Managers

Title: Cross-cultural communication for managers. 1. Setting communication objectives
Author: Munter, Mary 2. Choosing a communication style
Source: Business Horizons; May/Jun93, Vol. 36 Issue 3, p69 3. Assessing and enhancing credibility
4. Selecting and motivating audiences
Abstract: 5. Setting a message strategy
6. Overcoming language difficulties
Suggests that managers must become proficient cross-cultural 7. Using appropriate nonverbal behaviors
communicators to succeed in global environment. Applying
multiple insights to managerial communications; Setting SETTING COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES
communication objectives; Effective communication style to
accomplish the objectives; Assessing and enhancing credibility; As a general rule, managers should delineate consciously and
Overcoming language difficulties; Effective nonverbal behaviors. specifically what it is they want their audience to do as a result
INSETS: How are MNCs training Americans to work overseas?; of the communication--sign a contract, provide information,
Are cultures growing more similar? approve recommendations, or come up with a solution. If you
are working in a different culture, you may have to reconsider
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION FOR MANAGERS your communication objective, asking yourself the following two
questions:
Managers must become proficient cross-cultural communicators
if they wish to succeed in today's global environment. The 1) Is my objective realistic, given the culture? A realistic goal in
purpose of this article is to synthesize multiple insights--from one culture may not be so in another. One way to get at what
fields as diverse as an anthropology, psychology, might be realistic is to analyze what psychologists call the "locus
communication, linguistics, and organizational behavior--and of control. "People in some cultures tend to believe in "internal
apply them especially to managerial communication. control" over destiny--that is, that people can control events
themselves. People in other cultures believe in "external control"
Let's start with two definitions. Culture consists of the values, over destiny--that is, events are predetermined and
attitudes, and behavior in a given group of most of the people uncontrollable.
most of the time. Though nearly all of the examples in this
article are drawn from different countries, managers can apply For example, suppose you are trying to communicate in an
precisely the same kind of analysis to the culture of any given Islamic culture--anywhere from North Africa to the Middle East
region, industry, organization, or work group. to Indonesia (the largest Islamic nation). What an American
might see as a perfectly reasonable goal, such as "construct the
Managerial communication is communication in a management new building on schedule," a Muslim might see as irreligious,
context to achieve a desired result (writing a memo, because Muslims believe that human efforts are determined by
interviewing an applicant, running a meeting, preparing a the will of Allah, not by a schedule. Non-Muslims may have to
presentation). To be effective in any given culture, however, adjust their expectations accordingly. Muslims are not the only
managers should consider the following seven issues before ones who believe in external control over events: Filipinos,
they begin to communicate: though predominantly Christian, also tend to be fatalistic. A well
known saying in Tagalog is bahala na, or "God wills it." Filipinos

may view the achievement of your objective as predetermined CHOOSING A COMMUNICATION STYLE
by fate rather than as controllable by individual effort.
Once you have established a communication objective, consider
2) Is my time frame realistic, given the culture? What the most effective communication style to accomplish it. Use
constitutes an appropriate time frame in one culture may not be different styles indifferent situations:
achievable in another. It all depends on the culture's concept of
time. ♦ "Tell": to inform or explain, when you need to control the
content of what you are communicating and don't need
In some cultures, timetables are exact and precise; one can audience involvement;
expect people to start meetings on time and meet deadlines.
Examples of such cultures include Germany and Switzerland. ♦ "Sell": to persuade people to do something differently--needs
Other cultures have more relative and relaxed attitudes toward some audience involvement;
time; one may be kept waiting; projects may move more slowly.
Examples here are Latin and African countries. An executive in ♦ "Consult": to interact with the people with whom you are
Cameroon tells of a meeting scheduled for9:00 a.m. in Yaounde. communicating and whose input you need;
People began to arrive at 1:00 p.m. Surprisingly, however, when
the last person showed up at 2:00 p.m., the other ♦ "Join": when you want to collaborate or brainstorm with your
Cameroonians admonished him for being late. audience, whose ideas form the message content.

A useful framework for adapting a communication objective in Some styles, however, will he more effective in some cultures
any given culture comes from the field of anthropology. Figure 1 than in others. You may need to be more autocratic or more
summarizes Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's "Cultural Values democratic than usual if you cross cultural barriers.
Systems" framework and adds managerial implications. To set
an effective communication objective, one should analyze a What is the cultural attitude toward authority? Tell styles may be
culture by what the authors call "nature" and "time." more acceptable in autocratic cultures, in which power is
unequally concentrated and the leader is seen as automatically
As an example, imagine you are working in Saudi Arabia. right. Consult styles may be more acceptable in democratic
American and Saudi Arabian cultures fall on opposite ends of cultures, in which power is more dispersed and the leader has to
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's "nature" and "time" orientations. earn respect.
American beliefs are based on internal control and future
orientation toward time, as aptly summarized in the phrase "can Figure 2, Hofstede's "Differences in Work-Related Values,"
do" Saudi beliefs are based on external control and past shows ways of analyzing a culture's attitude toward authority.
orientation toward time, and are epitomized by the phrase This figure summarizes the communication implications of the
Insha'allah, "If Allah wills." author's research studies on managers in 40 countries. One of
his four dimensions is "power distance," the extent to which
power is autocratic. Cultures such as those in Sweden, Norway,
and Israel rank low in power distance. They are, therefore, more
democratic; communication may be participative to the point at
which either subordinates or superiors control the

communication. The United States has a rather low power connected to the right families. In Egypt, class standing may be
distance (ranked 15 out of 40); communication is somewhat of paramount importance.
participative, although usually controlled by the manager.
French culture exemplifies high-power distance, a country in As a final note on communication style, Americans will probably
which Hofstede finds "little concern with participative feel most comfortable using the range of styles appropriate in
management American-style, but great concern with who has the United States when they are in Australia, Great Britain, the
the power." Netherlands, Canada, and New Zealand. These cultures combine
tell/sell styles when needed for the efficiency of individualism
How do people define themselves: primarily as individuals or as and consult/join styles when needed for the democracy
a group? associated with a small power difference. On the other hand,
Americans may have to adjust their styles in various South
Tell/sell styles might be more typical in individualistic cultures, American and Asian countries, which combine tell/sell styles
with their emphasis on individual achievement, decision making, when needed for the autocracy of a large power distance and
and efficiency. Consult/join styles might be more typical in consult/join when needed to enhance the group loyalty of
group-oriented collectivist cultures, with their emphasis on collectivism.
group belonging and loyalty.
ASSESSING AND ENHANCING CREDIBILITY
Referring again to Figure 2, one should analyze a culture in
terms of "individualism/collectivism." According to Hofstede, Regardless of what communication style you use, your credibility
Anglo cultures are the most individualistic, with the United will always have a tremendous impact on your communication
States ranking as the most individualistic of all. On the other effectiveness. Five factors, based on a synthesis of the social
hand, various South American cultures are collectivist; identity is power theories of French and Raven (1959) and Kotter (1979),
based in the social system, not the individual. Hofstede points affect your credibility: 1)rank or hierarchical power; 2) personal
out that in individualistic cultures, value standards apply to goodwill toward an audience; 3)expertise or knowledge; 4)
everyone. In collectivist cultures, however, value standards image or attractiveness; and 5) the values and standards shared
differ for in-groups and out-groups. Similarly, James Fallows with your audience. Different cultures value different aspects of
(1989) defines group boundaries in terms of the group's "radius credibility more than others.
of trust"--how many people considered "us," who deserve
decent treatment, and how many considered "them," who can What is the relative importance of rank credibility? Clearly, rank
be devalued or abused. credibility is more important in Hofstede's high-power-distance
countries, such as the Philippines, Venezuela, and Mexico, and
Divisions between "them" and "us" are found in a variety of less important in low-power-distance countries, such as Israel
boundaries. For example, in many parts of Africa, the tribe is the and Denmark. Not only might you "pull rank" differently in
most important unit in society--more important than the nuclear different cultures, you may also need to gain rank credibility by
family or the nation. The tribe is a source of social and moral association in some cultures. For example, you might need to
sanctions as well as political and physical security. In some establish rank through family status in South America, village
South American countries, the family isthe most important unit. chiefs in Samoa, and schooling in France.
You may have a hard time doing business unless you are

What is the relative importance of goodwill credibility? Goodwill What values do you share? Classic American business culture
credibility is based on your personal relationship and personal values--such as improving next quarter's bottom line, making
"track record" with your audience. In many cultures, business more money, or meeting a challenge--are not necessarily
relationships are built entirely on this kind of social and personal universally admired. Search to find values you have in common
trust. You must take the time to build these relationships before with a foreign culture, such as the good of the society,
you get down to business. organization, or department; increased status or prestige; or
appeals to excellence or moral correctness. Establishing an initial
Communication expert Edward Hall's analysis of cultures, common ground is a powerful way to build credibility.
summarized in Figure 3, provides yet another useful method for
managers to differentiate cultures. He classifies cultures as SELECTING AND MOTIVATING AUDIENCE MEMBERS
ranging from "high-context" (establishing a context or
relationship first) to "low context" (getting right down to Just as credibility analysis ascertains how your audience
business). Examples of high-context cultures, in which goodwill perceives you, audience analysis gets at how you perceive them.
credibility is particularly valued, include many cultures in Asia The culture in which you are communicating often has a huge
and the Middle East. In these cultures, you need to learn about impact on how you choose and appeal to your audience.
the expectations regarding food and hospitality--when, where,
what, and how food is prepared, presented, and eaten--and Should you select or include different people? Many
should expect to socialize and establish a relationship before you management situations involve multiple audiences. Depending
start doing business. on cultural expectations about rank, authority, and group
definition, you may need to include additional or different
What is the relative importance of expertise credibility? Many primary audience members--those who receive your message
other cultures place a higher value on expertise than on directly. You may need to add different secondary audiences--
personal trust. These cultures Hall classifies in Figure 3 as low- those who hear about, need tto approve, or are affected by our
context cultures, which include German, Swiss, and message. Finally, you may need to reevaluate who represents
Scandinavian cultures. If you are working in these cultures, you the key decision maker in your audience. For example, are
may need to establish your competence or prove your expertise. superiors usually addressed directly, or at least included, in all
You may not need the elaborate socialization process or decisions? Are subordinates? Do you need to add influential
personal rapport needed in high-context cultures. officials, leaders, powerbrokers, contacts, tribe or sect members,
or family members?
What image is valued? Image credibility is based on your
audience's desire to look like you (your attractiveness). That What will appeal to them? Once you have decided whom to
image varies tremendously across cultures. For example, being include in your audience, consider what audience appeals or
older is an advantage in Korea and many places in Africa, as is benefits will work best. Research on influence, persuasion, and
being from the upper class in Great Britain and India and being motivation offers a wide variety of audience appeals, including
male in Iran. Obviously, you cannot change your age, class, or material wealth and acquisition, task enhancement, career
sex, but you may have to work harder to establish credibility in advancement, achievement and challenge, self-worth, security,
cultures where your image is not highly regarded. satisfaction and fulfillment, personal relationships, group
relationships, and altruism.

Referring again to Figure 2, think about where the culture falls they attach to work. This study found that work centrality was
in terms of Hofstede's "uncertainty avoidance," or tolerance for high in Japan, average in the United States, and low in Great
ambiguity. Try appeals to security issues in such high Britain (MOW 1985). Appeals to corporate affiliation, for
uncertainty avoidance cultures as Japan, Portugal, and Greece; instance, might work better with the Japanese than with the
consider appealing to risk and challenge in such places as British.
Singapore, Hong Kong, and Denmark.
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's framework in Figure 1 also
Hofstede's "masculinity/femininity" dimension in Figure 2 differentiates cultural attitudes toward work on a scale they
measures the importance a culture places on material wealth label "activity." In such cultures as the United States, the
versus quality of life. You might, for instance, appeal to people dominant mode of activity is doing: to achieve fully, people tend
in such "masculine" countries as Austria and Switzerland with to maximize work. In other cultures, byway of contrast, the
promises of material rewards. In contrast, those in such dominant mode of activity is being: to live fully, people tend to
"feminine" countries as Sweden and Norway may respond to minimize work. For example, offering to raise salaries of
appeals tied to quality of life issues, such as job satisfaction and Mexican workers might result in decreasing the number of hours
flexibility. the Mexicans want to work. Offering overtime pay to Malaysians
might not change the numbers of hours worked, because
Managers should reserve typical American audience appeals-- Malaysian workers might be more interested in spending extra
material wealth and achievement--for masculine cultures with time with family and friends.
low uncertainty avoidance. "This combination," Hofstede notes,
"is found exclusively in countries in the Anglo-American group SETTING A MESSAGE STRATEGY
and in some of their former colonies. . . . One striking thing
about the concept of achievement is that the word itself is Based in part on audience analysis, message strategy represents
hardly translatable into any language other than English" a fifth set of issues to consider for effective communication.
(1980). Cultural norms will affect decisions about the message structure,
channel, and format.
What is their attitude toward work? You may be able to
motivate your audience more effectively by analyzing cultural What kind of structure is appropriate? Some cultures prefer
attitudes toward work itself. How central is work as a life role-- business messages to be structured fairly directly--getting right
as opposed to leisure, community, religious, and family to the point and stating conclusions or the bottom line first.
activities? How fully do people identify with their profession, as Such cultures value what they perceive as openness and
opposed to some other subgroup, sect, or elite? If they do honesty. In other cultures, however, business messages are
identify with their work role, is their identity associated with typically indirect, building up to the point and stating conclusions
their product or service, their company or organization, or the bottom line last.
or their profession or occupation?
To make decisions regarding direct or indirect structure,
The MOW International Research Team has come up with a international managers may find Hall's framework in Figure 3
"work centrality index," which ranks responses from people in useful. Low-context cultures (such as German, Swiss,
various countries in terms of how committed they are to work, Scandinavian, North American, and British) may favor direct
how much they identify with work, and how much importance

structures. High-context cultures (such as Chinese, Korean, imply that you think their word is no good. For example, when
Japanese, Vietnamese, and Arabic) may favor indirect Ford Motor Company agreed to acquire the production side of
structures. Ferrari and use the Ferrari name in the United States,

In high-context cultures, directness may be seen as abrupt, . . . the deal was made on handshakes between gentlemen.
demanding, or intrusive. Worse still, inappropriate directness Soon, though,
may cause people in these cultures to "lose face." As Ford's attorneys arrived in Italy with contracts, and a crew
international experts Copeland and Griggs point out (1985): arrived to
take inventory. This was normal business procedure to the
. . . much has been written about "facesaving" in Japan and Americans, but Ferrari was disgruntled--to his thinking he had
China, but facesaving is important absolutely everywhere, the an understanding with a gentleman, not with a group of
United States included. The difference is only a matter of degree attorneys and accountants. The deal fell through. (Copeland and
and nuance. Where an American might feel a little guilty or Griggs 1985)
inadequate, an Asian, Arab orSouth American may ,feel deep
shame and humiliation. What an American might see as a little What message formats are appropriate? You may need to adjust
honest and constructive criticism, the foreigner may take as a the physical format of your message in different cultures. For
devastating blow to pride and dignity. example, in many countries, standard paper sizes differ from
those in the United States. These size differences can affect
In authoritarian cultures, managers may need to use more duplication, printing, filing, page breaks, and other document
direct structures than they are used to for "downward" design issues. In addition, standard business formats such as
communication to subordinates, and more indirect structures memos or reports may be different from those to which
than they are used to for "upward" communication to superiors. Americans are accustomed; in Japan, memos are neither as
prevalent nor as lengthy as in the United States. Similarly,
What message channel is appropriate? Communication channels presentation formats differ across cultures--including issues of
change constantly. To communicate across cultures, managers presentation length, timing, number of visual aids, flamboyance,
need to stay aware of advances in technology--computers, and the nature of interaction with audience members.
electronic mail, cellular phones, videoteleconferencing, and
facsimile transmissions, just to name a few--and be sensitive to OVERCOMING LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES
what technology is available, compatible, and acceptable in
another culture. Language difficulties represent one of the biggest barriers to
cross-cultural communication. Even if English is spoken by
In addition to affecting technological channels, cultural norms everyone involved, dialects, accents, slang, jargon, and code
affect the most basic kind of channel choice: the decision to words vary tremendously among different countries, regions,
write or speak. In Figure 3, the high-context cultures valuing subcultures, industries, organizations, and professions. For
personal trust tend to prefer oral communication and oral instance, the word "billion" means a thousand million in the
agreements. Low-context cultures, which value efficiency, tend United States, and a million million in Britain; the verb "to table"
to prefer written communication and written agreements. In used during a meeting means to postpone discussion in the
high-context cultures, confirming an idea in writing may United States, and to discuss right away in Britain.

Conducting business in a foreign language compounds any Barriers caused by word connotations. The second level of
problems. If you are going to spend more than a year in a language problems has to do with "connotation," or implications
country, do your best to learn the language. At the very least, of words. For example, the words manana in Spanish and
you can overcome some vulnerability and isolation; at best, you bukara in Arabic translate as "tomorrow." Their connotation,
can achieve much better relationships and other business however, may be closer to "some time in the future." In
advantages. If you don't know the language well, use your Japanese, the word hai translates as "yes," but its
foreign language for socializing but not for business activities. If connotation may be "yes, I'm listening," rather than "yes, I
you don't know the language at all, you have two options: agree." In Polish, nie ma translates as "there is none" or "we
don't have any." Its connotation can be "there hasn't been any
Use English, speaking carefully and without unnecessary large in a long time and there probably never will be." For a treasury
words or jargon (remember that non-native English speakers of exampLes, see D. Ricks' book, Big Business Blunders (1983).
are often embarrassed to admit when they don't understand The author points out, for instance, that "Come Alive with Pepsi"
English); or was translated as "Come Out of the Grave with Pepsi" in
German and "Bring Your Ancestors Back from the Grave" in
Use an excellent interpreter who is thoroughly briefed in Asia.
advance, pausing after every short paragraph or thought.

Even with excellent fluency or interpretation, however, language Barriers caused by tone differences. A third set of potential
itself poses at least four kinds of problems. linguistic barriers has to do with tone--the mood or feeling your
words convey. For example, in some cultures tone is usually
Barriers caused by semantics. The first level of potential more formal, whereas in others it is more informal; in some it is
problems has to do with semantics, or word meanings. Some more polite, in others more offhand; in some more impersonal,
words are literally untranslatable. For example, to conduct in others more personal; in some more dry, in others more
business in Korea, you must understand the concept of kibun, colorful. Decide if and when you want to make marginal
which does not translate into English. Its meaning is something adjustments in the tone of your writing or speaking when you
similar to "inner feelings" or "mood": people must communicate are in another culture.
in a manner to enhance one another's Kibun or risk
creating an enemy and destroying the relationship. Similarly, Barriers caused by differences among perceptions. A final level
understanding the word “sisu” will help you understand the of potential difficulties emerges when you stop to realize that,
character ofyour Finnish business associates. This untranslatable according to many linguists, people who speak different
word means something akin to "guts," "against-all-odds languages actually view the world in different ways. Eskimos
stamina," or "dogged persistence"; in some ways the word perceive snow differently because they have many words for it;
encapsulates two centuries of historical Finnish struggles. As a Hopi Indians perceive time differently
final example, Russians may find their current economic because they do not distinguish among past, present, and future
transition even more difficult because several key English words verb tenses; Japanese perceive responsibility differently because
and phrases--such as "efficiency," "free market," and they have a grammatical form called "adversative passive" used
"regulation"--are not directly translatable into Russian. for reporting unpleasant events; Thais perceive "no" differently
because there is nosuch word in their vocabulary.

USING EFFECTIVE NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS indicate caution or disbelief.

Although managers generally understand that language Finally, resist applying your own culture's nonverbal meanings to
differences can cause major barriers to communication, they other cultures. Vietnamese may look at the ground with their
may not recognize that nonverbal barriers can cause even heads down to show respect, not to be "shifty." Russians may
greater problems. Some scholars, such as Knapp (1980), exhibit less facial expression, and Scandinavians fewer gestures,
estimate that 65 to 90 percent of what we communicate than Americans are accustomed to, but that does not mean they
is, in fact, nonverbal. Keep in mind three sets of challenges in are not enthusiastic. People in Latin and Mediterranean cultures,
cross-cultural nonverbal communication: body language and on the other hand, may gesticulate and touch more often than
vocal qualities, space around you, and greeting behaviors. Americans, but don't infer that they're "pushy." Southerners in
the United States tend to speak slowly, but don't infer that
Body language and vocal qualities. Notions of appropriate they're dumb; northerners may speak more quickly, but
posture, gestures, eye contact, facial expression, touching, don't infer that they're arrogant. Compared to Americans,
pitch, volume, and rate differ across cultures. As a simple but Brazilians may interrupt more, Asians may respect silence more,
potentially disastrous example, nodding the head up and down and Arabs may speak more loudly.
in Bulgaria means "no," not "yes."
Space around you. A second aspect of nonverbal communication
Successful executives must avoid using any gestures considered has to do with norms regarding space. In general, Americans
rude or insulting. For instance, in Buddhist cultures, the head is feel comfortable in the following zones of space: zero to 18
considered sacred, so you must never touch anyone's head; in inches for intimacy only (comforting or greeting); 18 inches to
Muslim cultures, the left hand is considered unclean, so never four feet for personal space (conversing with friends); four to 12
touch, pass, receive, or eat with the left hand. Pointing with the feet for social space (conversing with strangers); and more than
index finger is rude in cultures ranging from the Sudan to 12 feet for public space (standing in lobbies or reception areas).
Venezuela to Sri Lanka. The American circular "A-OK" gesture Different cultures define the acceptable extents of these zones
carries a vulgar meaning in Brazil, Paraguay, Singapore, differently. Venezuelans tend to prefer much closer personal and
and Russia. Crossing your ankle over your knee is rude in such social space and might consider it rude if you back away. The
places as Indonesia, Thailand, and Syria. Pointing your index British, on the other hand, may prefer more distant personal
finger toward yourself insults the other person in Germany, the and social space and might consider it rude if you move too
Netherlands, and Switzerland. Avoid placing an open hand over close.
a closed fist in France, saying "tsk tsk" in Kenya, and whistling
in India. Closely related to this is the concept of touch. Anglos usually
avoid touching each other very much. In a study of touching
On the receiving end of nonverbal communication, prepare behaviors (Knapp 1980), researchers observed people seated in
yourself to recognize gestures that have meaning only in the outdoor cafes in each of four countries, and counted the number
other culture. Chinese stick out their tongues to show surprise of touches during one hour of conversation. The results were:
and scratch their ears and cheeks to show happiness. Japanese San Juan, 180 touches per hour; Paris, 110 per hour;
suck in air, hissing through their teeth to indicate Gainesville, Florida, 1 per hour; and London, 0 per hour.
embarrassment or "no." Greeks puff air after they receive a
compliment. Hondurans touch their finger below their eyes to

Greeting behaviors. Because first impressions are long-lasting, place of names because of Confucian attitudes about saying
greeting behavior is particularly important. Handshakes can names aloud.
range from the hearty, firm G 'day shake of an Australian to the
gentle, light, singles hake of the French. Many Latin and As we have seen, culture permeates every aspect of
Mediterranean cultures greet with an abrazo--some combination management communication, from basic decisions about setting
of handshake, hugs, and shoulder pats. In Algeria (with its a realistic communication objective to specific behaviors when
Arabic and French roots), anything less than a handshake plus greeting people. At the same time, seemingly superficial
embrace might he alienating. The Hindu namaste, the Thai wad, behaviors such as greetings can often reflect important and
and the Laotian nop all involve a palms-together praying motion deep-rooted cultural values. The next time you are
coupled with a bow. The Japanese bowing conventions, communicating in a different country, region, industry, or
however, are so complex that most non-Japanese are well organization, keep in mind the following points:
advised to stick with a handshake.
Read about and discuss the culture before you go. A single party
What name should you use? Americans tend to be too quick to conversation on the topic will probably not be sufficient; the
use first names. A general rule is, don't use first names unless more you can learn about economics and industry, politics and
invited to do so. In addition, find out about naming conventions. government, religion and philosophy, history, symbols and
In some cultures, the surname comes first: in Hungary, the traditions, social structures, cultural achievements, language,
composer known in the West as Bela Bartok is actually named sports, and food, the more successful you are likely to be.
Bartok Bela; in China, Zhou Enlai is "Mr. Zhou." In some
cultures, the surname is second: in Spain, Miguel Ortega Listen, react, and interpret the culture while you are there. All
Gonzales is "Senhor Ortega." Some cultures use a polite familiar you can learn from studying in advance is never the same as
with the Mr. or Mrs. equivalent followed by the first name: in what you can learn when immersed in the culture. Stay alert; be
Brazil, Enrique Lopez is "Senhor Enrique"; in Poland, Stanislaw flexible; be willing to modify your ideas. Use your new
Musial is "Pan Stanislaw." associates as resources: most people are happy to explain their
customs to interested foreigners.
Perhaps the most unusual naming convention comes from
Iceland, where people are officially known by their first names; Imitate group members to learn by example, especially for
listings are alphabetized by first name. A man's last name is his nonverbal communication. Be particularly aware of how group
father's first name plus son; a woman's last name is her father's leaders behave; follow their example when appropriate.
first name plus dottir. Because a woman does not change her
name with marriage, husband, wife, son, and daughter each has Perhaps most important, try to maintain an open attitude--of
a different last name. patience, tolerance, objectivity, empathy, and respect--to
increase your understanding, cooperation, and effectiveness.
What title should you use? In a country such as Sweden or
Israel, titles are relatively unimportant. In other places, such as How Are MNCs Training Americans to Work Overseas?
Germany or Austria titles are very important; even the wife of a
German professor carries her husband's title: "Frau Professor "Essentially, American top managers believe that a good
Schmidt" or "Frau Professor." In Korea, titles are often used in manager in New York or Los Angeles will be effective in Hong
Kong or Tokyo," say J.Stewart Black and Mark Mendenhall. Their

recent exhaustive review of studies shows that more than 70 Framework for Selecting Cross-Cultural Training Methods,"
percent of U.S. expatriates and 90percent of their families are Human Resource Management, Winter 1989, pp. 511-539.
sent overseas without any cross-cultural training whatsoever.
"Despite the need for cross-cultural skills and the shortage of Are Cultures Growing More Similar?
managers who posses these skills," note the authors, "most
human resource decision makers do nothing in terms of cross- Are cultures becoming more similar worldwide or are they
cultural training for employees in general or even specifically for maintaining their differences? Is the world moving toward one
selected employees embarking on international assignments." way of doing business or does each different culture maintain its
own unique approach?
As a result, they found that between 16 and 40 percent of all
expatriate managers sent on foreign assignments return before John Child's comparison of myriad cross-cultural studies reveals
they are supposed to because of poor performance or inability two groups of equally reputable researchers--one group
to adjust. Direct costs of failed expatriate assignments for concluding that the world is growing more similar and the other
American corporations are estimated to exceed $2 billion a year. concluding that cultures are maintaining dissimilarity. In the
words of international expert Nancy Adler, "Looking closer, Child
On the brighter side, Black and Mendenhall also reviewed a discovered that most of the studies concluding convergence
variety of cross-cultural training program studies--and concluded focused on macro issues--such as the structure and technology
that such training overwhelmingly results in increased cross- of the organizations themselves--while most of the studies
cultural skills development, cross-cultural adjustment, and job concluding divergence focused on micro level issues--the
performance. behavior of people within organizations. Therefore organizations
worldwide are growing more similar, while the behavior of
The author recommend three characteristics for effective cross- people within organizations is maintaining its cultural
cultural training programs: uniqueness."

1. They should be considered "a necessity, not a luxury.... Many managers, however, assume that people from different
Training costs are small compared to the potential costs of early cultures are basically similar to themselves. Researchers Burger
returns or business losses due to the lack of cross-cultural and Bass worked with managers from 14 countries, asking each
competency." manager to describe the work and life goals of a colleague from
2. They should be " a family affair....to counteract spouse another country. In every case, the managers assumed their
and family adjustment problems." foreign colleagues were more like themselves than they actually
3. They must be experiential, participative, and behavioral-- were.
using teaching methods such as simulations, field trips, and role
plays and avoiding "dog and pony" shows. American in particular believe that other countries are becoming
more like us. "The assumption is erroneous," notes economic
Sources: J. Stewart Black and Mark Mendenhall, "Cross-Cultural analyst James Fallows. "The United States is not an ordinary
Training Effectiveness: A Review and a Theoretical Framework society. The differences between American and other cultures
for Future Research," academy of Management Review, 15, 1 run deep and matter profoundly. Theyare differences of kind,
(1990), pp.113-136, and "A Practical But Theory-based not just of degree. Of course, people are essentially the same
anywhere on earth, but cultures are not."

Figure 1 Cultural Values Systems

Attitude Range Communication
Toward . . implications
NATURE Submit to nature Harmony with nature Mastery over nature Communication objective
Life determined by God/fate Live in harmony with Challenge nature Communication objective
nature
TIME Past traditions Present moments Future goals Communication objective
Goals of the past are Goals reflect the present Goals are directed to the
important future
SOCIAL RELATIONS By rank or class By entire group By individual Audience selection
Authoritarian decision Group decision making Individual decision
making making
ACTIVITY Being, not accomplishing are Inner development most Accomplishment and Audience motivation
most important; minimize important future most important;
work maximize work
HUMANITY Basically evil. Initial lack of Mixture of good and evil. Basically good. Initial Audience motivation
trust; people won’t change, Initial choice, people can trust, controls
control necessary change unnecessary

Source: Adapted from Kluckhohn and Strodbeck (1961)

Figure 2 Differences in Work-Related Values

Dimensions Differentiated Communication Implications

1. POWER DISTANCE
Extent to which power is unequally distributed, centralized, and
autocratic--and such leadership is accepted by all members COMMUNICATION STYLE,
Highest power distance cultures: Philippines, Venezuela, Mexico AUDIENCE SELECTION
Lowest power distance cultures: Israel, Denmark, Austria
United States: Somewhat low (15 out of 40)

2. INDIVIDUALISM/COLLECTIVISM
Extent to which people define themselves as individuals or part of a larger group,
Most individual cultures: United States, Australia, Great Britain COMMUNICATION STYLE

Most collective cultures: Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru AUDIENCE SELECTION
United States: Highest (40 out of 40)

3. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
Extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations
Highest uncertainty avoidance: Japan, Portugal, Greece AUDIENCE MOTIVATION
Lowest uncertainty avoidance: Singapore, Hong Kong, Denmark
United States: Fairly low (9 out 40)

4. MASCULINITY/FEMININITY
Extent to which dominant values emphasize assertiveness and materialism
("masculine versus people, concern for others, and quality of life ("feminine") AUDIENCE MOTIVATION
Most masculine cultures: Japan, Austria, Switzerland, Italy
Most feminine cultures: Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, Denmark
United States: Somewhat masculine (28 out of 40)

Source: Adapted from Hofstede (1980)

Figure 3 High Context and Low Context Cultures

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