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Managing Information Systems:
Ten Essential Topics
Jun Xu
Southern Cross Business School, Southern Cross University
Gold Coast, Australia
Mohammed Quaddus
Graduate School of Business, Curtin University
Perth, Australia
AMSTERDAM – PARIS – BEIJING

Atlantis Press
8, square des Bouleaux
75019 Paris, France
For information on all Atlantis Press publications, visit our website at: www.atlantis-press.com
Copyright
This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced for commercial purposes in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage
and retrieval system known or to be invented, without prior permission from the Publisher.
ISBNs
Print: 978-94-91216-88-6
E-Book: 978-94-91216-89-3
c
2013 ATLANTIS PRESS

Preface
Information systems have become an essential part and a major resource of the organiza-
tion; and they can radically affect the structure of an organisation, the way it serves cus-
tomers, and the way it helps people in the organization to communicate both internally and
externally, and the way an organisation runs its business. Managing information systems
effectively and efficiently has become an important part of the life of 21st century managers.
This book is about managing information systems and focuses on relationships between in-
formation, information systems, people and business. The impacts, roles, risks, challenges
as well as emerging trends of information systems are an important element of the book.
At the same time, many strategic and contemporary uses of information systems such as
implementing enterprise planning systems for improving internal operation, adopting cus-
tomer relationship management systems and supply chain management systems to enhance
relations with customers and suppliers/partners respectively, and establishing knowledge
management systems for better managing organizational knowledge resources as well as
using different information systems for supporting managers’ decision making in all levels
are an integral part of the book. In addition, essential and critical information systems man-
agement skills including using information systems for competitive advantages, planning
and evaluating information systems, developing implementing information systems, and
managing information systems operation are a critical part of the book.
This book has ten chapters. Chapter 1 looks at foundations of information sys-
tem/information technology and discusses topics such as the importance of information
systems, key concepts of information systems, information systems competence for man-
agers, critical issues of information systems, and emerging trends future directions of in-
formation systems. In Chapter 2 an important dimension of managing information systems,
how information systems can help organisations gain competitive advantages, is discussed.
iii

iv Managing Information Systems: Ten Essential Topics
Organisations can apply strategic planning tools such as Porter’s five forces and value chain
to analyse their competitive position, examine their competitive advantages, and identify
relevant competitive strategies. Information systems can play a very important role in the
success of an organisation’s identified competitive strategies.
Chapter 3 studies the importance of good information systems planning, which is critical
for the strategic use and success of information systems in the organization. Chapter 3 also
looks at another important aspect of information systems management: evaluation of initia-
tives/investments of information systems. There is an old saying: ‘If you cannot measure
it, you cannot manage it’. Through systematic assessment of their information systems
initiatives/investments, organizations can be effective in choosing right information sys-
tems projects and managing their chosen initiatives/investments. In order to measure the
performance of information systems, organisations could use a set of metrics (such as net
present value, return of investment, internal rate of return, payback period, and total cost of
ownership)., Meanwhile organisations should look beyond financial metrics, and take into
consideration of financial and non-financial data, qualitative and quantitative information,
tangible and intangible costs/benefits, and formal and informal processes.
Chapter 4 looks at developing and implementing information systems. Correctly developed
information systems can significantly contribute to the success of the business (i.e., enhanc-
ing competitive advantages, improving business performance). On the other hand, a poorly
developed and implemented information system can have a damaging effect on business
performance and can even cause a business to fail. To ensure successfully develop and
implement information systems organizations need to adopt systems development life cy-
cle (or its variations), which includes such activities as systems planning, analysis, design,
development, testing, implementation, and maintenance. In addition, while organizations
are developing and implementing information systems they have to pay close attention to
such areas as project management, change management, and risk management, these areas
are critically associated with the success of information systems development and imple-
mentation.
Chapter 5 discusses the importance of managing organization’s knowledge re-
sources/assets. Effectively managing and leveraging knowledge assets, has critical im-
plications for business performance and sustainable business growth. Information systems
such as knowledge management systems could assist in organization’s efforts of capturing,

Preface v
storing, disseminating, utilizing and creating knowledge. On a related note, Chapter 5 also
discusses data resources management. As a result of global connectedness, the wide adop-
tion of computing tools mobile devices, the rapid advancement of Internet technologies,
and more powerful computing capability, gathering and analysing large (or large large) vol-
ume of data is quickly becoming popular among organizations for reasons such as better
understanding customers, and better utilizing data resources computing infrastructure.
Chapter 6 touches on the information systems infrastructure management and discusses
hardware, software, networks and telecommunications management. Hardware is a vital
part of computer systems and provides the underlying physical foundation for firms’ in-
formation systems infrastructure. Other infrastructure components of software, networks
and telecommunications require hardware for their storage and operation. To be useful,
hardware needs software, which gives instructions that control the operation of a computer
system. Networks and Telecommunications enable large and small businesses to commu-
nicate internally between staff and externally with customers, suppliers, business partners,
strategic alliances and others. Making the right decision in relation to information systems
infrastructure is vital to the success of the business.
Chapter 7 deals with functional information systems and discusses cross-functional infor-
mation systems. Traditionally businesses are operated by dividing the organisation into var-
ious functions (i.e., accounting, marketing, finance, productions/operations management,
human resources management) in a silo structure with each having its own information sys-
tems and tending to work in isolation. In order to deal with these problems of silo approach
(i.e., information recreation, information errors, communication gaps among departments,
loss of information arising from inaccurate information and not-timely shared information,
and lack of consistent services to customers), managers need to think beyond the walls of
the organisation. Thus there is a need for a cross-functional approach, which focuses on
business process and customer services.
Cross-functional information systems are a strategic way to use information systems to
share information resources and focus on accomplishing fundamental business processes in
concert with the company’s customer, supplier, partner, and employee stakeholders. Some
typical examples of cross-functional information systems include: enterprise resource plan-
ning systems, customer relationship management systems, supply chain management sys-
tems, and knowledge management systems. These four systems have different focuses:

vi Managing Information Systems: Ten Essential Topics
enterprise resource planning systems emphasize on internal efficiency; customer relation-
ship management systems concentrate on customer relations; supply chain management
systems focus on managing relations with suppliers and business partners; and knowledge
management systems facilitate managing tacit and explicit knowledge of the organization.
Meanwhile these four systems are inter-related (i.e., accurate information is critical to the
success of supply chain management systems and enterprise planning systems; knowledge
sharing facilitated by knowledge management systems is important to all the aspect of busi-
ness including the success of supply chain management systems, enterprise planning sys-
tems, customer relationship management systems). Chapter 7 also has a close at enterprise
planning systems and discusses implementation issues and emerging trends of enterprise
resource planning systems. Chapter 8 looks at various aspects of customer relationship
management systems and supply chain management systems, including benefits, types of
systems/applications, challenges issues of implementation, and future trends.
Chapter 9 reviews information systems for supporting decision making. Organisations to-
day can no longer use a ‘cook book’ approach to decision making. In order to succeed
in business today, companies need information systems that support the diverse decision-
making needs of their operations. The massive volume of available data generated by
billions of connected devices and human minds has further strengthened the role of infor-
mation systems for decision-making support. Providing information and support for all
levels of management decision making is no easy task. Therefore, information systems
must be designed to produce a variety of information products to meet the changing needs
of decision makers throughout an organisation. Examples of information systems for deci-
sion making cover management information systems, decision support systems, executive
information systems, artificial intelligence applications, data warehousing data mining,
and business intelligence/business analytics.
Chapter 10 looks at managing information systems function and operation. The success of
information systems in the organization heavily rely on good management. Good informa-
tion systems management examines and works on enterprise information systems opera-
tion/function management, global information systems management, information systems
in mergers and acquisitions, information skills talent management, information systems
governance, and global virtual team management. Chapter 10 also discusses information
systems outsourcing management by looking at such areas as advantages and disadvantages

Preface vii
of insourcing, outsourcing, and offshore-sourcing; critical capabilities, challenges, issues,
and critical success factors of outsourcing.
We would like to thank Dr Chad Lin, Curtin University, Australia and Dr Daniel O’Sheedy,
Photon Group, Australia, for their kind assistance in reviewing the book. Finally we would
like to thank Atlantis Press and Springer for opportunity of working on the book, and thank
Zeger Karssen, Publishing Director, Atlantis Press, for overseeing the publishing process
of the book and for giving us such a wonderful publishing experience.
Jun Xu and Mohammed Quaddus
Gold Coast and Perth, Australia
November 2012

Contents
Preface iii
1. Foundation 1
1.1 Managing Information as a Strategic Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Key Concepts of Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Information Systems Competence for Managers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Critical Issues of Information Systems Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Emerging Trends and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2. Information Systems for Competitive Advantages 27
2.1 Competitive Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Value chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Business Eco-systems and Co-opetition (Competition Cooperation) . . 31
2.4 Innovation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3. Information Systems Planning and Evaluation 41
3.1 Strategic Alignment of Information Systems Plan with Business Strategy 41
3.2 Measuring the Success of Information Systems Initiatives/Investments . . 45
3.3 Financially Justifying Information Systems Investments . . . . . . . . . . 46
ix

x Managing Information Systems: Ten Essential Topics
3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4. Developing and Implementing Information Systems 53
4.1 Systems Analysis and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Project management, Change Management and Risk Management . . . . 58
4.3 Internal Development, Outsourcing, Acquisition and Use of Application
Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5. Managing Organization’s Knowledge Resources 67
5.1 Data, Information and Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Database, Data Warehouse and Data Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3 The Phenomenon of Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4 Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management Systems . . . . . 76
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6. Managing Infrastructure for Information Systems 85
6.1 Hardware and Software Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.2 Networks and Telecommunications Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.3 Wireless Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.4 Management challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7. Using Information Systems for Enhancing Internal Operation 109
7.1 Functional and Cross-functional Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.2 Enterprise Resource Planning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Contents xi
8. Using Information Systems for Improving External Relations 121
8.1 Customer Relationship Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2 Supply Chain Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9. Using Information Systems for Supporting Decision Making 139
9.1 Enabling the Organization-Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.2 Information Systems for Decision Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.3 Business Intelligence/Business Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.4 Management Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10. Information Systems Operation Management 149
10.1 Enterprise Information Systems Operation Management . . . . . . . . . 149
10.2 Outsourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.3 Global Information Systems Operation Management . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Chapter 1
Foundation
In this chapter, we will explain the importance of management of information resources, discuss
the key concepts of information systems, explain information systems competence for man-
agers, discuss critical issues of information systems, and discuss emerging trends and future
directions of information systems.
1.1 Managing Information as a Strategic Resource
Efficient and strategic use of information holds the key to enhanced competitiveness, in-
creased efficiency, better resource allocation, and improved effectiveness. Information re-
source is different with traditional tangible resources. Eaton and Bawden (1991) suggest
some key distinctions between information as a resource and traditional tangible resources.
They are:
• Value of information: it is difficult to quantify the value of information. For example,
the same piece of information (i.e., information about the share price of Google) could lead
to different impacts (positive or neutral or negative), and could have different values (small
or large).
• Consumption of information: information has the characteristics of ‘self-
multiplicative’, which basically says the information will not be lost or diminished when
it is provided to others. This feature makes information resources fundamentally different
with other (tangible and commodity) resources. For example, if I have a piece of informa-
tion, I will still have it even after I share it with you; but if I have a tangible item (i.e., five
dollars, one apple), if I share with others, then I won’t have the same item (i.e., less than
five dollars, not having the same whole apple I had before).
• Dynamics of information: information is a dynamic source for change. We need infor-
mation to make changes and improve the way we do things. For example, by collecting
J. Xu and M. Quaddus, Managing Information Systems,
DOI: 10.2991/978-94-91216-89-3_1, Ó Atlantis Press 2013
1

2 Managing Information Systems: Ten Essential Topics
and analysing customer information, we can have better understanding customers’ needs
and concerns, thus are able to provide better products and services to customers.
• Life cycle of information: the life cycle of information is unpredictable; and information
can have multiple life cycles. For example, how do you predict the information demand?;
how do you predict the peaks and the troughs of information demand?; and how do you
predict the declining and exit of information resources?. Information can be in one life
cycle (being useful) then leaves (becoming irrelevant), but come back again in another life
cycle later or enter other life cycles of information (for different stakeholders in different
areas across various areas).
• Individuality of information: information has situational uniqueness. Information can
come from different approaches (i.e., first-hand and second-hand information) and can exist
various formats (i.e., digital and non-digital formats). Other tangible resources tend to have
the identifiable format and sources (i.e., petroleum in liquid formats and coming from the
underground or the bottom of the ocean).
1.2 Key Concepts of Information Systems
1.2.1 The concept of information systems (IS)/information technology (IT)
An information system includes all components and resources necessary to deliver infor-
mation and information processing functions to the organisation and can be any organised
combination of people, hardware, software, communication networks and data resources
that collects, transforms and disseminates information within an organisation. Business
professionals rely on many types of information systems that use a variety of information
technologies, i.e. from simple manual (pen-and-pencil) hardware devices and informal
(word-of-mouth) communication channels to complex computer-based systems (i.e. enter-
prise resource planning systems). However, in today’s environment, when we talk about
an information system, we refer to computer-based information systems, that use computer
hardware and software, the Internet, and other telecommunication networks, and computer-
based data resource management techniques to gather, manage and distribute information.
The terms Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS) will be used inter-
changeably in this book.
So far there is no universal classification of information systems applications. For ex-
ample, information systems can be classified for the purpose of either serving business
operations or supporting managerial decision making (O’Brien Marakas 2011, p. 13).

Foundation 3
On the other hand, information systems can be classified according to different needs at
different organisational levels (i.e. strategic, management and operational levels) across
various functions (i.e. sales and marketing, manufacturing and production, finance and ac-
counting and human resources) (Laudon Laudon 2005, p. 43). People at different levels
of an organisation have different information needs. The structure of a typical organisation
is similar to a pyramid. The array of organisational activities occurs at different levels of the
pyramid. People in the organisation have unique information needs and thus require various
sets of information systems tools. For example information systems such as management
information systems, decision support systems, executive information systems, suit differ-
ent information needs of operational managers, middle managers, and senior managers.
Functional information systems, such as accounting information systems; finance informa-
tion systems; marketing information systems; productions/operations information systems;
and human resource information systems, serve different business functions.
Organisations are increasingly using cross-functional information systems, which fo-
cus on cross-functional business process and emphasize customer services. Examples of
cross-functional information systems include enterprise resource planning systems, cus-
tomer relationship management systems, supply chain management systems, and knowl-
edge management systems.
1.2.2 The concept of strategic information systems
Strategic information systems are any kind of information systems that ‘support or shape
the competitive position and strategies of a business enterprise’ (O’Brien Marakas 2011,
p. 46), and they play strategic roles and provide effective support in organisations’ ef-
forts for achieving competitive advantages (i.e. cost leadership, differentiation, innovation,
growth, strategic alliance/partnership) (O’Brien Marakas 2011, p. 49). Some examples
of strategic applications of information systems include:
• use of enterprise resources planning systems for improving internal efficiency and effec-
tiveness.
• use of customer relationship management systems for acquiring, enhancing and retaining
customers and supply chain management applications for more effectively and efficiently
managing supply chains.
• use of management information systems, decision support systems, executive informa-
tion systems, and other information systems for decision support and better decision
making.

• use of collaboration systems and knowledge management systems for better intra and
inter-organisational collaboration and knowledge sharing.
1.3 Information Systems Competence for Managers
Information systems are a vital component for business success and a major functional
area in business and therefore an essential field of study in many MBA programs. Informa-
tion systems are an essential body of knowledge for business managers, professionals, and
business students. As we argue information systems need to have a business view, busi-
ness managers should participate in information systems decision-making for the following
reasons (Pearlson Saunders 2004, p. 3):
• Information systems have to be managed as a critical resource
• Information systems provide an opportunity to make changes in the way people work
together
• Information systems work with almost every aspect of business
• Information systems create business opportunities and new strategies
• Information systems can assist in combating business challenges from competitors.
Based on a survey of information systems competence for MBA graduates among ex-
ecutives in 1995 (Ramakrishna et al. 1995), it is recommended that MBA graduates should
equip themselves with such skills and knowledge as: general skills and knowledge of in-
formation systems, hardware skills, software skills, knowledge of applications, systems
development, and knowledge of related topics including privacy, security, legal aspects,
and ethical issues. The focus on soft skills (i.e., project management and information
skills/talent management), is the trend identified in the survey. The same trend can be
observed in today’s business environment.
Meanwhile, business managers need to be able to discuss and examine the roles and
consequences of information systems in the organization. Some dimensions and questions
they should look at and ask include (Silver, et al. 1995, p. 376):
• What are an information system’s features? What does it do?
• How does the information system match with the firm’s external environment?
• How does the information system support the firm’s strategy?
• How does the information system facilitate the firm’s business processes?
• How does the information system work with the organisational structure and culture?

Foundation 5
• Is the organisation’s existing computing infrastructure suitable for the information sys-
tem?
• Does the information system enhance the infrastructure? Does it extend it?
• How and how effectively was the system implemented?
• Who are the users of the system and how do they use it? as intended?
• What are the consequences of the information system for performance, people, and fu-
ture flexibility? Did the system achieve its objectives?
• Do we want to use the information system to improve our business process or reengineer
our business process?
1.4 Critical Issues of Information Systems Management
Organisations face various information systems management issues. Understanding these
issues is very critical to the success of information systems in business. According to a
recent study conducted by the Society of Information Management (SIM) in 2011, ten
top IS/IT management concerns are (in the order): (1) IS/IT and business alignment;
(2) Business agility and speed to market; (3) Business process re-engineering; (4) Busi-
ness productivity and cost reduction; (5) IT strategic planning; (6) IS/IT reliability and
efficiency; (7) Enterprise architecture; (8) Security and privacy; (9) Revenue-generating
IS/IT innovations; and (10) IS/IT cost reduction (Luftman Ben-Zvi, 2011). In the same
study, top application and technology developments were also identified. Top ten ap-
plication and technology developments include (in the order): (1) Business intelligence;
(2) Cloud computing; (3) Enterprise resource planning systems; (4) Mobile and wireless
applications; (5) Customer relationship management systems; (6) Software as a service;
(7) Virtualization; (8) Collaborative and workflow tools; (9) Enterprise application integra-
tion/management; and (10) Data mining (Luftman Ben-Zvi, 2011).
Meanwhile even though the key information systems management issues could be dif-
ferent for different organisations in different countries (i.e. arising from the differences in
types of companies, industries, governments regulations, IS/IT infrastructures, levels of
sophistication, and cultures) and in different studies (i.e. resulting from differences in data
collection methods, research subjects involved, and sample sizes), some common factors,
which are basic to all businesses, can be identified: (1) focusing on customers; (2) build-
ing and enhancing relationships with business partners and suppliers; (3) fostering collab-
oration among people and teams across the organisation; and (4) improving operational

efficiency and effectiveness; (5) enhancing business performance; (6) managing, develop-
ing and evaluating information systems; (7) protecting information resources; (8) using
information systems ethically; and (9) managing information systems organisation.
In addition, according to one recent global survey of 1,469 senior executives of firms
with different sizes and from different sectors and regions (reported in Brown Sikes
2012), some challenges organizations faced for the success of digital technologies include:
• Organizational structure for successful deployment of digital technologies
• Lack of technology and information systems
• Lack of quality data
• Lack of internal leadership
• Difficulty in finding functional talent
• Inappropriate business processes to take advantages of opportunities created by digital
technologies
• Lack of senior management support
• Difficulty in finding technical talent
1.4.1 Management security ethical issues
Security and ethical implications of information systems is a must for strategic manage-
ment and use of information systems. Even though they are only ranked Number 8 in the
SIM 2011 survey, they are actually very critical issues for organizations and could cause
serious damage financially to the organization (for example, according to RSA Anti-Fraud
Command Center (reported in Enterprise Management Associates 2012), phishing attacks
alone cost businesses US$ 1.3 billion in 2011). Organisations have to take them seriously;
otherwise they may face the consequence of going out of business. Today’s attackers are
well organized and well informed, and they take advantages of latest advances in crimeware
and hacking skills (Enterprise Management Associates 2012).
The global connectedness has made managing security and ethical issues a much more
challenging task. Laseter Johnson (2011) suggest that there are more than 5 billion de-
vices connected to the Internet (a perpetrator needs only a single weakness in order to attack
a system), accessing and serving up to 500 billion gigabytes of information and transmit-
ting 2 trillion emails per day, furthermore 75% of emails are spam even though spam rate
has been dropping in recent years. Every minute 42 new strains of malware (short for ma-
licious software including viruses, worms, and Trojans) are generated, an average of 8,600
new websites with malicious code are developed each day, and half of the results for the

Foundation 7
top 100 daily search terms lead to malicious sites. Some major cyber technical attacks
include: Malware, Unauthorized access, Denial of Services attack, Spam Spyware, Hi-
jacking (servers and pages), and Botnets (Turban et al. 2012, p. 500; Laudon Laudon
2012, p. 246). And malware is number one cyber security concern. Another major issue
is SPAM. Even though we do have solutions (i.e., Junk-mail filters, Automatic junk-mail
deleters, Blocking certain URLs and e-mail addresses), it has been really challenging for
controlling spamming since spammers send millions of e-mails, shifting Internet accounts
to avoid detection and use different methods to find their victims.
Some attacks require sophisticated techniques and technologies, most attacks are not
sophisticated (i.e., preying on poor security practice and human weaknesses), and insiders’
breach could be more frequent and more harmful than that of outsiders. Effective security
risk management procedures can be used to minimize their probability and impact. We as
a society, which consists of individuals, institutions, businesses, and governments, need to
work together to create an open but safe global community.
Effective security management of information technology is very critical to the success
of a business. Security of today’s networked enterprises is a major management challenge.
Networked computer systems are highly vulnerable to various threats and failures, ranging
from natural failure of hardware and software to misuse by information sysetms profes-
sionals and end users; and security weaknesses could be identified and explored in many
parts of business operations and many perspectives of the organization (Bailey, Kaplan
Weinberg 2012; Laudon Laudon 2005, p. 523). The explosive growth of the Internet use
by businesses and individuals has been accompanied by rising concerns of security breach
and identity theft. Corporate and personal information is at a higher risk of theft and misuse
than ever before as a result of the global connectedness.
However organizations have not given sufficient attention to security issues. According
to Carnegie Mellon 2012 CyLab’s global survey on how boards and senior management
are governing their organizations’ information assets (digital assets) (cited in Westby 2012,
p. 5), “57% of them are not analysing the adequacy of cyber insurance coverage or under-
taking key activities related to cyber risk management to help them manage reputational
and financial risks associated with the theft of confidential and proprietary data and secu-
rity breaches”. In addition, on top of potential legal implications (more and sophisticated
regulations for protecting information and privacy are being established around the world),
the reputational and financial losses arising from a breach could be significant. The results
of the survey also showed that the majority of organizations still lag in establishing key

positions for properly looking at privacy, risk and security risks (such as Chief Information
Security Officer, Chief Security Officer, Chief Privacy Officer, and Chief Risk Offier). The
2011 U.S. Cost of a Data Breach Study by Symantec and the Ponemom Institute (cited in
Westby 2012, p. 11) indicated that the data breach cost firms an average of US$ 5.5 million
per incident, and another recent study by Ponemom Institute (cited in Westby 2012, p. 11)
pointed out a data breach could cost organizations 17-30% loss of brand and reputation,
and such damage to corporate image could take them more than a year to recover.
To deal with various security challenges arising from the use of information technol-
ogy and protect our information resources, it requires a variety of security tools and de-
fensive measures and a coordinated security management program, including hardware,
software, policies, and procedures. Some security measures and tools adopted by organi-
zations include: Biometrics (i.e., Vein ID, finger prints, Iris Scan, face recognition, speech
recognition), password, swipe card other tools for physical access control, Antivirus
software/applications, Virtual private networks, Firewalls, Identity management and access
control systems, Encryption, Tokenization Key Management, Intrusion detection sys-
tems, Online access control, Information Security Plan, Network security protocols, Data
backup, Data loss prevention systems (for monitoring data moving on the corporate net-
work), Information security plan, Regular security plan testing, Security plan compliance
audit, Information systems control audit, Risk Management Cyber Risk Insurance,
Security Privacy risks committees, C-level positions (i.e., Chief Information Officer,
Chief Security/Information Security Officer, Chief Privacy Officer, Chief Risk Officer,
Chief Trust Officer) (O’Brien Marakas 2011, p. 534 538; Laudon Laudon 2005;
p. 542; Laseter Johnson 2011; Westby 2012, Authors’ own knowledge). Meanwhile, the
larger the organisation and the more sensitive of the information (i.e., information in cer-
tain government intelligence gathering agencies), the increased risk and costs of security
breaches, and thus more comprehensive, systematic, integrated and sophisticated security
(and privacy) measures need to be put into place. Westby (2012, p. 26) provides some
recommendations for governing enterprise security management:
• Establish a board Risk Committee for managing enterprise risks (including IT risks) and
recruit directors with security, IT governance and cyber risk expertise.
• Ensure privacy and security roles are separated and their responsibilities are appropri-
ately assigned.
• Establish a cross-organizational team and discuss privacy and security issues at least
once every moth.

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dusky, with the veins and nervules white, standing forth
conspicuously upon the darker ground-color. Expanse, 1.00-1.25
inch.
Early Stages.—Unknown.
Powesheik occurs in Wisconsin, and ranges thence westward to
Nebraska, northward to Dakota, and southward as far as Colorado.
EXCHANGES
One of the best ways of adding to a collection is by the method
known as exchanging. A collector in one part of the country may find
species which are rare, or altogether unknown, in another part of
the country. By a system of exchanges with other collectors he is
able to supply the gaps which may exist in his collection. No one,
however, cares to effect exchanges with collectors who are careless
or slovenly in the preparation of their specimens, or inaccurate in
naming them. A collector who contemplates making an exchange
should, as the first step, prepare double lists, in one of which he
gives the names and the number of specimens of either sex of the
butterflies which he is able to offer in exchange; in the other he sets
forth the things which he desires to obtain. The first list is said to be
a list of offerta; the second is a list of desiderata. As an
illustration of the manner in which such lists may be conveniently
arranged, I give the following:
OFFERTA
Papilio turnus, ♂ 3; ♁ 4.
Dimorphic var. glaucus, ♁ 6.
Colias alexandra, ♂ 4; ♁ 6.
DESIDERATA
Papilio nitra, ♁.
Papilio brevicauda, orange-spotted var.

The collector who receives these lists of offerta and desiderata will
be able to decide what his correspondent has which he desires, and
what there may be in his own collection which the correspondent
wishes that he can offer in exchange; and the process of exchange
is thus immediately facilitated.
Persons who exchange insects with others should always be
extremely careful as to the manner of packing the specimens, and
the directions given in the introductory portion of this book should
be very carefully followed. Too much care cannot be taken in
preventing damage to specimens in transit.
Genus ANCYLOXYPHA, Felder
Butterfly.—Very small, the antennæ very short, the club straight,
bluntly pointed. The palpi have the third joint long, slender, and
suberect. The neuration of the wings is shown in the cut. The
abdomen is slender, extending beyond the hind margin of the
secondaries. The fore wings are without a discal stigma.
Egg.—Hemispherical, marked with lozenge-shaped cells; yellow
when laid, later marked with orange-red patches.
Caterpillar.—The entire life-history has not yet been ascertained.
The caterpillars live upon marsh grasses; they construct for
themselves a nest by drawing together the edges of a blade of grass
with bands of silk. In form they do not differ from other hesperid
larvæ.
Chrysalis.—Not as yet accurately known.
(1) Ancyloxypha numitor, Fabricius, Plate XLVII, Fig. 2, ♂
(Numitor).
Butterfly.—The upper side is correctly delineated in the plate. On
the under side the fore wings are black, margined on the costa and
on the outer margin with reddish-fulvous. The hind wings are pale
fulvous. Expanse, .75-.95 inch.

Fig. 164.—Neuration of
the genus Ancyloxypha.
Early Stages.—What has been said in
reference to these in connection with the
description of the genus must suffice for
the species.
This pretty little insect is widely
distributed, and abounds among grasses
about watercourses. It ranges from the
province of Quebec to eastern Florida,
thence westward across the Mississippi
Valley as far as the Rocky Mountains.
Genus COPÆODES, Speyer
Butterfly.—The antennæ are very short;
the club is thick, straight, rounded at the
tip; the palpi are as in the preceding genus.
The neuration of the wings is represented in the cut. The abdomen
is slender, extending beyond the hind margin of the secondaries. The
male is provided in most species with a linear stigma.
Early Stages.—These have not as yet been described.
(1) Copæodes procris, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 9, ♂ (Procris).
Butterfly.—The plate gives an excellent idea of the upper side of
this diminutive species. On the under side the wings are colored as
on the upper side, save that the fore wings at the base near the
inner margin are blackish, and that the hind wings are a trifle paler
than on the upper side. The sexes do not differ in color. Expanse,
.75-1.00 inch.
This pretty little butterfly is a Southern species, is found plentifully
in Texas and Arizona, and occurs also very commonly in southern
California.
(2) Copæodes wrighti, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 10, ♂
(Wright's Skipper).

the genus Copæodes.
Butterfly.—This species may be easily
distinguished from the preceding by the
dark fringes of both the fore and the hind
wing and by the different arrangement of
the discal stigma on the fore wing. On the
under side it is colored very much as
procris. Expanse, .75-1.10 inch.
The species is found in the Mohave
Desert and southern California.
(3) Copæodes myrtis, Edwards, Plate
XLVII, Fig. 11, ♂ (Myrtis).
Butterfly.—This diminutive little species
may be readily recognized by the plate. The
fore wings are somewhat broadly margined
with dusky at the apex and along the outer
margin; the hind wings on the costa are broadly and on the outer
edge narrowly margined with dusky. On the under side the fore
wings are blackish at the base. Expanse, .75 inch.
The only specimens of this butterfly that I have ever seen came
from Arizona. The type is figured in the plate.
Genus ERYNNIS, Schrank
Butterfly.—The antennæ are short, less than half the length of the
costa; the club is robust, with a very minute terminal crook; the
palpi have the third joint minute, suberect, and bluntly conical.
There is a discal stigma on the fore wing of the male.
Egg.—Somewhat spherical.
Caterpillar.—Feeds upon grasses, and is stouter in form than most
hesperid larvæ, and sluggish in proportion to its stoutness. It does
not make a nest, but conceals itself between the leaves of grass at

the genus Erynnis,
enlarged.
the point where they unite with the stem, and is not very difficult to
discover.
Chrysalis.—The chrysalis is elongated, cylindrical. Our knowledge
of this stage is not very accurate as yet.
(1) Erynnis manitoba, Scudder, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 2, ♂ ; Fig. 3, ♁ (The Canadian
Skipper).
Butterfly, ♂ .—The upper side of the
wings is depicted in the plate. On the under
side the wings are paler, the fore wings
fulvous on the cell, pale gray at the apex
and on the outer margin. There is a black
shade at the base of the primaries, and a
black streak corresponding in location to
the discal stigma on the upper side. The
hind wings are pale ferruginous, except a
broad streak along the inner margin, which
is whitish. All the light spots of the upper
side of both wings reappear on the under
side, but are more distinctly defined, and
are pearly-white in color.
♁.—The female, on the under side of the
fore wing, has the black discal streak
replaced by a broad ferruginous shade. The hind wings are darker,
and the light spots stand forth more conspicuously upon the darker
ground. Expanse, ♂, 1.25 inch; ♁, 1.30 inch.
Early Stages.—These remain to be ascertained.
The Canadian Skipper is found across the entire continent north of
a line roughly approximating the boundary between the United
States and the Dominion of Canada. Along the Western Cordilleras it

descends into the United States, as far south as Colorado and
northern California.
(2) Erynnis morrisoni, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 26, ♂; Fig. 27,
♁ (Morrison's Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the wings in both sexes is sufficiently
well delineated in the plate to obviate the necessity for description.
On the under side the fore wings are pale fulvous, black at the base
and ferruginous at the tip, the ferruginous shade interrupted by the
subapical pale spots, which on this side of the wing are pearly-white.
The hind wings are deep ferruginous, obscured on the inner margin
by long pale-brown hairs. From the base to the end of the cell there
is a broad silvery-white ray. Beyond the cell the curved postmedian
band of fulvous spots which appears above reappears as a band of
pearly-white, which stands forth conspicuously on the dark ground.
Expanse, ♂, 1.20 inch; ♁, 1.20-1.35 inch.
The species ranges from southern Colorado to Arizona.
(3) Erynnis sassacus, Harris, Plate XLVI, Fig. 13, ♂ (The Indian
Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male is as shown in the plate.
The female is larger, the fulvous ground-color paler, the outer
marginal shades darker, and the discal stigma is replaced by a dark-
brown shade. On the under side in both sexes the wings are pale
fulvous, with the spots of the upper side feebly reproduced as faint
lighter spots. The fore wings in both sexes are black at the base.
Expanse, ♂, 1.10-1.25 inch; ♁, 1.25-1.35 inch.
Early Stages.—The caterpillar, which is plumper than most
hesperid larvæ, feeds on grasses.
The insect ranges from New England to Georgia, and westward to
Colorado.

(4) Erynnis ottoë, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 11, ♂ ; Fig. 12, ♁
(Ottoë).
Butterfly.—Considerably larger than the preceding species. The
wings of the male on the upper side are pale fulvous, narrowly
bordered with black. The discal stigma is dark and prominent. The
female has the wings on the upper side more broadly but more
faintly margined with dusky. The wings of both sexes on the under
side are uniformly pale fulvous or buff, marked with dark brown or
blackish at the base of the fore wings. Expanse, ♂ , 1.35 inch; ♁,
1.45-1.50 inch.
The habitat of this species is Kansas and Nebraska.
(5) Erynnis metea, Scudder, Plate XLVII, Fig. 33, ♂; Fig. 34, ♁
(The Cobweb Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the wings is fairly well represented in
the plate, the male being a little too red, and the wings at the base
and the discal stigma not being dark enough. On the under side the
wings are brown, darker than on the upper side. The pale markings
of the upper side are all repeated below as distinct pearly-white
spots, and in addition on the hind wings near the base there is a
curved band of similar white spots. Expanse, ♂, 1.20 inch; ♁, 1.25-
1.30 inch.
Early Stages.—We know as yet but little of these.
The species occurs in New England, New York, and westward to
Wisconsin.
(6) Erynnis uncas, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 27, ♂; Fig. 28, ♁
(Uncas).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the wings of both sexes is well
represented in the plate. On the under side in both sexes the wings

are beautifully marked with conspicuous pearly-white spots on a
greenish-gray ground. The spots are defined inwardly and outwardly
by dark olive shades and spots. Expanse, ♂, 1.30 inch; ♁, 1.55 inch.
Early Stages.—We know nothing of these.
The insect ranges from Pennsylvania to Colorado and Montana.
(7) Erynnis attalus, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 23, ♂ (Attalus).
Butterfly.—The male is fairly well depicted in the plate, but the
light spots are too red. The female is larger and darker. On the
under side the wings are dusky, with the light spots reproduced in
faint gray. Expanse, ♂, 1.25 inch; ♁, 1.45 inch.
The species occurs very rarely in New England, is found from New
Jersey to Florida and Texas, and ranges westward to Wisconsin and
Iowa.
(8) Erynnis sylvanoides, Boisduval, Plate XLVII, Fig. 44, ♂ (The
Woodland Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male is well shown in the plate.
The female on the upper side has less fulvous, the wings being
prevalently fuscous, and the red color reduced to a spot at the end
of the cell. There is a median band of fulvous spots on both wings.
On the under side in both sexes the wings are quite pale gray, with
the costa near the base and the cell of the primaries reddish. The
primaries at the base near the inner margin are black. The spots of
the upper side reappear, but are pale and faint. Expanse, 1.25-1.35
inch.
The species ranges along the Pacific coast from British Columbia
to California, and eastward to Colorado.

(9) Erynnis leonardus, Harris, Plate XLVII, Fig. 35, ♂; Fig. 36, ♁
(Leonard's Skipper).
Butterfly.—Stouter and larger than the preceding species, and
notably darker in coloring. The upper side of the wings is shown in
the plate. On the under side the wings are dark brick-red. The
primaries are blackish on the outer half, interrupted by the spots of
the median series, which on the under side are large, distinct, and
shade from pale fulvous to white toward the inner margin. The
secondaries have a round pale spot at the end of the cell, and a
curved median band of similar spots, corresponding in location to
those on the upper side. Expanse, ♂, 1.25 inch; ♁, 1.35 inch.
Early Stages.—These are only imperfectly known. The caterpillar
feeds on grasses.
The butterfly, which haunts flowers and may easily be captured
upon them, ranges from New England and Ontario southward to
Florida, and westward to Iowa and Kansas.
(10) Erynnis snowi, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 29, ♂; Fig. 30, ♁
(Snow's Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the wings of both sexes is well
represented in the plate. On the under side the wings are uniformly
reddish-brown, with the primaries black at the base, and the median
spots enlarged near the inner margin and whitish, as in the
preceding species. The light spots of the upper side reappear below
as pale spots, which are well defined on the dark ground-color.
Expanse, 1.25-1.40 inch.
The species ranges from southern Colorado to Arizona.
Genus THYMELICUS, Hübner
Butterfly.—The antennæ are short, less than half the length of the
costa; the club is stout and short, somewhat crooked just at the end.

The third joint of the palpi is conical, almost concealed in the thick
vestiture of the second joint. The neuration is given in the cut.
Egg.—The egg is hemispherical, with the surface marked by
irregular angular cells formed by slightly raised lines.
Caterpillar.—The caterpillars feed on grasses. They are long and
slender, thicker behind than before, covered with short hair. They are
generally dark in color, and not green as are the caterpillars in most
of the hesperid genera.
Plate
XLVI
I.
Chrysalis.—I can discover no account of any observations made
upon the chrysalids of this genus.
(1) Thymelicus brettus, Boisduval and Leconte, Plate XLVII, Fig.
40, ♂; Fig. 41, ♁ (The Whirlabout).
Butterfly.—The male on the upper side resembles Hylephila
phylæus, but may be distinguished by the broader and darker spots
on the under side of the wings. The costal and outer margins of the
secondaries are also generally more broadly bordered with fuscous
than in phylæus, a fact not shown in the specimen figured in the
plate. The female is quite different from the female of phylæus, as
will be seen by a comparison of the figures of the two sexes.
Expanse, ♂, 1.15 inch; ♁, 1.25 inch.
Early Stages.—These are only partially known. The caterpillar
feeds on grasses.
The insect is very rare in the North, a few specimens having been
taken in New England and Wisconsin. It is found commonly in the
Carolinas, and thence southward to the Gulf, and is abundant in the
Antilles, Mexico, and Central America.

the genus Thymelicus,
enlarged.
(2) Thymelicus ætna, Boisduval, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 28, ♂; Fig. 29, ♁; Plate VI, Fig.
42, chrysalis (The Volcanic Skipper).
Butterfly.—Both sexes are well
represented on the upper side in the plate.
On the under side the wings are paler, with
the light spots of the upper side repeated.
Early Stages.—What we know of these is
well stated in the pages of Dr. Scudder's
great work. The caterpillar usually feeds on
grasses.
The species ranges from New England,
Ontario, and Wisconsin on the north to the
Gulf, and as far west as Iowa and Texas.
(3) Thymelicus mystic, Scudder, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 22, ♂ ; Fig. 23, ♁ (The Long-
dash).
Butterfly.—No description of the upper side is needed, the figures
in the plate being sufficient to enable identification. On the under
side the primaries are fulvous on the costa at the base. The
remainder of the primaries and the secondaries are dark ferruginous,
with the light spots of the upper side all repeated greatly enlarged,
pale, and standing out boldly upon the dark ground-color. The hind
wings are pale brown on the inner margin. Expanse, ♂, 1.10 inch; ♁,
1.25 inch.
Early Stages.—These have been elaborately described by Scudder.
The caterpillar feeds on grasses, making a tubular nest for itself
among the leaves.
The insect ranges through southern Canada and New England to
Pennsylvania, and westward to Wisconsin.

the genus Atalopedes,
enlarged.
Genus ATALOPEDES, Scudder
Butterfly.—Antennæ short, less than half the length of the costa;
club short, stout, crooked just at the end; the palpi as in the
preceding genus. The cut shows the neuration. The only mark of
distinction between this genus and the two genera that follow is
found in the shape of the discal stigma on the wing of the male,
which is described as follows by Dr. Scudder: Discal stigma in male
consisting of, first, a longitudinal streak at base of middle median
interspace, of shining black, recurved rods; second, of a semilunar
field of dead-black erect rods in the lowest median interspace,
overhung above by long, curving scales; followed below by a short,
small striga of shining black scales, and outside by a large field of
erect, loosely compacted scales.
Egg.—Hemispherical, covered with a
network of delicate raised lines describing
small polygons over the surface; minutely
punctate.
Caterpillar.—Cylindrical, tapering
backward and forward; head large; the
neck less constricted than in the genus
Eudamus or in the genus Thanaos; dark in
color.
Chrysalis.—The chrysalis is slender,
cylindrical, a little humped upon the thorax,
with the tongue-sheath free and projecting
to the end of the fifth abdominal segment.
(1) Atalopedes huron, Edwards, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 4, ♂; Fig. 5, ♁; Plate VI, Figs. 43,
47, chrysalis (The Sachem).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the wings in
both sexes is well represented in the plate. On the under side the

wings are paler, with the light spots of the upper side faintly
repeated. Expanse, ♂, 1.15 inch; ♁, 1.35 inch.
Early Stages.—These are described in full with painstaking
accuracy by Scudder in The Butterflies of New England. The
caterpillar feeds on grasses.
The species ranges from southern New York to Florida, thence
westward and southward into Mexico.
Genus POLITES, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ and the palpi are as in the preceding
genus; the neuration of the wings is also very much the same. This
is another genus founded by Dr. Scudder upon the shape of the
discal stigma in the wing of the male. His description of this feature
is as follows: Discal stigma of male consisting of an interrupted,
gently arcuate or sinuate streak of dead-black retrorse scales or
rods, edged below, especially in the middle, by a border of similar,
but dust-colored, erect rods, and followed beneath by an
inconspicuous large area of loosely compacted, erect, dusky scales.
Egg.—Approximately hemispherical, the height, however, being
greater than in the egg of the preceding genus; reticulated, the lines
forming hexagonal figures upon the surface.
Caterpillar, etc.—Of the stages beyond the egg we know as yet
comparatively little. The caterpillar feeds on grasses.
(1) Polites peckius, Kirby, Plate XLVII, Fig. 24, ♂ ; Fig. 25, ♁
(Peck's Skipper).
Butterfly.—This little species, the upper side of which in both sexes
is correctly shown in the plate, has the under side of the wings dark
brown, with the light spots of the upper side greatly enlarged,
especially upon the disks of the wings, fused, and pale yellow, thus
contrasting strongly with the rest of the wings. Expanse, ♂ , 1.00
inch; ♁, 1.25 inch.

the genus Polites,
enlarged.
Early Stages.—These are not thoroughly
known as yet. The larva feeds on grasses.
Peck's Skipper ranges from Canada
southward to Virginia, and west to Kansas
and Iowa.
(2) Polites mardon, Edwards, Plate
XLVII, Fig. 26, ♂ (The Oregon Skipper).
Butterfly.—On the under side the wings
are pale gray, with the light spots of the
primaries and a curved median band of
spots on the secondaries whitish. Expanse,
♂, 1.10 inch; ♁, 1.20 inch.
The only specimens I have, including the
types, were taken in Oregon and
Washington.
(3) Polites sabuleti, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 42, ♂; Fig. 43, ♁
(The Sand-hill Skipper).
Butterfly.—Small, the male on the upper side looking like a
diminutive and darkly bordered phylæus. On the under side the
wings are paler than on the upper side; the still paler spots of the
discal areas are defined outwardly and inwardly by elongated dark
spots. Expanse, 1.00-1.10 inch.
The habitat of this species is California.
Genus HYLEPHILA, Billberg
Butterfly.—The antennæ are very short, scarcely one third the
length of the costa of the fore wing; the club is robust and short,

the genus Hylephila,
enlarged.
with a very minute crook at the end; the palpi are as in the two
preceding genera. The neuration of the wings is represented in the
cut.
Early Stages.—As yet but partially known.
The larva feeds on grasses, and the mature form has been figured
by Abbot, a copy of whose drawing is given by Dr. Scudder in Plate
77 of The Butterflies of New England.
(1) Hylephila phylæus, Drury, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 18, ♂; Fig. 19, ♁; Plate VI, Fig.
39, chrysalis (The Fiery Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side is correctly
shown in the plate. On the under side the
wings are pale yellow, with a few small,
round spots on the margin and disk of the
hind wings, a black patch at the base, large
black marginal spots, and a central,
interrupted, longitudinal black streak on the
disk of the primaries. Expanse, 1.15-1.25
inch.
The insect ranges from Connecticut to
Patagonia, over all the most habitable parts
of the New World. I have taken it frequently
in southern Indiana, where I often have
collected in recent years.
Genus PRENES, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ are short, not
half the length of the costa. The head is broad, and the antennæ are
inserted widely apart. The club is moderate, terminating in a fine
point which is bent back at right angles, forming a distinct crook.
The abdomen is long and slender, but does not project beyond the
hind margin of the secondaries. The fore wings are pointed at the

the genus Prenes,
enlarged.
apex and are relatively longer and narrower than in the preceding
genus. The neuration is illustrated in the cut.
Early Stages.—These have not yet been studied.
(1) Prenes ocola, Edwards, Plate XLVI,
Fig. 34, ♂ (The Ocola Skipper).
Butterfly.—Accurately depicted in the
plate. The under side is like the upper side,
but a shade paler. The under side of the
abdomen is whitish. Expanse, 1.45-1.60
inch.
This is a Southern species, found
commonly in the Gulf States, and ranging
northward to Pennsylvania, southern Ohio,
and Indiana.
Genus CALPODES,
Hübner
Butterfly.—Rather large, stout; head
broad; antennæ as in the preceding genus,
but stouter. The neuration, considerably
enlarged, is accurately delineated in the cut.
Egg.—Hemispherical, ornamented with irregular, more or less
pentagonal cells.
Caterpillar.—Cylindrical, slender, tapering forward and backward
from the ninth segment, rapidly diminishing in size posteriorly; the
head relatively small, the neck not much strangulated; spiracles
surrounded by radiating blackish bristles.
Chrysalis.—The chrysalis is relatively slender, gently convex both
on the ventral and dorsal aspects, with a curved delicate frontal

the genus Calpodes,
enlarged.
tubercle. The tongue-case is long and
projects for a considerable distance beyond
the somewhat short cremaster.
(1) Calpodes ethlius, Cramer, Plate XLV,
Fig. 3, ♁; Plate VI, Fig. 48, chrysalis (The
Brazilian Skipper).
Butterfly.—There can be no mistaking this
robust and thick-bodied species. The wings
on the under side are dull olive, blackish at
the base of the primaries, with all the spots
of the upper side repeated. Expanse, 2.00-
2.15 inches.
Early Stages.—The caterpillar feeds on
the leaves of the canna.
It is common in the Gulf States, and
ranges north to South Carolina. A stray
specimen was once taken at West Farms,
New York. Southward it ranges everywhere through the Antilles to
Argentina, in South America.
Genus LERODEA, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ are about half as long as the costa; the
club is robust, slightly elongated, with a distinct crook at the
extremity; the palpi have the third joint erect, minute, and bluntly
conical. The neuration is represented in the cut.
Early Stages.—These are not known.
(1) Lerodea eufala, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 33, ♁ (Eufala).
Butterfly.—The plate shows the upper side of the female. The
male is not different, except that the fore wings are a little more
pointed at the apex. The under side is like the upper side, but a
shade paler. The lower side of the abdomen is whitish. When seen

the genus Lerodea,
enlarged.
on the wing the creature looks like a small
Prenes ocola. Expanse, 1.10-1.20 inch.
This butterfly is found in the Gulf States.
Genus LIMOCHORES, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ are about half as
long as the costa; the club is robust,
elongate, with a very short terminal crook;
the palpi have the third joint erect, short,
bluntly conical. The male has a linear discal
stigma on the upper side of the fore wing,
as shown in the cut.
Egg.—Hemispherical, somewhat flattened
on the top, the surface broken up by
delicate raised lines into pentagonal cells.
Caterpillar.—Largest on the fourth and
fifth abdominal segments, tapering to either end. The larvæ feed on
grasses, and construct a tube-like nest of delicate films of silk
between the blades.
Chrysalis.—Comparatively slender, strongly convex on the thoracic
segments and on the dorsal side of the last segments of the
abdomen. On the ventral side the chrysalis is nearly straight. The
cremaster, which is short, is bent upward at an oblique angle with
the line of the ventral surface.
(1) Limochores taumas, Fabricius, Plate XLVII, Fig. 20, ♂; Plate
VI, Fig. 44, chrysalis (The Fawny-edged Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male is excellently portrayed in
the plate. The female is without the tawny edge on the fore wing,
the entire wing being olivaceous, with three small subapical spots
and a median row of four spots beyond the end of the cell,

the genus Limochores,
enlarged.
increasing in size toward the inner margin.
On the under side in both sexes the wings
are uniformly dull olivaceous, with the spots
of the upper side repeated. The costa of
the male is edged with red on this side, as
well as on the upper side. Expanse, ♂, 1.00
Early Stages.—The reader who wishes to
know about them may consult the pages of
The Butterflies of New England. The
caterpillar feeds on grasses.
The insect ranges from Canada to the
Gulf, and westward to Texas, Colorado, and
Montana.
(2) Limochores manataaqua, Scudder,
Plate XLVI, Fig. 30, ♁ (The Cross-line
Skipper).
Butterfly.—The male on the upper side is
dusky-olive, with a black discal streak below the cell, which is slightly
touched with reddish, becoming deeper and clearer red on the costa
at the base. The wings on the under side are more or less pale gray,
with a transverse series of pale spots on the primaries, and a very
faint curved discal series of similar spots on the secondaries. The
female, the upper side of which is well shown in the plate, is marked
below much like the male. Expanse, 1.10-1.20 inch.
Early Stages.—These have been described by Scudder.
The insect occurs in New England and Canada, and ranges
westward to Nebraska.
(3) Limochores pontiac, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 16, ♂; Fig.
17, ♁ (Pontiac).

Butterfly.—This fine insect is so well represented in the plate as to
require but little description. The wings are pale red, clouded with
dusky on the under side, the spots of the upper side being
indistinctly repeated. Expanse, ♂, 1.15 inch; ♁, 1.25 inch.
Early Stages.—Little is known of these.
The insect ranges from Massachusetts to Iowa and Nebraska, and
seems to have its metropolis about the southern end of Lake
Michigan.
(4) Limochores palatka, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 21, ♂ (The
Palatka Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male needs no description. The
female closely resembles the female of L. byssus, which is shown in
the plate at Fig. 20, but differs from the female of that species in
having the median spots on the primaries much reduced in size, the
band of spots being greatly interrupted beyond the end of the cell.
On the hind wing the female has the entire surface of the
secondaries inside of the broad outer band fulvous, as shown in the
figure of the male, and not simply marked by a transverse narrow
band of spots. On the under side the fore wings are bright fulvous,
clouded with black at the base and near the outer angle. The hind
wings are uniformly dull reddish-brown. This species has been
identified by Dr. Scudder with a species named dion by Edwards, but
which is a very different thing. Expanse, ♂, 1.50-1.65 inch; ♁, 1.90-
2.00 inches.
Early Stages.—We know nothing of these.
The insect is confined to Florida, all the specimens which I have
seen coming from the region of the Indian River.
(5) Limochores byssus, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 20, ♁
(Byssus).

Butterfly.—Allied to the preceding species. The discal stigma of the
male upon the fore wings is much longer than in L. palatka. The
outer margin of the secondaries is not as sharply defined as in that
species, but shades insensibly into the lighter greenish-fulvous of the
basal part of the wing. The female on the upper side is distinguished
from the female of the preceding species by the restriction of the
discal band of spots on the hind wing to a few small light-colored
spaces beyond the end of the cell, and by the regular continuation of
the band of yellow spots across the primaries from the subapical
spots to the submedian nervule near the middle of the inner margin.
On the under side the primaries and the secondaries are very bright,
clear orange-red, with the base and inner margin of the primaries
brightly laved with blackish. The median series of spots in the male
are very faintly indicated on the fore wings, but are more strongly
indicated on those of the female. Expanse, ♂ , 1.45 inch; ♁, 1.65
inch.
Early Stages.—We know little of these.
The insect is found in Florida.
(6) Limochores yehl, Skinner, Plate XLVI, Fig. 40, ♂ (Skinner's
Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male is shown in the plate. On
the under side the wings are lighter, the secondaries uniformly pale
cinnamon-brown, marked with a semicircle of four yellowish round
spots, with a small spot on the cell toward the base. Expanse, 1.25-
1.35 inch.
The species has been taken in Florida, and is as yet not common
in collections. The figure is that of the type.
Genus EUPHYES, Scudder

the genus Euphyes,
enlarged.
Butterfly.—The antennæ have the club stout, elongate, furnished
with a short crook at the end; the palpi are densely scaled; the third
joint is slender, bluntly conical, projecting beyond the vestiture of the
second joint. The neuration is shown in the cut.
Egg.—Hemispherical.
Caterpillar.—The head small, body cylindrical, tapering forward and
backward from the middle, the body profusely covered with minute
tapering hairs arising from small, wart-like protuberances.
Chrysalis.—Thus far undescribed.
(1) Euphyes verna, Edwards, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 32, ♁ (The Little Glass-wing).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male is
correctly delineated in the plate. On the
under side the wings are paler, inclining to
purplish-red. The spots of the upper side
are repeated, but in addition about the
middle of the hind wings there is a
semicircle of pale spots. Expanse, ♂ , 1.15
Early Stages.—We do not know much of
these; what little we do know may be found
recorded in the pages of The Butterflies of
New England. The caterpillar feeds on
grasses.
It ranges from southern New England to
Virginia, westward to Kansas, and
northward to the province of Alberta. It is
quite common in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
(2) Euphyes metacomet, Harris, Plate XLVI, Fig. 31, ♂ (The
Dun Skipper).

Butterfly.—The male is dark in color on the upper side, and on the
under side the wings are a shade lighter, the lower side of the
abdomen being generally paler. The female has some faint traces of
translucent apical spots near the costa, and two minute translucent
spots on either side of the second median nervule near its origin. On
the under side the spots of the upper side reappear. There is a faint
trace of a semicircle of pale spots about the middle of the hind wing.
The female specimens vary on the under side from pale brown to a
distinctly purplish-brown. Expanse, ♂, 1.15 inch; ♁, 1.30 inch.
Early stages.—Next to nothing is known of these.
It ranges from Quebec to the Carolinas, and westward to Texas,
New Mexico, and the British possessions east of the Rocky
Mountains, as far north as the latitude of the northern shores of
Lake Superior.
Plate
XLVI
II.
Genus OLIGORIA, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ are as in the preceding genus; the palpi
have the third joint minute and almost entirely concealed in the thick
vestiture of the second joint. The neuration is represented in the cut.
Early Stages.—We know very little of these, and there is here a
field for investigation.
(1) Oligoria maculata, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 35, ♂ (The
Twin-spot).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the male is as shown in the plate.
The female closely resembles the male, but the spots on the fore
wing are larger. On the under side the wings are brown, almost as
dark as on the upper side. The primaries are whitish near the outer

the genus Oligoria,
enlarged.
angle. The spots of the upper side of the
primaries are reproduced on the lower side.
The hind wings have three conspicuous
pearly-white spots about the middle, two
located one on either side of the second
median nervule, and one removed from
these, located between the upper radial and
the subcostal nervule. Expanse, ♂ , 1.40
Early Stages.—But little is known of
these.
This is a Southern species, found
abundantly in Florida, and ranging
northward into Georgia and the Carolinas. A
specimen is reported to have been taken
near Albany, New York, and diligent
collecting may show that it has a far more
northern range than has heretofore been
supposed.
Genus POANES, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ are short; the club is stout, bent,
acuminate at the tip. The third joint of the palpi is slender,
cylindrical, short. The neuration of the genus is shown in the cut.
Early Stages.—Nothing is known of these, and they await
investigation.
(1) Poanes massasoit, Scudder, Plate XLVII, Fig. 21, ♂; Fig. 22,
♁ (The Mulberry-wing).
Butterfly.—The upper side of the wings in both sexes is correctly
shown in the plate. On the under side the fore wings are black, with
the costa and the outer margin bordered with reddish, with three
small subapical light spots and two or three median spots. On the

the genus Poanes,
enlarged.
under side the hind wings are bright yellow, bordered on the costa
and on the outer margin for part of their distance with reddish-
brown. The female on the under side is more obscurely marked than
the male, and the hind wings are more or less gray in many
specimens, lacking the bright yellow which appears upon the wings
of the male. There is considerable variation on the under side of the
wings. Expanse, ♂, 1.15 inch; ♁, 1.20 inch.
Early Stages.—Not known.
The species ranges from New England
westward as far as Nebraska, and its range
does not appear to extend south of
Pennsylvania, though it has been reported
from Colorado, and even from northern
Texas, in the West.
Genus PHYCANASSA, Scudder
Butterfly.—Antennæ short; club straight,
with a small crook at the end. The palpi are
as in the preceding genus, but a trifle
longer. The neuration is shown in the cut,
and is very much like that of the preceding
genus.
Early Stages.—These are wholly
unknown.
(1) Phycanassa viator, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 14, ♂; Fig. 15,
♁ (The Broad-winged Skipper).
Butterfly.—Accurately delineated in the plate. On the under side
the wings are as on the upper side, but paler, and the secondaries
are traversed from the base to the middle of the outer margin by a
pale light-colored longitudinal ray, which is more or less obscured in
some specimens, especially of the female. The light spots of the

the genus Phycanassa,
enlarged.
upper side appear indistinctly on the under
side. Expanse, ♂, 1.45 inch; ♁, 1.60 inch.
It is not uncommon in the Gulf States,
and has been found as far north as New
Jersey, northern Illinois, and Wisconsin.
(2) Phycanassa howardi, Skinner, Plate
XLVI, Fig. 38, ♂ (Howard's Skipper).
Butterfly.—The figure in the plate gives
the upper side of the male, in which the
discal streak is composed of light-colored
scales of the same tint as the rest of the
wing, in this respect resembling the allied P.
aaroni. The under side of the wings is
described by Dr. Skinner as follows:
Superiors with tawny central area and
border same as upper side. There is a large
triangular spot extending into the wing from the base. The tawny
color above this spot is of a darker hue than that below and outside
of it. Inferiors very light brown, generally with four or five very faint
tawny spots in the central area. Expanse, ♂ , 1.50 inch; ♁, 1.60
inch.
The home of this species is Florida.
(3) Phycanassa aaroni, Skinner, Plate XLVI, Fig. 37, ♂ (Aaron's
Skipper).
Butterfly.—This small species, the male of which is figured in the
plate, may be easily recognized from the figure there given. On the
under side the fore wings are black at the base; the middle area of
the wing is tawny, paler than on the upper side, and bordered as

above, but the border below is cinnamon-brown and not fuscous.
The hind wings on the under side are uniformly light cinnamon-
brown, without any spots. The female is like the male, but larger, the
colors somewhat lighter and the markings not so well defined.
The specimens thus far contained in collections have all been
taken about Cape May, in New Jersey, in the salt-marshes.
Genus ATRYTONE, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ have a stout club, somewhat elongate,
and furnished with a short crook at the end. The palpi are very much
as in the preceding genus. The neuration is shown in the cut. There
is no discal stigma on the fore wing of the male.
Egg.—The egg is hemispherical, somewhat broadly flattened at
the apex, covered with small cells, the inner surface of which is
marked with minute punctulations.
Caterpillar.—The caterpillar feeds upon common grasses, making a
loose nest of silk for itself at the point where the leaf joins the stem.
The head is small; the body is cylindrical, thick, tapering abruptly at
either end.
Chrysalis.—Covered with delicate hair; the tongue-case free.

the genus Atrytone,
enlarged.
(1) Atrytone vitellius, Smith and Abbot,
Plate XLVI, Fig. 6, ♂ (The Iowa Skipper).
as shown in the plate. The female on the
upper side has the hind wings almost
entirely fuscous, very slightly yellowish
about the middle of the disk. The fore
wings have the inner and outer margins
more broadly bordered with fuscous than
the male, and through the middle of the cell
there runs a dark ray. On the under side the
wings are bright pale yellow, with the inner
margin of the primaries clouded with
brown. Expanse, ♂, 1.25 inch; ♁, 1.45 inch.
Early Stages.—Very little is known of
these.
The species ranges through the Gulf
States, and northward in the valley of the
Mississippi as far as Nebraska and Iowa. It seems to be quite
common in Nebraska, and probably has a wider distribution than is
reported.
(2) Atrytone zabulon, Boisduval and Leconte, Plate XLVII, Fig.
37, ♂; Fig. 38, ♁ (The Hobomok Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side of both sexes is shown in the plate. The
color on the disk of the wings is, however, a little too red. On the
under side the wings are bright yellow, with the bases and the outer
margin bordered with dark brown. Expanse, ♂, 1.25 inch; ♁, 1.50
inch.
Early Stages.—The caterpillar feeds upon grasses. The life-history
has been described with minute accuracy by Dr. Scudder.

The species ranges from New England to Georgia, and westward
to the Great Plains. It is very common in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
the valley of the Ohio.
Dimorphic var. pocahontas, Scudder, Plate XLVII, Fig. 39, ♁. This
is a melanic, or black, female variety of zabulon, which is not
uncommon. It is remarkable because of the white spots on the
primaries and the dark color of the under side of the wings.
(3) Atrytone taxiles, Edwards, Plate XLVII, Fig. 31, ♂; Fig. 32, ♁
(Taxiles).
Butterfly.—The fore wings on the under side of the male are bright
yellow, black at the base, slightly clouded on the outer margin with
pale brown. The hind wings on the under side in this sex are still
paler yellow, margined externally with pale brown, and crossed near
the base and on the disk by irregular bands of pale brown. In the
female sex the fore wings on the under side are fulvous, marked
much as in the male, but darker, especially toward the apex, where
the subapical spots and two small pale spots beyond the end of the
cell near the outer margin interrupt the brown color. The hind wings
on the under side are pale ferruginous, crossed by bands of lighter
spots, and mottled with darker brown. Expanse, ♂ , 1.45 inch; ♁,
1.50 inch.
The range of this species is from Colorado and Nevada to Arizona.
(4) Atrytone delaware, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 24, ♂; Fig. 25,
♁ (The Delaware Skipper).
Butterfly.—No description of the upper side of the wings is
necessary. On the under side the wings are bright orange-red,
clouded with black at the base and on the outer angle of the fore
wings. Expanse, ♂, 1.25-1.35 inch; ♁, 1.35-1.50 inch.
Early Stages.—Very little is known of these.

The butterfly is found from southern New England and northern
New York as far south as Florida and Texas, ranging west to the
Yellowstone and southern Colorado.
(5) Atrytone melane, Edwards, Plate XLVI, Fig. 7, ♂; Fig. 8, ♁
(The Umber Skipper).
Butterfly.—The male on the upper side somewhat resembles A.
zabulon, var. pocahontas; the female likewise closely resembles
specimens of this variety. The wings on the under side are
ferruginous, clouded with blackish toward the base of the inner
angle, the light spots of the upper side being repeated. The hind
wings on the under side are reddish, with a broad irregular curved
median band of pale-yellow spots. In the female the band of spots is
far more obscure. Expanse, ♂, 1.30 inch; ♁, 1.50 inch.
The insect is found in southern California.
Genus LEREMA, Scudder
Butterfly.—The antennæ are as in the preceding genus; the palpi
have the third joint erect, short, conical. The neuration is
represented in the cut. The male has a linear glandular streak on the
upper side of the fore wing.
Egg.—Hemispherical, covered with more or less regularly
pentagonal cells.
Caterpillar.—The caterpillar feeds upon grasses. The body is
slender, tapering forward and backward; the head is small.
Chrysalis.—The chrysalis is slender, smooth, with a tapering
conical projection at the head, and the tongue-case long and free,
reaching almost to the end of the abdomen.
(1) Lerema accius, Smith and Abbot, Plate XLVIII, Fig. 8, ♂ ;
Plate VI, Fig. 46, chrysalis (Accius).

the genus Lerema,
enlarged.
dark blackish-brown, with three small
subapical spots, and one small spot below
these, near the origin of the third median
nervule. The female is exactly like the male,
except that it has two spots, the larger one
being placed below the small spot
corresponding to the one on the fore wing
of the male. The wings on the under side
are dark fuscous, somewhat clouded with
darker brown, the spots of the upper side
reappearing on the under side. Expanse, ♂,
1.40 inch; ♁, 1.50 inch.
Early Stages.—Very little has been written
upon the early stages.
The butterfly ranges from southern
Connecticut to Florida, thence westward to
Texas, and along the Gulf coast in Mexico.
(2) Lerema hianna, Scudder, Plate XLVI,
Fig. 9, ♂; Fig. 10, ♁ (The Dusted Skipper).
Butterfly.—The upper side is accurately represented in the plate.
The wings on the lower side are as on the upper side, a trifle paler
and somewhat grayer on the outer margin. Expanse, ♂, 1.15 inch;
♁, 1.25 inch.
It ranges through southern New England, westward to Wisconsin,
Iowa, and Nebraska, in a comparatively narrow strip of country.
(3) Lerema carolina, Skinner, Plate XLVI, Fig. 36, ♂ (The
Carolina Skipper).

Butterfly.—On the upper side the butterfly is as represented in the
plate. The spots are repeated on the under side of the fore wing, but
less distinctly defined. The costa is edged with brownish-yellow. The
hind wings on the under side are yellow, spotted with small dark-
brown dots. Expanse, ♂, 1.00 inch. The female is unknown.
Early Stages.—Wholly unknown.
This species has thus far been found only in North Carolina, and is
still extremely rare in collections. The figure in the plate represents
the type. I have seen other specimens. I place it provisionally in the
genus Lerema, though it undoubtedly does not belong here, and
probably may represent a new genus. Lacking material for
dissection, I content myself with this reference.
Genus MEGATHYMUS, Riley
Fig. 181.—Megathymus yuccæ, ♁.
This genus comprises butterflies having very stout bodies, broad
wings, strongly clubbed antennæ, very minute palpi. The caterpillars
are wood-boring in their habits, living in the pith and underground
roots of different species of Yucca. The life-history of the species
represented in the cuts has been well described by the late Professor
C.V. Riley, and the student who is curious to know more about this
remarkable insect will do well to consult the Eighth Annual Report
of the State Entomologist of Missouri (p. 169), or the Transactions
of the St. Louis Academy of Science (vol. iii, p. 323), in which, with

great learning, the author has patiently set forth what is known in
reference to the insect.
Fig. 182.—Megathymus yuccæ: a, egg,
magnified; b, egg from which larva has
escaped; bb, bbb, unhatched eggs, natural size;
c, newly hatched larva, magnified; cc, larva,
natural size; d, head, enlarged to show the
mouth-parts; e, maxillary palpi; f, antenna; g,
labial palpi; h, spinneret.
The genus Megathymus is referred by some writers to the
Castniidæ, a genus of day-flying moths, which seem to connect the
moths with the butterflies; but the consideration of the anatomical
structure of this insect makes such a reference impossible. The
genus properly represents a subfamily of the Hesperiidæ, which
might be named the Megathyminæ. The species represented in our
cuts is Megathymus yuccæ, Boisduval and Leconte. There are a
number of other species of Megathymus that are found in our
Southern States, principally in Texas and Arizona. They are
interesting insects, the life-history of which is, however, in many
cases obscure, as yet.
Conclusion
We here bring to a conclusion our survey of the butterflies of
North America. There are, in addition to the species that have been
described and figured in the plates, about one hundred and twenty-
five other species, principally Hesperiidæ, which have not been
mentioned. The field of exploration has not by any means been

Fig. 183.—Chrysalis of
Megathymus yuccæ.
exhausted, and there is no doubt that in the
lapse of time a number of other species will
be discovered to inhabit our faunal limits.
The writer of these pages would deem it
a great privilege to aid those who are
interested in the subject in naming and
identifying any material which they may not
be able to name and identify by the help of
this book. In laying down his pen, at the end of what has been to
him a pleasurable task, he again renews the hope that what he has
written may tend to stimulate a deeper and more intelligent interest
in the wonders of creative wisdom, and takes occasion to remind the
reader that it is true, as was said by Fabricius, that nature is most to
be admired in those works which are least—Natura maxime
miranda in minimis.

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