Markma Group 4 Chapter 15 Presentation

CHAPTER 15:
DESIGNING AND MANAGING INTEGRATED
MARKETING CHANNELS

GROUP # 4
CRISOSTOMO, KATHLEEN LIZETTE
GALICANO, SITON
JONGCO, KRISTOFFER
PIÑON, RAYMUND

Crisostomo, Kathleen Lizette C.
MARKMA
CHAPTER 15:
DESIGNING AND MANAGING
INTEGRATED MARKETING CHANNELS

Top 10 Concepts
1. Marketing Channel System: Push and Pull
2. Categories of Buyers
3. Decisions in Designing a Marketing Channel System
4. Analyzing customer needs: Channel Service Outputs
5. Identifying Channel Alternatives: Three Elements
6. Channel-Management Decisions
7. Channel Power
8. Channel Integration and Systems
9. Channel Coordination / Channel Conflict
10. E-Commerce Marketing Practices

• Push strategy uses the manufacturer’s sales
force, trade promotion money, and other means
to induce intermediaries to carry, promote, and
sell the product to end users.
- used for low brand loyalty in categories or
impulse items

• A pull strategy uses advertising, promotion, and
other forms of communication to persuade
consumers to demand the product from
intermediaries.
- used when consumers can differentiate brands
well and brand are chosen prior to purchase

Categories of Buyers

• Habitual Buyers
• Same place, same manner

• High value deal seekers
• They know what they need and they
surf before buying at the lowest possible
price

Categories of Buyers
• Variety-loving shoppers
• Gather info through various channels,
take advantage of high-touch services,
then buy in their favorite channel
regardless of price

• High-involvement shoppers
• Gather info through alls channels and
purchase in a low cost channel but takes
advantage of customer support from a
high-touch channel

Decisions in Designing a
Marketing Channel System
A. Analyze customer needs
* Greater service = greater channel costs = higher prices

B. Establish channel objectives
* Which market segment to serve and what best
channel to use

* Which market segment to serve and what best
channel to use
C. Identify major channel alternatives
* Each channel reaches a different segment and
delivers the right product at the least cost

* Which market segment to serve and what best channel to
use
C. Identify major channel alternatives
* Each channel reaches a different segment and delivers the
right product at the least cost
D. Evaluate major channel alternative
* vs. economic, control and adaptive criteria

Analyzing customer needs:
Channel Service Outputs
– Lot size: How many can be purchased on 1
occasion?

?

occasion?
– Waiting and delivery time: The faster, the
better

occasion?
– Waiting and delivery time: The faster, the
better
– Spatial convenience: how easy is it to buy
the product?


– Product variety: more choices = more
chances of finding what is needed


– Service back-up: add-ons

Identifying Channel Alternatives:
Three Elements
1. Types of intermediaries
• Do I need a wholesaler? Retailer? Dealer?

Three Elements
* Do I need a wholesaler? Retailer? Dealer?
2. Number of intermediaries
* Distribution: Exclusive? Selective? Intensive?
* Risk = price wars among retailers

Three Elements
* Do I need a wholesaler? Retailer? Dealer?
2. Number of intermediaries
* Distribution: Exclusive? Selective? Intensive?
* Risk = price wars among retailers
3. Terms and responsibilities
* Respect + Opportunity to make profits

Channel-Management Decisions
Because to the customers, the channels are
Select the company!

Select the company!

Train
Because intermediaries are partners in
satisfying customers!
Motivate

Select the company!

Train
Because intermediaries are partners in
satisfying customers!
Motivate

Evaluate

Is the strategy still working? (external analysis
Modify and current channels)

• Channel Power is the ability to
alter channel’s behavior

• Cooperation is a huge challenge!

Channel Power
a. Coercive power
- Withdraw resource or terminate relationship
b. Reward power
- Extra benefit for performance
c. Legitimate power
- Behavior warranted under the contract
d. Expert power
- Must develop new expertise for them to cooperate
e. Referent power
- Respect causes intermediaries to have pride in the
association

Channel Integration and Systems

Vertical Marketing Systems

-Producer + Wholesaler + Retailer
= Unified system under channel
captain
- Corporate (single ownership),
administered or contractual
(independent firms)



Horizontal - 2 or more unrelated
Marketing Systems companies put together
resources to exploit an
emerging market


- More marketing
channels/ strategies of 1
Horizontal channel reflect the
Marketing Systems strategies of other
channels
- Goal: maximum market
Integrated Multichannel coverage
Marketing Systems

• Channel Coordination – channel
members are brought together to
advance the goals of the channel

• Channel conflict - one member’s
actions prevent another channel
from achieving its goal
* Can be vertical, horizontal or
multichannel

* Online retailers provide convenient,
informative and personalized experiences
without:
• Retail floor space
• Staff
• Inventory
* Customer service is critical: no social
interaction

E-Commerce Marketing Practices
Pure-click

Launched a website without any previous
experience as a firm

Pure-click

Launched a website without any previous
experience as a firm

Brick-and-click

- Existing companies with an added online site
- Risk: conflict with offline intermediaries

Designing and Managing Integrated
Marketing Channels
Galicano Siton
Markma – v57

What is a Marketing Channel?

A marketing channel
Producer
Agent system is the particular
set of interdependent
Retailer
organizations involved in
the process of making a
product or service
Product to the Consumer available for use or
consumption.

Channels and
Marketing Decisions

Producer
A push strategy uses
the manufacturer’s
Consumer Sales Force sales force, trade
promotion money, and
other means to induce
intermediaries to carry,
Retailer Wholesaler
promote, and sell the
product to end users

Channels and
Marketing Decisions
A pull strategy uses Advertise

advertising, Demand
promotion, and Pull Product
other forms of Manufacturer
communication to
persuade consumers
to demand the
product from
intermediaries

Buyer Expectations for
Channel Integration

• Ability to order a product
online and pick it up at a
Ease convenient retail location

Expertise Experience • Ability to return an online-
ordered product to a
Product nearby store

• Right to receive discounts
based on total online and
offline purchases

Category and Types of Buyers

Habitual Quality
Buyers
Service

High Value
deal Seakers

Variety Loving
Shoppers
Buyers

High
Affinity
Price
Involvement
Shoppers Value

Channel Member Functions
Gather Information
• Develop and disseminate persuasive communication

Reach Agreement on price and terms
• Acquire funds to finance inventories

Assume risk and Provide for storage

Provide for buyers payment of their bills
• Supervise actual transfer of ownership

Designing a

Analyze Establish
customer channel
needs objectives

Identify Evaluate
major major
channel channel
alternatives alternatives

Lot size

Waiting/delivery
Service backup
time

Spatial
Product variety
convenience

Identifying Channel Alternatives

• Types of intermediaries
• Number of intermediaries
• Terms and responsibilities

Number of Intermediaries
• Exclusive
• Selective
• Intensive

Terms and Responsibilities
of Channel Members

• Price policy
• Condition of sale
• Distributors’ territorial rights
• Mutual services and responsibilities


Select

Modify Train

Evaluate Motivate

Channel Power

• Coercive
• Reward
• Legitimate
• Expert
• Referent


Vertical marketing systems
• Corporate VMS
• Administered VMS
• Contractual VMS
Horizontal marketing systems
Multichannel systems

What is Channel Conflict?
• Channel conflict occurs when one member’s
actions prevent another channel from
achieving its goal.
• Types of channel conflict
– Vertical
– Horizontal
– Multichannel

Causes of Channel Conflict
• Goal incompatibility
• Unclear roles and rights
• Differences in perception
• Intermediaries’ dependence on manufacturer

Table 15.3 Strategies for Managing Channel
Conflict
• Adoption of • Cooptation
superordinate goals • Diplomacy
• Exchange of employees • Mediation
• Joint membership in • Arbitration
trade associations • Legal recourse

Designing & Managing Integrated Marketing
Channels

Kristoffer Z. Jongco
Marketing Management

www.kristofjongco.blogspot.com

Outline:

1. Defining Marketing Channels
2. Importance of Marketing Channels
3. Understand Customer Needs
4. Role of Marketing Channels
5. Channel Design Decisions
6. Establish Objectives & Constraints


Outline:

7. Identify & Evaluate Major Channel Alternatives
8. Channel Management Decisions
9. Channel Integration & Systems
10. Channel Conflict, Cooperation & Competition


Marketing Channels
(10 Things to Remember)


1. Marketing Channels

Means by which firms attempt to inform, persuade, and remind consumers,
directly or indirectly, about the products and brands they sell

2. Importance of Marketing Channels

New Ideas Increase Profits


3. Understand Customer Needs

Customers Product/Services


4.Role of Marketing Channels

0 Level

1 Level

2 Level

Manufacturer 3 Level

Manufacturer’s Industrial Industrial
Sales Branch Distributor Customer


5.Channel Design Decisions

Analyze Customer Needs Decisions


6.Establish Objectives & Constraints

Channel

Objective

Product

Prepare for larger environment


Outline:

7. Identify & Evaluate Major Channel Alternatives
8. Channel Management Decisions
9. Channel Integration & Systems
10. Channel Conflict, Cooperation &
Competition


7.Identify & Evaluate Major Channel
Alternatives

Selective Distribution Exclusive Distribution Intensive Distribution


8.Channel Management Decisions

Select
Train
Motivate CHANNEL
Evaluate MEMBERS
Modify

9.Channel Integration & Systems

Vertical System Horizontal System Multi Channel System


10. Channel Conflict, Cooperation &
Competition
Conflict

Cooperate

Competition


Summary:
Designing and Marketing Integration Marketing
Channels

Think
Profit

Cooperate

Channels Decision
Customer Needs


Chap. 15
Marketing Channels

Raymund C. Piñon
Marketing Management V57
Prof. Bong De Ungria

Outline
• 6th Task of Marketing – Delivering Customer Value
• Marketing channels: definition, importance, examples
• Functions of marketing channels
• Flows and levels of marketing channels
• Value networks – a broader view of customer value delivery
• How to design marketing channels
• Challenges in managing channels
• Integrated marketing channels – a new development
• Channel conflicts and how they are managed
• Key issues with e-commerce

Recall: Marketing is…
• A system of profitably creating, DELIVERING
and communicating superior VALUE to satisfy
customers’ needs, wants and demands better
than competition.

To achieve this,
the 6th Task of Marketing is…
1. Developing marketing strategies and plans
2. Capturing marketing insights and
performance
3. Connecting with customers
4. Building strong brands
5. Shaping the marketing offer
6. Delivering and communicating value
7. Creating successful long-term growth

1st some definitions
• Marketing Channels, Trade Channels, Distribution Channels
– A set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making products or services
available for use or consumption
– A set of pathways a product or service follows after production, culminating in purchase and
use by the final end-user
– Intermediaries performing a variety of functions
• Value-delivery network
– A company’s supply chain and how it partners with specific suppliers and distributors to make
products and bring them to markets
• Value-delivery system
– All the expectancies the customers will have on the way to obtaining and using the offering
• Value networks
– A system of partnerships and alliances that a firm creates to source, augment and deliver its
offerings

Examples of Intermediaries

• Merchants
– Wholesalers and Retailers
– Buy, take title to goods, resell
• Agents
– Brokers, manufacturers’ representatives, sales agents
– Look for customers, negotiate for producer, don’t take title to
goods
• Facilitators
– Transportation companies, warehouses banks, advertising
agencies
– Assist in the distribution process but don’t take title to goods
nor negotiate on purchases or sales

Why are Channels Important?
Channel functions and flows
• Gather marketing information
• Develop and disseminate persuasive communications
• Reach agreement on prices and terms to effect transfer of ownership or
possession of goods
• Place order with manufacturers
• Acquire funds to finance inventory
• Assume risks for carrying out channel functions
• Provide for storage and movement of physical products
• Provide for buyers’ payment of bills through banks
• Oversee actual transfer of ownership of goods
• Convert potential buyers into profitable customers

Why are Channels Important?
Marketing channel system
• Choice of particular set of marketing channels a firm
employs is critical
– They account for 30% to 50% of SRP
– They can convert potential buyers to profitable customers
– Channel decisions affect all other marketing decisions
• Pricing
• Sales force and advertising decisions
• Involve long-term commitments with other firms
as well as a set of policies and procedures
• Channel decisions must align with overall strategy

So (again) Step #1 is…
Understanding Customer Needs
Consumers choose where to buy based on:
• Price

• Product assortment

• Convenience

• Personal shopping goals
Marketers using different channels must be aware that
different consumers have different needs
during the buying process

There are 5 marketing flows in a marketing channel
Physical Flow
Transporters, Transporters,
Suppliers Manufacturer Dealers Transporters Customers
Warehouses Warehouses

Title Flow
Suppliers Manufacturer Dealers Customers

Payment Flow
Suppliers Banks Manufacturer Banks Dealers Banks Customers

Information Flow

Transporters, Transporters,
Transporters,
Suppliers Warehouses, Manufacturer Warehouses, Dealers Customers
Banks
Banks Banks

Promotions Flow
Advertising Advertising
Suppliers Manufacturer Dealers Customers
agencies agencies

Channel Levels (Paths)
There are different levels of marketing channels in
consumer and industrial markets
Consumer Marketing Channels Industrial Marketing Channels
0-level 1-level 2-level 3-level 0-level 1-level 2-level 3-level
Manufacturer Manufacturer Manufacturer Manufacturer Manufacturer Manufacturer Manufacturer Manufacturer

Wholesaler Wholesaler Manufacturer’s Manufacturer’s
Representative Sales Branch

Jobber

Industrial
distributor
Retailer Retailer Retailer

Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial
Consumer Consumer Consumer Consumer customers customers customers customers

A broader view of delivering customer value:
Value Networks
Partnerships created to source, augment & deliver offerings
• From a linear view -> Supply Chain
– See markets as destinations

• To a customer-centric view -> Demand Chain Planning
– Emphasize what customers are looking for instead of what we are selling
– SIVA 4-Ps
• Solutions Product
• Information Promotions
• Value Price
• Access Placement

• To a broad view of customer value delivery -> Value Networks
– Seeing the company at the center of a value network
– Include suppliers, suppliers’ suppliers, immediate customers and their end customers
– A company needs to orchestrate these parties in order to deliver superior value to the target
market
– Managing value chains require increased investments in IT and software
• SCM
• SAP, Oracle
• ERP
• CRM

Channel Design Decisions
What are key issues in designing channels?

1. Analyzing customer needs

2. Establishing channel objectives

3. Evaluating major channel alternatives

In Channel Design, Step #1 is…
Analyze customers’ desired service output level

There are 5 channel service outputs

• Lot size – customers prefer lot size of one

• Waiting and delivery time – fast delivery channels

• Spatial convenience – ease of purchase

• Product variety – greater assortment

• Service back-up – credit, delivery, service, repair, training, consulting

Note: increased service output = increased channel costs, and increased prices to
consumers. Some customers are willing to accept smaller service outputs if
they could save on costs

Channel Design Decision Step #2 is…
Establishing channel objectives and constraints

• State channel target service output level

• Arrange channel tasks to minimize total channel costs and provide
desired service level output

• Choose market segments to serve and best channels for each

• In entering new markets, observe what competitors are doing

• Adapt channel objectives to larger environmental context
– E.g. During depression – use shorter channels to maintain price
– E.g. Note legal constraints – vs. monopoly

In establishing channel objectives and constraints

• Vary objectives to suit product characteristics

– For perishables – direct marketing

– For bulky (building materials) – minimize shipping distance and
amount of handling
– Nonstandard products (custom-built machinery) – sales force
– Products needing installation or maintenance (heating or cooling
systems) – sales force or franchised dealers
– High-unit value products (generators of turbines) – sales force

In Channel Design Decision, Step #3 is…
Identifying and evaluating major channel alternatives

Choose a mix of channels that reach different segments
of buyers and delivers the right products at the least cost

Channel Advantages Disadvantages

Sales Force or Can handle complex products Too expensive
owned branches and transactions

Internet, Less expensive Not effective with complex
telemarketing products

Distributors Can create sales Customer contact by company is
lost
Manufacturer’s Able to contact customers at Selling effort per customer is less
representatives low cost per customer intense than if company reps did
because several clients share the selling
costs

In Evaluating Channels
Consider 3 elements of channel alternatives

1. What types of business intermediaries are available?
2. How many intermediaries are needed?
– Exclusive distribution – limited number of intermediaries
• Maintain control of service levels and outputs offered by intermediaries

– Selective distribution – few but less than all
• Gain adequate market coverage, more control, less cost

– Intensive distribution
• Places its products in as many outlets as possible

3. What are the terms, and what are the responsibilities of each channel
members?

In Channel Design
Evaluate major channel alternatives using…

• Economic criteria

• Control criteria

• Adaptive criteria

Economic criteria in channel evaluation
Each channel alternative will generate different
levels of sales and costs

high
Sales
Value- force
Added
partners

Direct sales
Value-Added of Sales

Distributors
channels
Retail
Stores
Telemarketing “Indirect” channels

Internet Direct marketing
low channels

low high
Cost per Transaction

Try to align customers and channels to maximize demand at the lowest overall cost

Control and adaptive criteria in evaluation
• Using sales agency poses control problems for you
– They are independent firms seeking to maximize profits
– They concentrate on customers who buy
– They may not master technical details of product or handle
promotions effectively

• In rapidly changing, volatile, or uncertain product
markets, producers need channel structures and policies
that provide high adaptability

Channel Management Decisions
After choosing a channel system, the company must:

1. Select individual channel members

2. Train and motivate channel members

3. Evaluate individual channel members

4. Modify channel design and arrangements
over time


1. Set criteria for selection of channel members
– Number of years in business
– Other lines carried
– Growth and profit records
– Financial strength
– Cooperativeness
– Service reputation
– Size and quality of sales force
– Location
– Type of clientele
– Future growth potential


– Understand intermediaries’ needs and wants
– Construct a channel positioning
– Implement capacity-building programs
• Training
• Market research
– Exercise channel power to compel action


– Types of power to elicit cooperation
• Coercive power
– Threaten to withdraw a resource or terminate a relationship
• Reward power
– Higher margins, deals, premiums, cooperative advertising
allowances, display allowances, sales contest, bonuses
• Legitimate power
– Use contract agreements to force compliance
• Expert power
– Posses special knowledge the intermediary values
• Referent power
– Intermediary feels proud to be associated with producer

In motivating channel members

2. Forge long-term partnerships by clarifying expectations
– Market coverage
– Inventory levels
– Marketing development
– Account solicitation
– Technical advise and services
– Marketing information

In motivating channel members

2. Streamline supply chain and cut costs:
ECR – Efficient Consumer Response practices
help organize relationship in 3 areas:
– Demand-side management
• Stimulate demand with joint sales
and marketing activities

– Supply-side management
• Focus on logistics and supply chain
activities to optimize supply

– Enablers and integrators
• Use IT and process improvement tools
to support joint activities


3. Evaluate individual channel members on…
– Sales quota achievement
– Average inventory levels
– Customer delivery time
– Treatment of damaged
and lost goods
– Cooperation in training
and promotions programs

Note: underperformers need to be counseled,
retrained, motivated or terminated


4. Modify channel design and arrangements over time when:
– Channel is not working as planned
– Consumer buying patterns change
– Market expands
– New competition arises
– Innovative distribution channels emerge
– Product moves into later stages of PLC

Note: change may mean adding or dropping individual
channel members, adding or dropping market channels,
or developing totally new ways to sell goods

In managing channels, how much effort to
devote to push or pull?
• Push strategy
– for low-involvement, impulse products
– Use sales force, trade promo to induce
intermediaries to carry, promote and
sell products to end-users

• Pull strategy
– For high-involvement, differentiated offers
– Use advertising, consumer promotions
and other forms of communication to
persuade consumers to demand the
product from intermediaries

Some of the recent developments in channels

• Vertical Marketing Systems
– Corporate VMS
– Administered VMS
– Contractual VMS
– New competition in retailing

• Horizontal Marketing Systems

• Integrating Multi-channel
Marketing Systems


• Vertical Marketing Systems
– Producer, wholesaler(s) and retailer(s)
acting as a unified system
– Channel captain owns others or
franchises them or has so much
power that they all cooperate
– Strong channel members’ attempts
to control channel behavior and
eliminate conflict
– Achieve economies of scale via size,
bargaining power, and elimination
of duplicate services
– Provides extensive exchange of information


• New competition in retailing
– Is no longer between independent business units
but between
• whole systems of centrally-planned networks
(Corporate, administered, and contractual)

• competing against one another

• to achieve the best economies and customer response


• Horizontal Marketing Systems
– Two or more unrelated companies
put together resources or programs to
exploit an emerging marketing opportunity

– Each company lacks capital, know-how,
production or marketing resources
to venture alone or is afraid of the risks

– Arrangements may be temporary,
permanent or result in joint-venture company


• Integrating Multi-channel Marketing Systems
– Multi-channel marketing
• A company uses two or more channels to reach one or more
customer segments

– Integrated marketing channel system
• Strategies and tactics of selling through one channel reflects
the strategies and tactics of selling through other channels

3 benefits of multi-channel marketing systems
• Increased market coverage
– Customers can shop for company
products in more places
– Multi-channel shoppers are
more profitable customers

• Lower channel cost
– Selling by phone is cheaper than selling
by personal visit to small customers

• More customized selling
– Adding a technical sales force to
sell more complex products

Disadvantages of multi-channel marketing systems
• Channel conflicts
– Channels competing for same customer
– New channels independent and makes
cooperation difficult

• Problems with control
– Execution of merchandizing and
promotions programs
– Market coverage and frequency
of visits to customers
– Inventory levels
– Handling of customer complaints,
returns and damaged goods
– Allocation of effort to other principals
served by intermediaries

In Channel Architecture
Demand-generation Tasks
Determine which channels should perform which functions
Better Disseminate Reach Pace Acquire Assume Facilitate Facilitate Oversee
Information information price orders funds for risks product payment ownership
agreement inventories storage & terms
movement

Internet

National
account
Marketing channels and Methods

management

Direct sales

Tele-

Customer
marketing
Vendor

Direct mail

Retail stores

Distributors

Dealers and
value-added
resellers
Advertising

Multi-channel architecture optimizes coverage, customization and control,
while minimizing costs and conflict

Conflict, Cooperation and Competition
Causes of channel conflicts

• Goal incompatibility
– Low-price market penetration strategy vs.
high-margin, short-run profitability

• Unclear roles and rights
– Territorial boundaries
– Sales crediting

• Differences in perception
– Optimistic vs. pessimistic views on business prospects
– Differences in perception about advertising strategy

• Intermediaries’ dependence on the manufacturer
– Exclusive dealers are at the mercy of manufacturers’
product and pricing policies

Conflict, Cooperation and Competition
Management of channel conflicts

• As companies add channels to grow sales, they risk creating channel conflicts

• Too much conflict is dysfunctional

• The challenge is not to eliminate conflicts but to manage them through
– Adoption of super-ordinate goals – agree on goals they jointly seek
– Exchange of employees – e.g. between manufacturer and dealer
– Joint membership in trade associations – manufacturers and marketers
– Co-optation – include leaders in boards, advisory councils
– Diplomacy, mediation, or arbitration – conflict resolution methods
– Legal recourse

Some definitions
• E-business
– Use of electronic means and platforms to conduct a company’s
business
• E-commerce
– Company or site offers to transact or facilitate the selling of products
and services online

• E-purchasing
– Purchase of goods, services and information from online sources

• E-marketing
– Efforts to inform buyers, communicate, promote and sell company
products and services over the internet

Some advantages

• Provides convenient, informative and personalized
experiences for different types of customers

• Allows online retailers to sell low-volume products to
niche markets at lesser or no cost in maintaining retail
floor space, staff, and inventory

3 Aspects of online transactions in retailing competition

• Customer interaction with the Website

• Delivery of the product

• Ability to address problems when they occur

2 Types of Online Competitors

• Pure-Click Companies
– Launched a website without previous existence as a company
• Search engines
• ISPs
• Commerce sites – amazon.com, buy.com
– sell all types of products and services – books, music, toys, stocks, clothes,
insurance, financial services
• Transaction sites
• Content sites
• Enabler sites

• Brick-and-Click Companies
– Existing companies that have added an online site for information or
e-commerce

Issues of using online channels for Brick-and-Click
and how to handle them

• Potential channel conflict with retailers, brokers, agents
and branch outlets

• How to sell both to intermediaries and online?
– Offer different brands or products online

– Offer off-line partners higher commissions to offset
negative impact on sales

– Take orders on the web but have retailers deliver and
collect payment

M-Commerce
• Wireless internet-connectivity to do business
• Location-based services

Summary of Top 10 Concepts
• 6th Task of Marketing – Delivering Customer Value
• Marketing channels: definition, importance, examples
• Functions of marketing channels
• Flows and levels of marketing channels
• Value networks – a broader view of customer value delivery
• How to design marketing channels
• Challenges in managing channels
• Integrated marketing channels – a new development
• Channel conflicts and how they are managed
• Key issues with e-commerce

Markma Group 4 Chapter 15 Presentation

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