth is rescued by police and Ruby arrested. Ruth is sent to a special hospital for pregnant women with special needs to recover and give birth. Eventually she and her son Justin are taken in by Ruth's Aunt Sid. Justin has a hard time being with his mother and frequently has nightmares about the murder. It is revealed that Ruby was ultimately diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and committed to a mental hospital for the crime. The book ends with Ruth pining over her lost life, and how she has to move forward with her sons. Book of the Dead From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Book of the Dead (disambiguation). It is detail scene, from the Papyrus of Hunefer (ca. 1275 B.C.), shows the scribe Hunefer's heart being weighed on the scale of Maat against the feather of truth, by the jackal-headed Anubis. The Ibis-headed Thoth, scribe of the gods, records the result. If his heart is lighter than the feather, Hunefer is allowed to pass into the afterlife. If not, he is eaten by the waiting chimeric devouring creature Ammitcomposed of the deadly crocodile, lion, and hippopotamus. Vignettes such as these were a common illustration in Egyptian books of the dead. The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE.[1] The original Egyptian name for the text, transliterated rwnwprt m hrw[2] is translated as "Book of Coming Forth by Day". [3] Another translation would be "Book of emerging forth into the Light". The text consists of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, which were painted onto objects, not papyrus. Some of the spells included were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which made up the Book continued to be inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi, as had always been the spells from which they originated. The Book of the Dead was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased. There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead. The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead, perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.
- 5. [edit]Development Part of the Pyramid Texts, a precursor of the Book of the Dead, inscribed on the tomb of Teti The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom. The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts, first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th dynasty, around 2400 BCE.[4] These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the Pharaoh (and, from the 6th dynasty, the Queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh.[5] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead King take his place amongst the gods, in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead.[5] Towards the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege, and were adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials. In the Middle Kingdom, a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts. The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri.[5] The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife". [6] The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BCE. The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep, of the 13th dynasty, where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure, many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record.[7] By the 19th dynasty, the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus.[8] The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the 'Weighing of the Heart', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Tuthmose III, c.1475 BCE. From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes. During the 19th dynasty in particular, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text. [9] In the Third Intermediate Period, the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script, as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for instance the Amduat.[10] During the 25th and 26th dynasties, the Book of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were consistently ordered and numbered for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saiterecension', after the Saite (26th) dynasty. In the Late period and Ptolemaic period, the Book of the Dead remained based on the Saiterecension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity. The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times.[11]
- 6. [edit]Spells See also: List of Book of the Dead spells The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette at the top illustrates, from left to right, the god Heh as a representation of the Sea; a gateway to the realm of Osiris; the Eye of Horus; the celestial cow Mehet-Weret; and a human head rising from a coffin, guarded by the four Sons of Horus. [12] The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word ro, which can mean mouth, speech, a chapter of a book, spell, utterance, or incantation. This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power.[13] In the context of the Book of the Dead, it is typically translated as either "chapter" or "spell". In this article, the word "spell" is used. At present, some 192 spells are known,[14] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with the gods: for instance, Spell 17, an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum.[15] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces, or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells also deal with the judgement of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual. Such spells as 26-30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126 relate to the heart, and were inscribed on scarabs. [16] The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious. Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. [17] Indeed, there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice. [18] The concept of magic (heka) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation; [19] there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing.[18] The magical power of words extended to the written word. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth, and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell. [19] This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present.[20] The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife, giving him power of them. [21] The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets, which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy. [17] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value. [22] A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva.[17] [edit]Organization Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure. [23] In fact, until Paul Barguet's 1967 "pioneering study" of common themes between texts,[24] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all. [25] It is only from the Saite period (26th dynasty) onwards that there is a defined order.[26] The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections: Chapters 1–16 The deceased enters the tomb, descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and speech.
- 7. Chapters 17–63 Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places, the deceased are made to live again so that they may arise, reborn, with the morning sun. Chapters 64–129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun ark as one of the blessed dead. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris. Chapters 130–189 Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places. [25] [edit]Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife A depiction of the ba, an element of the soul The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area. [edit]Preservation One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu, or modes of existence.[27] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these different aspects of being.Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into a sah, an idealised form with divine aspects;[28] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may have been recited during the process of mummification. [29]The heart, which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical heart, it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement. The ka, or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied.[30] The name of the dead person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book, and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name. [31] The ba was a free-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. It was the ba, depicted as a human-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it. [32]Finally, the shut, or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188. [33] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh. An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods.[34] [edit]Afterlife The nature of the afterlife which the dead person enjoyed is difficult to define, because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead, the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris, who was confined to the subterranean Duat. There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and help him fight offApep.[35] As well as joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the 'Field of Reeds', a paradisaical likeness of the real world. [36] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egypt of the living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead, a group of gods, as well as his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is also clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti, or later ushebti. These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead, requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner's duty in the afterlife. [37] It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned as "The Osiris - [Name]" in the Book of the Dead.
- 8. Two 'gate spells'. On the top register, Ani and his wife face the 'seven gates of the House of Osiris'. Below, they encounter ten of the 21 'mysterious portals of the House of Osiris in the Field of Reeds'. All are guarded by unpleasant protectors. [38] The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to pass a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures.[39] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for instance, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the dead person. [40] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; theBook of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions.[41] As well as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles. [42] [edit]Judgement The Weighing of the Heart ritual, shown in the Book of the Dead of Sesostris If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the "Weighing of the Heart" ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led by the godAnubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins,[43] reciting a text known as the "Negative Confession". Then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat, who embodied truth and justice. Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name. [44] At this point, there was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales balanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru, meaning "vindicated" or "true of voice".[45] If the heart was out of balance with Maat, then another fearsome beast called Ammit, the Devourer, stood ready to eat it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and unpleasant end.[46] This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the only parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgement of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Thou shalt not". [47] While the Ten Commandments of Judaeo-Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. [48] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths, it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure. [46] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral existence, there was no hope for a successful afterlife",[47] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased's moral behaviour.[49] [edit]Producing a Book of the Dead Part of the Book of the Dead of Pinedjem II. The text is hieratic, except for hieroglyphics in the vignette. The use of red pigment, and the joins between papyrus sheets, are also visible A close-up of the Papyrus of Ani, showing the cursive hieroglyphs of the text
- 9. A Book of the Dead papyrus was produced to order by scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as onedeben of silver,[50] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer.[51] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as there are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creatingpalimpsests. In one case, a Book of the Dead was written on second-hand papyrus.[52] Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and generally the vignettes included the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead, there are roughly 10 copies belonging to men for every one for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, 2/3 were for women; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic paypri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods.[53] The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40m long while some are as short as 1m. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text within margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peretemheru, or 'coming forth by day' sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin, perhaps acting as a label. [52] Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later.[54] For instance, in the Papyrus of Ani, the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of a column, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely.[51] The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs, most often from left to right, but also sometimes from right to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated by black lines - a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, below, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus. [55] From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic. The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Most of the text was in black, with red used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep.[56] The black ink used was based oncarbon, and the red ink on ochre, in both cases mixed with water.[57] The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some contain lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf. Others contain only line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening. [58] Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together.[52] It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one.[59]The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty. [60] [edit]Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation Karl Richard Lepsius, first translator of a complete Book of the Dead manuscript The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages, well before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread misapprehension that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qu'ran.[61]
- 10. The first modern facsimile of a Book of the Dead was produced in 1805 and included in theDescription de l'Égypte produced by the staff of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. In 1822,Jean Francois Champollion began to translate hieroglyphic text; he examined some of theBook of the Dead papyri and identified them as a funerary ritual.[62] In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaicera and coined the name "Book of The Dead". He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 different spells.[14] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead, drawing on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken by EdouardNaville, starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a three-volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1876,Samuel Birch of the British Museum published a photographic copy of the papyrus of Nebseny.[63] The work of E. A. Wallis Budge, Birch's successor at the British Museum, is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations, though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date.[64] More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972).[65] As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead, more spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192.[14] Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida. In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible. In the present day, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, means that the costs of publishing aBook of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished.[66] The Story of the Ramayana Briefly So, just to let you know what you are in for, here is a very brief summary of the Ramayana, the adventures of lord Rama. Rama is the son of King Daśaratha, but he is also an incarnation of the god Vishnu, born in human form to do battle with the demon lord Ravana. Ravana had obtained divine protection against other demons, and even against the gods - but because he scorned the world of animals and men, he had not asked for protection from them. Therefore, Vishnu incarnated as a human being in order to put a stop to Ravana. King Daśaratha has three other sons besides Rama. There is Lakshmana, who is devoted to Rama. There is also Bharata, the son of Daśaratha's pretty young wife Kaikeyi, and finally there is Śatrughna, who is as devoted to Bharata as Lakshmana is to Rama. When Daśaratha grows old, he decides to name Rama as his successor. Queen Kaikeyi, however, is outraged. She manages to compel Daśaratha to name their son Bharata as his successor instead, and to send Rama into exile in the forest. Rama agrees to go into exile, and he is accompanied by his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana. When their exile is nearly over, Sita is abducted by the evil Ravana who carries her off to Lanka city (on the island of Sri Lanka). Rama and Lakshmana follow in pursuit, and they are aided by the monkey lord, Hanuman, who is perfectly devoted to Rama. After many difficulties and dangers, Rama finally confronts Ravana and defeats him in battle. What happens after that is a ma tter of some dispute in the different versions of the Ramayana. Did Rama accept Sita back into his household? Or did he send her away because she had been in the possession of another male? You will see different versions of the ending in the two different editions of the Ramayana that you will read for this class. A Digression About Time In historical terms, the events of the Ramayana are supposed to precede the events of the Mahabharata. The time periods of Hindu mythology are called "yugas," and the world as we know it goes through a cycle of four yugas. Sometimes these four yugas are compared to a cow standing on four legs. In the "Best Age," the Krita Yuga, the cow is standing on all four legs. In the next age, the Treta Yuga, or "Age of Three," the cow is standing on only three legs and is slightly teetering, and so the world is slightly corrupted. In the next age, the "Age of Two," or Dwapara Yuga, there is only half as much righteousness in the world as there used to be, like a cow standing on only two legs. This is followed by the worst age, the Kali Yuga, where there is only one-fourth of the world's original righteousness remaining. As a result, the world of the Kali Yuga has become extremely corrupt and utterly unstable. The cow is standing on just one leg! The events of the Ramayana take place in the Treta Yuga, when the world is only somewhat corrupted. The events of the Mahabharata take place much later, at the end of the Dwapara Yuga, the "Age of Two," when the world is far more grim and corrupt than in Rama's times. The violent and tragic events at the end of the Mahabharata mark the end of the Dwapara Yuga and the beginning of the Kali Yuga, the worst age of the world. We are living in the Kali Yuga, in case you were wondering... The Story of the Mahabharata Briefly
- 11. In some ways, the entire story of the Mahabharata is an explanation of how our world, the world of the Kali Yuga, came into being, and how things got to be as bad as they are. The Ramayana has its share of suffering and even betrayal, but nothing to match the relentless hatred and vengeance of the Mahabharata. The culmination of the Mahabharata is the Battle of Kurukshetra when two bands of brothers, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, the sons of two brothers and thus cousins to one another, fight each other to death, brutally and cruelly, until the entire race is almost wiped out. The five sons of Pandu, the Pandavas, are the heroes of the story. The eldest is Yudhishthira, the King. Next is Bhima, an enormously strong fighter with equally enormous appetites. After Bhima is Arjuna, the greatest of the warriors, and the companion of Krishna. The last two are twins, Nakula and Sahadeva. These five brothers share one wife, Draupadi (she became the wife of all five of them by accident, as you will learn). The enemies of the Pandavas are the Kauravas, who are the sons of Pandu's brother, Dhritarashtra. Although Dhritarashtra is still alive, he cannot manage to restrain his son Duryodhana, who bitterly resents the achievements of his cousins, the Pandavas. Duryodhana arranges for his maternal uncle to challenge Yudhishthira to a game of dice, and Yudhishthira gambles everything away, even himself. The Pandavas have to go into exile, but when they return they engage the Kauravas in battle. Krishna fights on the side of the Pandavas, and serves as Arjuna's charioteer. The famous "Song of the Lord," or Bhagavad- Gita, is actually a book within the Mahabharata, as the battle of Kurukshetra begins. When Arjuna faces his cousins on the field of battle, he despairs and sinks down, unable to fight. The Bhagavad-Gita contains the words that Krishna spoke to Arjuna at that moment. The Pandavas do win the battle. Duryodhana is killed, and the Kaurava armies are wiped out. But it is hardly a happy ending. Yudhishthira becomes king, but the world is forever changed by the battle's violence. If you are familiar with the Iliad, you might remember how that epic ends with the funeral of the Trojan hero Hector, a moment which is utterly bleak and sad. The same is true for the Mahabharata. There are many truths that are learned in the end, but the victory, such as it is, comes at a terrible price.