logic101aB BY ENRIQUE R. TAPANAN SUMMARY

Holy Infant Seminary
Ballesteros Village Balangasan District
Pagadian City, 7016
I would like to
express my
gratitude to our
Instructor who
taught us well.
Thank you for
sharing your
knowledge. May
God Bless You.
Propaedeutic
Batch 2020
“Don’t limit yourself.
Many people limit
themselves to what
they think they can
do. You can go as
far as your mind
lets you. What you
believe, remember,
you can achieve.” –
Mary Kay Ash

. I would like to express my gratitude to our
instructor because he made the topics easy
to understand and delivered well with jokes
and ridiculous words
32

TABLE OF CONTENT
Introduction
Prelim
I. Language and its function————————-1-2
II. Logic, validity, and truth————————-1-2
III. Acts of Intellect———————————-3
!V. Formation of Ideas——————————4
V. Imagination—————————————5
VI. Properties of Ideas————————–—-5
VII. Tree of Being—————————–——5
VIII. Classification of Ideas————————6-7
IX. Supposition —————————————8
X. Definition——————————————9
Midterm————————————————10
I. Judgment
Elements of Judgment——————————-11
A. Proposition1—————————-11
B. Simple Categorical Proposition——11
C. Properties of Proposition—————12
D. Symbols of Proposition——————13
E. Square of opposition———————13-14
F. Eduction————————————-15
Finals
I. Reasoning————————————————-20
A. Inductive—————————————21
B. Deductive————————————-21
C. Figure of Moods——————–———22-29
Reflection—————————————————-29
Exams—————————————— ————30
30

Introduction
Did you identify the correct from incorrect reasoning? Did
you notice some are many ways on how to cope up reasons? This
booklet will help us to understand what really a logic is. Wondering
what is logic? It uses the mind to get logical reasoning. Logic is about
how to cope up correct thinking and reasoning. We become uncon-
scious of our stands in life. However, this are the lack of awareness,
it needs to awaken the dormant knowledge. It content the relation-
ships with language, the judgment and reasons. The readers can dis-
tinct the methods and principles inclined with the logic. This booklet
will serve you as a guide in learning logic as an expression of my
learnings in this course. It is challenging in learning because it use
practical which is our mind. Probably, it’s not about judgmental kind
of persons, nonetheless hope to attain the correct reasoning. The
reference of this booklet is Fr. Bellstar Ediang STL, and then Mr.
Marvyn Rhoyd F. Lanurias our instructor in this course. To the read-
ers I assure you to read as more interesting and be educate in logic in
order to reflect and the reasons has a content compatible.

Reflection
Logic can help us to become self-aware. It is so chal-
lenging. During my 2 weeks studying the logic it become more
interesting. Before I am afraid to face logical problem but I
realize that wherever I go logic is always there, its just strategy
to correct the incorrect reasoning.
I have learned that logic is very useful in our life. Probably, to seek
meaningful life, and to self-aware when we give reasons or to judge other rea-
sons in compatible. My experience during the class is little bit hard, like tak-
ing a drugs because of sleepless night and used our brain to think practically.
In fact its hard to me to think like analyzing something. Moreover, the topic is
not really heavy, during the exam you can carry the questions but first you
should to memorizes the rules. Go back to the rules when you lost your way,
unfortunately the time is short for this summer. Consequently, that is why the
requirements are simultaneously given. In another, the goal of our course is to
awaken our dormant knowledge and to become practical person. Behind the
hardships we gain learning particularly when we suffer or feel the pain which
is related to our situation when we feel pain that experience is keep as
memory. In our life have many trials in order for us to learn. Additionally, log-
ic can enhance our reasoning skills.
These are surrounded with rules, it makes easy when the rules come
up with memory. Our life also has many rules even God, Society, and Semi-
nary. We lost our path when we cannot follow the rules. The concepts of rules
is to achieve the right thing such as gaining the right reasoning. It also deepen
our understanding in such ultimate thing, aside of critical thinking you should
master the language in other to understand well each cases. After the analysis
I am not ignorant like this topic, yet I cant fully appreciate as of now but as we
live continuously I’ve appreciate in future. Because learning of logic is medi-
ately understood but in process or gradually and the application of this is to use
with logical person.
Therefore, logic is part of our life as we live in this world to seek the
truth through philosophy and it used reasonings. The rules can shape us into
better person. We can gradually distinct our thought and the ideas of other nor
recognized the spoken words of other people including yourself.
29

Figure 4. (Pre-Sub)
1. If the major premise is affirmative, the minor premise
must be universal.
2. If the minor premise is affirmative, the conclusion
must be particular.
3. If a premise or conclusion is negative, the major
premise must be universal.
Valid Moods
A- All lepers are unclean.
A- All unclean are best
avoided.
I- Some best avoided are
lepers.
A- All trees are plants.
E- No plants are animals.
E- No animals are trees.
I- Some evil doers are politicians.
A- All politicians are human.
I- Some humans are evil doers.
E- No fast foods are free things.
A- All free things are desirable.
O- Some desirables are fast food.
A A I E E
A E A A I
I E I O O
E- No birds are dogs.
I- Some dogs are
pets.
O- Some pets are not
birds.
28
Language and its function
Definition
A. It’s the greatest invention of Humanity that make us different from other.
According to Herbert Macher language is our ability to talk and write.
B. Logic and language
Logic is an ideas, thoughts, concept and philosophies and language is the ex-
pression. Therefore, Logic needs language in order to be communicated or
expressed.
C. General Features of language
A. Written language use visual pattern
B. Spoken language use sound pattern
Therefore, if patterns interchange the meaning changes.
Ex. Your handsome.
Your handsome?
D. Elements and General Characteristics of language
There are four characteristics namely
1. Symbol- is the word that we utter.
2. Referent- is the actual thing of the word being uttered.
3. Reference- the understanding/meaning of the word uttered.
4. Subject- the one who utter the word.
Ex. Symbol is a word we think like for example that marker. Referent is the
actual that marker. Reference the understanding of a thing by its usage. Subject
is the firsthand me.
Question: How can we know the meaning of the thing? Because of convention.
E. Science and Language
There are three sciences of language
Pragmatics- by knowing its etymological meaning.
Semantics- knowing things through convention.
Syntatics- understanding language based on grammar.
1

F. Function of Language
1. Information – to deliver information.
2. Command – when someone to od a task.
3. Expression – express an idea, feelings and more.
4. Performative – Not saying but doing
5. Ceremonial- Identify and define the word.
6. Logical Function– defined the word.
II. Logic, validity, and truth
Logic is the study of methods and principles to identity correct from incorrect
reasoning. Methods and principle- no more debatable for the pers already
accepted there. Validity- when reasoning is in lined with the methods and
principles of logic. Truth- when an idea conforms to reality. If the reasoning
is factual and has evidence. It is true.
Two things to remember in correct reasoning
1. Formal it takes about validity
2. Material talks about truth
2
Nota Bene:
There are truth in universe that cannot contain the principle and
method. Example God, Yes there is God but not sensible its out of
referent means actual thing of the word being uttered. Validity of
logic to make it easy to understand and the truth. Mug use for drink-
ing coffee.
Figure 3. (Sub-Sub)
1. The minor premise must be affirmative.
2. The conclusion must be particular.
Valid Moods
Examples:
A- All men are fallible
A- All men are mortal.
I- Some mortal are fallible.
A- All books are imperfect.
I- Some books are informative.
I- Some informative are imperfect.
I- Some books are informative.
A- All books are imperfect.
I- Some imperfect are informative.
E- No snakes are walking.
A- All snakes are animals.
O- Some animals are not walking.
O- Some animals are not crawling.
A- All animals are living beings.
O- Some living beings are not crawling.
A A I E O
A I A A A
I I I O O
27

Examples:
A- All dogs are animals.
E- No trees are animals.
E- No trees are dogs.
All liars are bad.
O- Some seminarians are not bad.
O- Some seminarians are not liars.
E- No trees are animals.
All dogs- are animals.
E- No dogs are trees.
E- No Roman Catholic priests are married.
I- Some men are married.
O- Some men are not Roman Catholic priests.
.
26
III. Acts of Intellect
There are three activities of the mind
1. Simple Apprehension use only senses, no judgment
• Idea- internal product, inside the mind
• Term- external product, word uttered.
2. Judgment- it’s when you judge after perceiving. It’s the combination of two
or more Ideas.
• Internal enunciation – compare and contrast thing.
• Preposition – it is the expressed enunciation
3. Reasoning- it is judging proposition.
• Internal product – Argument
• External product- Syllogism
Syllogism a combination of proposition.
Ex. All seminarians are boys.
Aldrin is seminarian.
Therefore Aldrin is boy.
3

IV. Formation of Ideas
Question: How do we form Ideas?
1. Use your senses and find the individuating characteristics of a thing.
2. Individuating Characteristics uniquely found characteristics in a thing.
3. The Individuating Characteristics become your sense image.
4. Remove the individuating characteristics in order to get the essence.
5. After getting the essence it becomes the new idea
The individuating characteristics are Black , white, stainless, horizontal form
long
Ex.
The Individuality characteristics become your sense image.
Among this enumeration that represents the idea. Even removing the
individuating characteristics of a knife, the essence is still there.
4
Figure Rules
Figure 1. (Sub-Pre)
1. The major premise must be universal.
2. The minor premise must be affirmative.
Valid Moods
Examples:
A -All birds are animals. E- No birds are dogs.
All eagles are birds. A- All eagles are birds.
All eagles are animals. E- No eagles are dogs.
E- No cats are birds. A- All cats are animals.
I- Some mammals are cats. I- Some mammals are cats.
O- Some mammals are not birds. I- Some mammals are animals.
Figure 2. (Pre-Pre)
1. The major premise must be universal.
2. One premise must be negative.
Valid Moods
A E A E
A A I I
A E I O
A A E E
E O A I
E O E O
25

There are 16 possible moods but only 8 are valid.
A
E
I
O
A A A A
A E I O
A E I O
E E E E
A E I O
E E O O
I I I I
A E I O
I O I O
O O O O
A E I O
O O O O
24
V. Imagination
Our mind is very powerful, because it can sill get an idea through
imagination. We think something without in reality. Phantasm is the product of
imagination. The question is ‘Is it perceivable or not?’ The answer is both
because inventions are the example of perceivable while peace, justice which
only in our mind are examples of not perceivable. Frequently, the concepts of
peace is in our mind we can’t perceive it’s an abstract terms it is only the mind.
VI. Properties of Ideas
1. Comprehension it’s the sum total of all essences graps by the mind.
2. Extension objects that are representations of an idea.
Ex. Comprehension Seminarian
Extension Enrique
Enrique is the representation of an idea seminarian.
Question: How we know the essence of an idea?
The answers lies on the tree of being
VII. Tree of Being
Being is everything exist. Substance anything that exist by itself. Accident
any exist by another means two tings collide. Body anything visible and ex-
tended, measurable and quality. Soul or Spirit it is invisible no quality and
opposite of body. Organism it is the body that moving with life. Minerals it is
being has body life. Animals living alive and have senses. Plant being has life
but no senses. Brute it is low than man, has senses but no reasons. Man being
complete withal essential roots.
5

Body
Accidents
Organism Mineral
Spirit
Substance
Individual
Man
Brute
Plant
Animal
VII. Classification of Ideas
A. According to comprehension
1. Simple idea expresses only one thought or concept.
Ex. Equality, truth
2. Compound idea express two or more thoughts or concept.
Ex. God, religion
3. Concrete an idea which expresses something has an external atrtributes.
Ex. Mug, chair, table
4. Abstract it is when we learn an idea from the concrete. When we feel after
perceive a thing.
Ex. The toughness of wood.
The softness of cotton.
6
Being
Figure 3. (Sub-Sub)- the middle term (M) is the subject of both
Premises.
M P A- All Catholics are Christians
M S I- Some Catholics are lay.
S P I- Some lays are Christians.
E- No snakes are legged.
All snakes are animals.
O- Some animals are not legged.
Figure 4. (Pre- Sub)- the middle term is the predicate of the
Major Term and the subject of Minor Term.
P M
M S
S P A- All trees are plants.
P M
E- No plants are animals.
M S
E- No animals are trees.
S P
23

Examples:
All seminarians are mortal
P M
Some mortals are good beings
M S
Some good beings are seminarians.
S P
Figures and Moods
-Refers to the arrangement of term in a syllogism.
Figure 1. (Sub-Pre)- the middle term (m) is the subject of the
Major Premise and the predicate of Minor Premise.
M P A- All dogs are creatures.
S M A- All shit tzus are dogs.
S P A- All shit tzus are creatures.
Figure 2. (Pre-Pre)- the middle term is the predicate of both Ma-
jor and Minor Premise.
P M E- No dogs are rational
S M A- All men are rational.
S P E- No men are dogs.
22
B. According to Extension
1. Singular idea represents only one object.
Ex. That box, this marker.
2. Universal idea represents not only a class, but each member of the class.
Ex. All seminarians, all priest, all staffs.
3. Particular ideas represents only a part of the universe.
Ex. Some seminarians, some priests
4. Collective idea represents a number of things constituting a group of whole.
Ex. Choir, lectures, group of sheep.
C. According to Origin
1. Immediate when we get knowledge directly through our senses .
Ex. The paper is plain white. The fire is hot.
2. Mediate it is when we grasp an idea before knowledge other idea.
Ex. The paper is a toll for writing.
The fire used for cooking.
D. According to Relation
1. Compatible when an idea co-exist in a subject.
Ex. Small and Fat, tall and thin
2. Incompatible
Classified into fours
2.1 Contradictory when two ideas existed exclusively.
Ex. Seminarians– non-seminarian, priest-non-priest
2.2 Contradictory ideas that are both extreme, but belonging only to one
class.
Ex. Black and white, rich– poor, tall– short, big-small
7

2.3 Privative idea expresses a certain degree of perfection, while
others express absence.
Ex. Sight-blind, hearing-deaf
2.4 Correlative two opposing ideas that bear mutual relationship.
Ex. Priest– parishioners, teacher– student
E. According to Meaning
1. Univocal when two ideas have same meaning.
Ex. John is a seminarians. Mark is a seminarian.
2. Equivocal same term but carries different meaning.
Ex. Bag-bug, cup-cap, mud-mad
3. Analogous terms that are used are partly the same but party
different.
Ex. Right arm– right answer, school bus, school driver
IX. Supposition it is the understanding of the meaning of the term
by its usage.
Ex. What is a bible?
A bible ha two syllables, five litters. It will become supposition
when you answer not directly.
8
2. Terms– theremust three terms in a syllogism.
These terms must occur twice
Rules 1. There are three terms namely The Major Terms (P), the Minor Terms
(S), and The middle Term (M).
2. Each term must occur in two proposition.
A. Major term (S)- occurs in the conclusion as predicate and occurs also in
one of the premise.
B. Minor term (S)- occurs in the conclusion as subject and in one of the prem-
ise.
C. Middle term (M)- occurs once in the two premise but not in the conclusion.
3. Illicit Major– invalid Major Term
Illicit Minor—invalid Minor Term
4. Middle Term must be Universal or distributed at least once. If not, then fal-
lacy of undistributed middle is committed.
Premise
Rules:
-If both premise are affirmative, then conclusion is
affirmative.
-If one is negative, the other is positive then conclu-
sion is negative.
-If both is negative, there’s no conclusion.
-At least one premise is Universal.
-If a premise is particular, then conclusion is partic-
ular.
The major term and minor term
must be universal. If they extend
from particular– universal. It is
valid.
21

I. Reasoning
The third activity of the mind.
A. Inductive reasoning is from particular to universal. The truth is not yet
established——normally it is invalid. No one can come up on Universal
when you started a particular premise.
B. Deductive– this reasoning is from Universal to Particular. It’s valid– we
don’t argue anymore.
B.1 Syllogism– external product of reasoning. It composes three propositions
which is called Premises.
1. The Premises
1.a Major premises where the universal thruth is given. It is the first premise.
1.b Minor premise– where the particular thruth is given, or it is deductive
from the major premise. It is second premise.
1.c Conclusion (⸫) it is where the new truth is establsihed. It is the lat premise.
Ex.
All semenarians are prayerful.
Cailing is a seminarian.
⸫ Cailimng is prayerful.
All men are moratl
Raven is a man.
⸫ Raven is mortal.
20
X. Definition a verbal expression of the meaning of the term.
Why do we define? In order to put LIMIT on the meaning of the term.
1. Nominal definition when we only give simple meaning of the term.
1a. Simple Definition we point the thing to define it.
1b. Illustrative Definition we illustrate in order to define.
1c. Example we give example in order to define.
1d. Synonym we give same meaning in order to define
1e. Etymology going back to it’s origin in order to define.
2. Real Definition defining terms by giving the true nature of the term.
Example:
What is philosophy?
Etymologically philosophy comes from Latin word philo to love and sopia
means wisdom so LOVE OF WISDOM. But the real meaning of philosophy is
a science that studies all things and their ultimate causes through the use of
reasons.
9

logic101aB BY ENRIQUE R. TAPANAN SUMMARY

Complete Inversion (A-I, E-O)
Rules 1. Use the contradictory of the original subject as subject.
2. Do not change the quality (copula)
3. Use the contradictory of the original predicate as predicate.
Ex. A. All martyrs are saints.
Some son-martyrs are non-saints.
E. No priests are nun.
O. Some non-priests are not non-nuns.
18
I.. Judgment
It is the second activity of the mind. It affirms or denies two ideas.
A. Proposition– external product of judgment.
True in two things namely Matter true in reality and form means gram-
matically correct.
Parts
1. Quantifier it indicates either subject whether universal or particular.
2. Subject– it is the thing which is affirmed or denied
3. Copula– indicates the agreement or disagreement between subject and
predicate
4. Predicate- the one that describes the nature of the subject.
Ex. All Catholic are ordained.
Q S C P
Some seminarians are not studios.
Q S C P
B. Simple Categorical Proposition
A simple proposition it only uses declarative. Present base form of
linking verbs: is, is not, are, are not.
11

C. Properties of simple categorical Proportion
1.) Quantity of Proposition
a. Universal (U) takes the entity or the subject as whole.
Ex. All Catholics are Christians.
All mean are mortal.
b. Particular (P) takes only a part of the subject.
Ex. Some boys are feminine.
Some seminarians are not obedient.
2.) Quality of Proposition
a. Affirmative (+)- uses copulas that are is, are.
Ex. Some Catholics are prayerful;
b. Negative (-) uses copulas that are: are not, is not.
Ex No monkeys are human.
D. Symbols of Proposition
“A” – Universal affirmative (all-are)
“E”- Universal negative (All-are not)
“I”- particular affirmative (same-are)
“O”- Particular Negative (Some- Are not)
Quantity of Subject and Predicate
A= Sub Pre
(U) (P)
E= Sub Pre
(U) (u)
I= Sub Pre
(P) (P)
O= Sub Pre
(P) (U)
A. All lizards are reptiles.
U P
E. No eggs are eggplant.
U U
I. Some chicken are hen.
P P
O. Some saints are not girls.
P U
Ex.
12
2. Complete Contraposition (A-A, E-O, O-O)
Rules 1. Use the contradictory of the original predicate as subject.
2. Do not change the copula (quality)
3. Use the contradictory of the original subject as predicate.
A. All non-saints are non-martyrs.
E. No deacons are priest.
O. Some non-priests are not non-deacons.
E. No nuns are priests.
O. Some non-priests are not non-nuns.
D. Inversion
Is a formulation of new proposition whose subject is the co tradictory
of the original subject.
Types
Simple Inversion (A-O, E-I)
Rules 1. Use the contradictory of the original subject as subject.
2. Change the quality (copula)
3. Use the original predicate as the predicate.
Ex. A. All martyrs are saimts.
O. Some non-martyrs are not saints.
E. Nopriests are deacons.
I. Some non-priests are deacons.
17

2. Obversion (A-E, E-A,I-O,O-I)
A new proposition is formed by retaining the subject and the quality of an orig-
inal proposition. Change its quality, and use as predicate the contradictory of
the original predicate.
Rules
1. Retain subject and quality
2. Change the quality
3. Put the contradictory of the original predicate.
Ex. A. All men are mortal.
No men are non-mortal.
E. No men are immortal.
All men are non-mortal.
C. Contraposition
A formulation of new proposition whose subject is the contradictory
of the original predicate.
Types 1. Simple Contraposition ( A-E, E-I, 0-I)
Rules 1. Use the contradictory of the original predicate as subject.
2. Change the copula (quality)
3. Use the original subject and predicate
All non-saints are not martyrs.
E. No deacons are priests.
Some non-priests are deacons.
O. Some seminarians are not diocesan
Some non-diocesan are seminarians.
I. Some boys are good.
Some boys are not non-good.
16
Square of Opposition
Rules
Contraries (A-E, E-A)
If One is True, the other is False.
If one is False, the other is doubtful
Contradictories (A-O, O-A, E-I, I-E)
If one is true, the other is False.
If one is false, the other is True.
Sub- contraries (I-O, O-I)
If one is true, the other is doubtful
If one is false, the other is true.
Sub- alters (A-I, I-A, E-O)-E)
If U is true, the P is there.
If U is False, the P is Doubtful.
If P is true, the U is doubtful
If P is False, the U is False.
13

Ex.
A. All teachers are mentors. True
Contrary E. No teachers are mentors. False #1
Contradictory O Some teachers are not mentors. False #1
Sub-Contrary NONE
Sub-alterns I Some teachers are mentors True #1
Explanation of the example.
To get the answers follow the rules. If there is a given
which is the proposition or a sentence. For example
All teachers are mentors. First you can Identify what symbols of
proposition , in this sentence all teacher is universal and the copu-
la used affirmative “are” (negative use are not). Why true? Your
bases is the reality if that is conforming in reality, or we believe
that teachers are mentors. Let us proceed to the contrary
(remember your reference is the given) The given is A proposi-
tion, look the square of opposition the opposite of A therefore E
contraries. So you put E then follow the symbols E-Universal
negative, therefore your sentence is negative “ No teachers are
mentors or All teachers are not mentors.” Secondly, look the rules
of the square of opposition in Contrary, your given is true the oth-
er is False so rule number one (if one is true the other is false. Just
follow the rules same to the next ways. Contradictory is O be-
cause that is the relations in square of proposition. Sub– contra-
ries is none no relationship only I-O,O-I available. Sub-alterns
identify the quantity all is universal and some is particular. I is the
relationship of A proposition which is called sub-alterns then, the
given is universal so the rule stated if universal is true the other is
true (rule #1)
14
H. Eduction
It is another way of restating a fact without changing
the idea.
1. Conversion (A-I, E-E, E-O, I-I)
Restating a proposition by interchanging its subject
and predicate but leaving its quality unchanged.
Rules
1. Interchange subject and predicate
2. Do not change the quality
3. Do not extend any term
Ex. A. All men are mortal.
Some mortal are men.
I. Some men are good.
Some good are men.
E. No dog is cat
No cat is dog.
Some cats are dog.
Reminder your bases are the rules
Example A proposition since universal quality so use all then, the
conversion is some mortal are men, because the rules stated from A
to I. I proposition is particular affirmative. Rules interchange the sub-
ject and predicate , don’t change the quality or copula (are, are not, is,
is not) and do not extend other term.
15

logic101aB BY ENRIQUE R. TAPANAN SUMMARY

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