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This document summarizes mechanisms of insecticide resistance in insects and its management. It discusses how resistance can develop due to behavioral adaptations, reduced penetration of insecticides, target site insensitivity, and enhanced detoxification. Target site insensitivity can occur via nerve insensitivity, acetylcholinesterase insensitivity, or reduced binding at midgut target sites. Enhanced detoxification involves increased activity of enzymes like cytochrome P450s, carboxylesterases, and glutathione S-transferases. Case studies provide examples of resistance developing in insect populations exposed to insecticides over multiple generations. Effective resistance management requires using a combination of control strategies.

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10/12/20151 WELCOME
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL & HORTICULTURAL SCIENCES, SHIMOGA Seminar- I SACHIN, U. S Sr. M. Sc. (Hort. ) Dept. of Horticultural Entomology COLLEGE OF HORTICULTURE, MUDIGERE 10/12/20152
10/12/20153 Mechanisms of Insecticide Resistance in insects and its Management
Topic division 10/12/20154 I. Introduction History Insecticide resistance Terms used Genetics of resistance II. Mechanisms of Resistance with case studies III. Factors favorable to rapid development of resistance IV. Management of Insecticide Resistance with case studies V. Conclusion
Fig. 1: Dynamics of increase of the resistant species of arthropods in the world. 10/12/2015 5 Sokolyanskaya, 2010
5/8/20146 Table.1: Resistant insect and mite species according to economic importance Economic importance Number of species Percentage of total Agricultural 283 56.1 Medical/ Veterinary 198 39.3 Beneficial 23 4.6 Total 504 Simon, 2008
Table.2: Occurrence of resistance in insects and mites according to pesticide chemical group 10/12/20157 Chemical group Number of species Percentage of total Cyclodiene 291 57.7 DDT 263 52.2 Organophosphate 260 51.6 Carbamate 85 16.9 Pyrethroid 48 9.5 Fumigant 12 2.4 Others 40 7.9 (Simon, 2008)
Order Chemical group Cyclodienes DDT OP Carbamates Pyrethroids Fumigant Other Diptera 108 107 62 11 10 - 1 Lepidoptera 41 41 34 14 10 - 2 Coleoptera 57 24 26 9 4 8 5 Hemiptera 31 22 36 14 5 3 1 Others 23 21 9 3 1 - 2 Acarina 16 18 45 13 2 - 27 Total 276 233 212 64 32 11 38 % 66 52 47 14 7 2 9 10/12/20158 Table.3: Number of species of insects and mites reported resistant to insecticides till 1984 (chemical groupwise) (Gour and Sridevi,
Insecticide Resistance An added ability to withstand an insecticide acquired by breeding of those individuals which survive exposures to that particular toxicant insufficient to wipe out the whole colony. (Hoskins and Gordon, 1956) An inherited ability to tolerate dosage of insecticide that would be lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal wild populations of same species. (WHO, 1957). 10/12/2015 9
Table.4: Terms used Insecticide Insecticide is a toxic substance that kills insects or eliminates disease-transmitting pests/vectors Cross Resistance It refers to a type of resistance in which a pest population develops resistance to more than one pesticide within a chemical family (e.g., organophosphate insecticides, etc.). Multiple Resistance It involves multiple, independent resistance mechanisms, which often lead to resistance to chemicals from different families (i.e., organophosphate and carbamate insecticides) 10/12/2015 10 Karunamurthy and Sabesan, 2013
Insecticide Resistance Management It is an effort to slow down or prevent the development of resistance. Insecticide Combination The use of two or more insecticide applications within a field, instead of single. Insecticide Mixture Two or more compounds are mixed within a single product or formulation Synergist A substance which does not itself have insecticidal properties, but which, when mixed or applied with insecticides of a particular class, considerably enhances their potency. 10/12/2015 11 Karunamurthy and Sabesan, 2013
Resistance is Biphasic Phase I- Due to selection of variants in the population according to genetic principle, the resistance which is initially present in the population is expressed. Phase II- Acceleration of resistance takes place by induction of pre-existing detoxifying enzymes towards enhanced activity, resulting in faster breakdown of the chemicals. 10/12/2015 12 Saxena, 1996
10/12/201513 Fig.2: Pesticide resistance can build up in the pest population when a change in the genetic characteristic of the pest population is inherited from one generation to the next. Increased or frequent use of pesticides often hastens resistance(Goodell et al. 2001)
Genetics of resistance 10/12/201514 1. Preadaptation : Resistance is preadaptive Eg: Resistance to DDT in House flies was eight times higher than in original strain 2. Gene frequency : Low in original natural population (0.0001 to 0.01%) High in wild & resistance population Eg.: Mosquito in Nigeria – Dieldrin-R gene @ 0.4-0.6% (Simon, 2008)
3. Dominance and number of genes 10/12/201515 Resistant gene can be dominant, recessive, incomplete dominant or incomplete recessive. Carbmates & OP’s Dominant or incomplete dominant DDT, Bt & Spinosyns Recessive Dieldrin Incomplete dominant Pyrethroid Incomplete recessive Single gene High resistance (Simon, 2008)
Table 5: Rate development of resistance to fenvalerate and Deltamethrin in the parental field strain of Spodoptera litoralis 10/12/2015 16 Strain and generation tested Fenvalerate (R-FN strain) Deltamethrin (R-DM strain) Selecting concentration (mg/lit.) LD50 a RRb Selecting concentration (mg/lit.) LD50 a RRb S-FM strain 0.46 1 0.021 1 P- strain 5 0.65 1.4 0.36 0.037 1.8 F1 5 0.54 1.2 0.36 0.032 1.5 F2 5 0.61 1.3 0.36 0.031 1.5 F3 6 0.84 1.8 0.36 0.032 1.5 F4 6 0.80 1.7 0.54 0.042 2.0 F5 6 0.88 1.4 0.54 0.045 2.1 F6 8 0.75 1.6 0.54 0.039 1.8 F7 12 1.35 2.9 0.72 0.045 2.1 F8 16 1.49 3.2 0.90 0.047 2.2 F9 20 2.27 4.9 1.44 0.088 4.2 (Riskallah et al. 1983, Egypt) a-As μg/g body weight. b-Resistance ratio=LD50 of tested generation/ LD50 of S-FM strain
Cont ……. 10/12/201517 F10 30 2.31 5.0 1.80 0.091 4.3 F11 40 2.43 5.3 2.16 0.130 6.2 F12 50 2.49 5.4 2.52 0.140 6.7 F13 60 2.73 5.9 2.88 0.150 7.1 F14 70 3.18 6.9 3.24 0.180 8.6 F15 80 4.24 9.2 3.60 0.190 9.0 F16 90 4.32 9.3 3.96 0.210 10.0 F17 100 4.25 9.2 4.32 0.270 12.8 F18 120 5.93 12.9 4.68 0.320 15.2 F19 140 7.00 15.2 5.04 0.350 16.7 F20 160 10.20 22.2 5.40 0.410 19.5 F21 180 12.10 26.4 5.76 0.420 20.1 F22 200 13.20 28.8 6.12 0.440 21.0 F23 15.10 32.8 0.570 27.1 Riskallah, et al. 1983
10/12/201518 Mechanisms of Resistance
10/12/201519 I. Behavioral Resistance II. Physiological Resistance Reduced penetration Target site insensitivity Enhanced detoxification (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201520 I. Behavioral Resistance Development of ability to avoid a dose that would prove lethal. Stimulus dependent & matter of Hypersensitivity or Hyperirritability •Avoid lethal dose or treated surface •Leg Autotomy (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201521 Legs dropped No. moths % Moths in each activity state Dead Knocked down Active 0 94 31 12 57 1 46 20 10 70 2 30 20 7 73 3 5 0 20 80 4 1 0 0 100 1-4 82 18 10 72 Table.5:Leg-drop and activity status of diamondback adults at 48 h after walking on fenvalrate residues (1,000 mg/cm2) for 5 min (Moore et al.,
10/12/201522 Fig.3: Scheme of potential Behavioral and physiological changes associated with Resistance in insect (a) Susceptible insect, (b) Resistant insect (Corbell and Guessan, 2013)
10/12/201523 • Reduced penetration • Target site insensitivity • Enhanced detoxification II Physiological Resistance (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201524 A. Reduced penetration • Cuticle contains more protein and Lipid. • Increased sclerotization. • Binding protein and Lipid reservoir traps insecticide in the cuticle. • Slight resistance. (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201525 Fig.4: Means and variation in cuticle thicknesses (with 95% limits) of two samples of An. funestus. (Wood, et al. 2010, South Africa)
Fig.5: Time-to-knockdown (KDT) during exposure to permethrin vs. mean cuticle thickness (microns). 10/12/201526 (Wood, et al. 2010, South Africa)
10/12/201527 • Reduced penetration alone- low level of Resistance Reduced penetration + Other mechanism- high level of resistance (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201528 B. Target site insensitivity (Simon, 2008)
Types 10/12/201529 • Nerve insensitivity • AchE insensitivity • Reduction in midgut target site binding (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201530 Structure of Neuron and Nerve transmission Vesicles with ACh AChE Receptor site axon
Mode of action of different chemicals 10/12/201531
10/12/201532 Nerve insensitivity • DDT and Pyrethroid Resistant strain Insensitive Na+ channel • Cyclodiene- Point mutation in GABA receptor protein (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201 5 33 AChE insensitivity • OP and carbamates resistant strains Insensitive AChE enzyme • Point mutation in receptor protein (Simon, 2008)
Reduction in midgut target site binding 10/12/2015 34  Reduced binding of toxin  Disruption of Cadherin superfamily gene. Tobacco bud worms-showed high levels of resistance to Cry1Ac Pink boll worm- alteration in BtR-4 gene  Alteration of sugar structure- affects Bt toxin attachment
Fig.6: The resistance development to chlorantraniliprole in the S strain of P. xylostella. 10/12/201535 (Gong, et al. 2014)
10/12/201536 C. Enhanced detoxification insecticide Detoxification of insecticides by enzymes Target site (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201537 • Detoxifying Enzymes a. Hydrolases –Carboxyl Esterase (CarE) i. Esterase gene amplification ii. Esterase mutation b. Mixed fuction oxidases (MFO’s) Cytochrome P450 monoxygenases (P450) c. Glutathion-S-transferases (GST) (Simon, 2008)
10/12/201538 Fig. 7: The three Principal types of insecticide resistance mechanisms in cross section through susceptible and resistant insects. (Karunamurthy and Sabesan, 2013)
10/12/201539 Resistance profile OPs Carbaryl, methomyl & Propoxur Carbofuran Synthetic pyrethroids IGRs Resistance mechanism involved Multifactorial Monofactorial Monofactorial Monofactorial Monofact orial Responsible biochemical entities Insensitivity, AChE, Carboxylesterase MFO’s MFO’s MFO’s MFO’s Resistance amplitude medium high high high high Table.7: Important mechanisms in DBM insecticide resistance (Cheng et al. 1998)
10/12/201540 Enzyme Strain Enzyme activity Rate P450 S 33.12± 4.48 a 1.00 GDLZ- R 35.94± 1.77 a 1.08 CarE S 37.52± 2.16 a 1.00 GDLZ- R 42.74± 10.06 a 1.14 GST S 10.20± 0.39 a 1.00 GDLZ- R 34.12± 9.69 b 3.34 Table.8: Activities of detoxification enzymes in different strains of P. xylostella L. against chlorantraniliprole (Zhen-di et al., 2014, China)
10/12/2015 41 Fig.8a: P450 activity of control and chlorantraniliprole exposed P.xylostella L. larvae after 6 h, 12h and 24h exposure. Data represent the mean ±SE of three replicates. “*” indicate significant difference from control and chlorantraniliprole exposure for 6 h, 12 h in S strain where *α=0.05. (Zhen-di, et al. 2014)
10/12/201542 Fig. 8b: CarE activity of control and chlorantraniliprole exposed P.xylostella L. larvae after 6 h, 12 h and 24 h exposure. Data represent the mean ±SE of three replicates. “*”indicate significant difference from control and chlorantraniliprole exposure for 6 h in S strain where *α=0.05. (Zhen-di, et al. 2014)
10/12/201543 Fig.8c : GST activity of control and chlorantraniliprole exposed P.xylostella L. larvae after 6 h, 12 h and 24 h exposure. Data represent the mean ±SE of three replicates. “*” indicate significant difference from control and chlorantraniliprole exposure for 6 h in susceptible strain and 12 h, 24 h in GDLZ-R strain where *α=0.05. (Zhen-di, et al. 2014)
Table.9: Mode of resistance and number of cytochrome P450s, carboxylesterases, esterases and transferases among the genomes of blood-feeding insects 10/12/201544 Mode of resistance Pediculus humanus Anopheles gambiae Culex quinquefasciatus Aedes aegypti Cimex lectularius * TSR MR & TSR MR & TSR MR & TSR MR & TSR P450 37 106 172 158 73# CES Not reported 25 47 30 - EST 17 15 17 19 - TRA 13 31 37 32 14# MR = metabolic resistance; TSR=target sensitivity resistance; P450 = cytochrome P450s; CES = carboxylesterases; EST = esterases; TRA = transferases; # = occurrences; * as per 454 pyrosequencing data, not complete genome of the bed bug (Mamidala, et al. 2011)
Table.10: Comparison of EST, GST and AChE activities in nine different populations of Oxya chinensis (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 10/12/201545 Population EST specific activitya (μ mol/min/mg protein) GST specific activitya (μ mol/min/mg protein) AChE specific activityb (μ mol/min/mg protein) XY 0.17±0.04e 79.19±41.22bcd 9.34±3.48a JY 0.36±0.10ab 83.68±46.11bcd 9.26±1.61a BDG 0.30±0.07c 96.37±45.40b 8.32±1.77a YC 0.10±0.01f 52.64±9.44d 4.83±0.78bc XX 0.25±0.06d 89.28±55.14bc 9.02±3.30a HZ 0.33±0.03bc 67.11±15.43bcd 2.80±0.70c BD 0.32±0.04bc 166.95±31.88a 2.18±0.46c CA 0.12±0.04f 81.42±32.52bcd 7.00±1.54ab JN 0.37±0.08a 73.83±48.67bcd 3.49±0.60c (Haihua, et al. 2007, China) a Average of 64 individual thoraxes, each with triplicate analyses. b Average of four groups of heads, each with triplicate analyses.
Table.11: Metabolic enzyme activities of fourth instars from the SZ strain and the Fipronil-resistant SZ-F strain of Plutella xylostella. 10/12/201546 Detoxification enzyme Specific activity (Mean ± SE) SZ strain (susceptible) SZ-F strain (resistant) Ratio (SZ-F/SZ) Oxidases (pmol/min/mg protein) PNOD 0.26±0.06 0.28±0.04 1.07 ECOD 1.63±0.51 1.83±0.34 1.12 MCOD 4.52±1.1 4.71±0.59 1.04 Esterases (nmol/min/mg protein) α-NA esterase 102.2±12 108.5±4.1 1.06 GSTs (nmol/min/mg protein) CDNB conjugation 179.1±58 191.6±7.7 1.07 DCNB conjugation 5.06±0.3 5.74±0.31 1.13 P > 0.05; t- test (Ageng et al. 2006, China)
Table.12:Resistance levels of Plutella xylostella strains to Acephate 10/12/201547 Strain n LC50(mg/L) 95%CL RR SS 288 16.8 14.0-20.3 1 OR 215 3316.7 2683.3-4253.6 197.4 KU-10 165 581.5 439.6-787.5 34.6 SMN 43 255.0 51.1-754.4 15.2 WH 252 90.2 59.3-129.1 5.4 BJ1-10 333 308.0 195.5-488.3 18.3 BJ3 91 1307.2 894.0-2092.8 77.8 RR: resistant ratio= LC50 of strains tested/LC50 of SS strain. (Sonoda, et al. 2014)
Table.13: Mean resistance frequency * (%) to different chemistries in H. armigera population of Tamilnadu (a comparision among the three locations) 10/12/201548 Insecticides Coimbatore Poluvampatty Madukarai Fenvalerate 95.0 97.2 93.4 Cypermethrin 96.7 97.4 93.3 Deltamethrin 91.9 95.4 88.9 Lamdacyhalothrin 91.5 91.9 86.3 Betacyfluthrin 81.8 89.4 81.4 Quinalphos 49.2 34.4 38.9 Chlorpyrifos 49.3 46.6 44.0 Profenofos 35.4 24.5 27.8 Endosulfan 36.5 26.0 29.4 Thiodicarb 36.2 32.1 33.3 Spinosad 0.0 0.0 0.0 *Mean of resistance frequency data obtained for 49 weeks (June 2002- April 2003) (Ramasubramaniam and Ragupathy, 2004, Coimbatore)
10/12/201549 • Prolonged exposure to a single insecticide • High selection pressure • Large coverage area • Immigration or Migratory • Insects multiplying by asexual means • Short life cycle of insect • Selection at every stage of insect life cycle
Table.14: Biological, genetic, and operational factors in resistance development. 10/12/2015 50 Factor Potential for resistance development Lower Higher Biological factors Population size Small Large Reproductive potential Low High Generation turnover One or less generations per year Many generations per year Pesticide metabolism Difficult Easy Number of target sites of the pesticide Multiple sites Single Specific Pest host range Narrow Wide International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
10/12/201551 Factor Potential for resistance development Lower Higher Genetic factors Occurrence of resistance genes Absent Present Number of resistance mechanisms One Several Gene frequency Low High Dominance of resistance genes Recessive Dominant Fitness of “R” individuals Poor Good Cross resistance Negative or none Positive Modifying genes Absent Present International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
10/12/2015 52 Factor Potential for resistance development Lower Higher Operational factors Activity spectrum of the pesticide Narrow spectrum Broad spectrum Pesticide application rate Less More Presence of secondary pests Absent (only the target pest is treated) Present (non targeted (potential) pests are also treated) Pest control tactics Multiple control tactics (chemical, biological, cultural) Continuous use of single method or compound International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
10/12/201553 Management of Insecticide Resistance  Integrated pest management • Grow trap crops • Inundative release of Biological agents • Swabbing & stem banding • Judicious use of insecticides (Need based & Recommended dose) • The use of insecticide synergists • Window system of pesticide application • Insecticide rotation • Area wide management
Table.15: Phases of resistance monitoring and management for a new pesticide 10/12/201554 Timing Resistance detection and monitoring activities Other management activities 1-2 years before start of sales Establish sampling and testing methods & Survey for initial sensitivity data Assess risk During years of use Monitor randomly in treated areas for resistance, if justified by risk assessment of special importance of crop/pest Implement the RMP; watch practical performance of the pesticide closely International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
10/12/201555 As soon as signs of resistance have been detected Monitor to determine the extent and practical significance of resistance Study cross resistance, fitness of variants of resistant organisms, assess other factors affecting the development of resistance If resistance problem is confirmed, review and modify RMP Subsequently Monitor rate of spread or decline of resistance Watch pesticide performance; review RMPs International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
Figure. 11: Swabbing with mineral oil & 10/12/2015 56 (Ayyasamy & Regupathy, 2010, Tamil Nadu) Stem banding with black polythene sheet
Table.16: Mean synergistic suppression (%) of insecticide resistance by MFO and CE inhibitors Insecticides Piperonyl butoxide (50 μg) Pungam oil (50 μg) Profenofos (0.1 μg) Fenvalerate 57.9 46.0 24.4 Cypermethrin 52.2 45.8 19.7 Endosulfan 14.2 2.1 19.5 Thiodicarb 0.6 -------- 2.9 10/12/2015 57 (Ramasubramaniam and Ragupathy, 2004, Coimbatore)
Table.17: Combination products in pest management in different crop eco-system 10/12/201558 Combination products Dose (per ha) Target pest Bhendi Polytrin C 44EC (40% profenofos+ 4% cypermethrin) 2lit. Erias spp., Aphis gossypii Glover, Tetranychus cinnabarinus Boisdual, Amrasca devastans (Dist.) Cypermethrin+Chlorpyrifos 100+1000g a.i Erias vittella and Helicoverpa armigera Brinjal Polytrin C 44EC 0.044% Bemisia tabaci Spark 36 EC (35% of Triazophos+ 1% of Deltamethrin) 1.25 lit. Leucinodus orbonalis Guenee Carbosulfan + Quinalphos 1ml each/lit. Leucinodus orbonalis (Ragupathy, et al. 2004,
Cont… 10/12/201559 Tomato Polytrin C 44 EC (40% profenofos+ 4% cypermethrin) 1 lit. Helicoverpa armigera Spark 36 EC (35% of Triazophos+ 1% of Deltamethrin) 1 lit. Helicoverpa armigera Lethal super 2 lit. Helicoverpa armigera Mango Nurelle D 505 1.5 ml/lit Amritodes atkinsoni L. Sugar beet Nagata 45 EC 675 g a.i Spodoptera litura F. Cabbage Spark 36 EC 1.25 lit. Plutella xylostella (L.) (Ragupathy, et al. 2004)
Table.18: Insecticide resistance management guidelines for beet army-worm (March 2001). 10/12/201560 Insecticide class Early season(April to mid-june) Mid season (Mid- June through July) Late season (August and September) Bacillus thuringiensis Various products Various products Organophosphate Lorsban or Curacron Lorsban Carbamate Lannate Lannate Miscellaneous Steward Success Conform Success Steward Conform Pyrethroid Capture Asana Goodell, et al. 2001
Table.19: Insecticide resistance management guidelines for Silver leaf whitefly (March 2001). 10/12/201561 Chemical class Initial build up Gradual invasion Heavy migration Insect growth regulator Chitin synthesis inhibitor Applaud Insect growth regulator Metamorphosis inhibitor Knack Chloronicotinyl Provado Amidene Ovasyn Pyrethroid Capture Pyrethroid+ organochlorin Pyrethroid+ Endosulfan Pyrethroid+ organophosphate/carbamate Denitol+Orthene/Curac ron/Lannate/Vydate Goodell, et al. 2001
10/12/2015 62 Rotation Number of WFT adults per plant Cumulative number of WFT adult 2DAA1 3DAA2 2DAA3 2DAA4 Untreated 14.1a 23.0a 44.8a 123.6a 205.5a Radiant/ Movento 0.8b 11.3b 40.4abc 16.8bcd 69.3bc Radiant/ Assail 1.5b 7.3b 31.7abcd 17.9bcd 58.4cd Radiant/ Venom 1.1b 8.6b 26.0cd 11.1cd 46.8de Radiant/ Beleaf 0.9b 13.1b 43.3ab 26.2b 83.5b Radiant / Requiem 1.2b 10.8b 36.5abc 15.5bcd 64.0cd Radiant/ Eco+ Req 1.4b 13.6b 30.7abcd 13.0cd 58.7cd Radiant/ Agri- Mek 1.4b 6.5b 18.9d 8.2d 35.0e Radiant/M- Pede 1.4b 12.2b 26.6bcd 22.7bc 62.9cd Table.20: Effect of several insecticide rotations on WFT on adult numbers (onion trial; Fresno, CA), 2009 (James et al., 2010) 2DAA1 = 2 days after the first application
10/12/201563 Rotation Number of WFT larvae per plant Cumulative number of WFT larvae 2DAA1 3DAA2 2DAA3 2DAA4 Untreated 72.6 a 118.0 a 127.1 a 305.1 a 624.0 a Radiant/ Movento 9.0 b 16.1 b 106.0 ab 36.3 b 168.0 bcd Radiant/ Assail 16.9 b 7.7 b 50.5 c 45.8 b 120.0 de Radiant/ Venom 11.1 b 12.7 b 43.4 c 62.0 b 128.0 cd Radiant/ Beleaf 10.2 b 11.5 b 83.5 b 50.3 b 156.0 bcd Radiant / Requiem 10.1 b 18.2 b 113.2 ab 63.3 b 204.0 b Radiant/ Eco+ Req 15.8 b 18.1 b 110.7 ab 38.2 b 184.0 bc Radiant/ Agri+ Mek 13.6 b 9.4 b 14.9 d 29.6 b 68.0 e Radiant- Pede 14.0 b 21.6 b 104.5 ab 51.1 b 192.0 b Table.21: Effect of several insecticide rotations on WFT on larval numbers (onion trial; Fresno, CA), 2009. (James et al., 2010) 2DAA1 = 2 days after the first application
10/12/201564 conclusion
10/12/201565

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Mechanisms seminar ppt ..

  • 2. UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL & HORTICULTURAL SCIENCES, SHIMOGA Seminar- I SACHIN, U. S Sr. M. Sc. (Hort. ) Dept. of Horticultural Entomology COLLEGE OF HORTICULTURE, MUDIGERE 10/12/20152
  • 3. 10/12/20153 Mechanisms of Insecticide Resistance in insects and its Management
  • 4. Topic division 10/12/20154 I. Introduction History Insecticide resistance Terms used Genetics of resistance II. Mechanisms of Resistance with case studies III. Factors favorable to rapid development of resistance IV. Management of Insecticide Resistance with case studies V. Conclusion
  • 5. Fig. 1: Dynamics of increase of the resistant species of arthropods in the world. 10/12/2015 5 Sokolyanskaya, 2010
  • 6. 5/8/20146 Table.1: Resistant insect and mite species according to economic importance Economic importance Number of species Percentage of total Agricultural 283 56.1 Medical/ Veterinary 198 39.3 Beneficial 23 4.6 Total 504 Simon, 2008
  • 7. Table.2: Occurrence of resistance in insects and mites according to pesticide chemical group 10/12/20157 Chemical group Number of species Percentage of total Cyclodiene 291 57.7 DDT 263 52.2 Organophosphate 260 51.6 Carbamate 85 16.9 Pyrethroid 48 9.5 Fumigant 12 2.4 Others 40 7.9 (Simon, 2008)
  • 8. Order Chemical group Cyclodienes DDT OP Carbamates Pyrethroids Fumigant Other Diptera 108 107 62 11 10 - 1 Lepidoptera 41 41 34 14 10 - 2 Coleoptera 57 24 26 9 4 8 5 Hemiptera 31 22 36 14 5 3 1 Others 23 21 9 3 1 - 2 Acarina 16 18 45 13 2 - 27 Total 276 233 212 64 32 11 38 % 66 52 47 14 7 2 9 10/12/20158 Table.3: Number of species of insects and mites reported resistant to insecticides till 1984 (chemical groupwise) (Gour and Sridevi,
  • 9. Insecticide Resistance An added ability to withstand an insecticide acquired by breeding of those individuals which survive exposures to that particular toxicant insufficient to wipe out the whole colony. (Hoskins and Gordon, 1956) An inherited ability to tolerate dosage of insecticide that would be lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal wild populations of same species. (WHO, 1957). 10/12/2015 9
  • 10. Table.4: Terms used Insecticide Insecticide is a toxic substance that kills insects or eliminates disease-transmitting pests/vectors Cross Resistance It refers to a type of resistance in which a pest population develops resistance to more than one pesticide within a chemical family (e.g., organophosphate insecticides, etc.). Multiple Resistance It involves multiple, independent resistance mechanisms, which often lead to resistance to chemicals from different families (i.e., organophosphate and carbamate insecticides) 10/12/2015 10 Karunamurthy and Sabesan, 2013
  • 11. Insecticide Resistance Management It is an effort to slow down or prevent the development of resistance. Insecticide Combination The use of two or more insecticide applications within a field, instead of single. Insecticide Mixture Two or more compounds are mixed within a single product or formulation Synergist A substance which does not itself have insecticidal properties, but which, when mixed or applied with insecticides of a particular class, considerably enhances their potency. 10/12/2015 11 Karunamurthy and Sabesan, 2013
  • 12. Resistance is Biphasic Phase I- Due to selection of variants in the population according to genetic principle, the resistance which is initially present in the population is expressed. Phase II- Acceleration of resistance takes place by induction of pre-existing detoxifying enzymes towards enhanced activity, resulting in faster breakdown of the chemicals. 10/12/2015 12 Saxena, 1996
  • 13. 10/12/201513 Fig.2: Pesticide resistance can build up in the pest population when a change in the genetic characteristic of the pest population is inherited from one generation to the next. Increased or frequent use of pesticides often hastens resistance(Goodell et al. 2001)
  • 14. Genetics of resistance 10/12/201514 1. Preadaptation : Resistance is preadaptive Eg: Resistance to DDT in House flies was eight times higher than in original strain 2. Gene frequency : Low in original natural population (0.0001 to 0.01%) High in wild & resistance population Eg.: Mosquito in Nigeria – Dieldrin-R gene @ 0.4-0.6% (Simon, 2008)
  • 15. 3. Dominance and number of genes 10/12/201515 Resistant gene can be dominant, recessive, incomplete dominant or incomplete recessive. Carbmates & OP’s Dominant or incomplete dominant DDT, Bt & Spinosyns Recessive Dieldrin Incomplete dominant Pyrethroid Incomplete recessive Single gene High resistance (Simon, 2008)
  • 16. Table 5: Rate development of resistance to fenvalerate and Deltamethrin in the parental field strain of Spodoptera litoralis 10/12/2015 16 Strain and generation tested Fenvalerate (R-FN strain) Deltamethrin (R-DM strain) Selecting concentration (mg/lit.) LD50 a RRb Selecting concentration (mg/lit.) LD50 a RRb S-FM strain 0.46 1 0.021 1 P- strain 5 0.65 1.4 0.36 0.037 1.8 F1 5 0.54 1.2 0.36 0.032 1.5 F2 5 0.61 1.3 0.36 0.031 1.5 F3 6 0.84 1.8 0.36 0.032 1.5 F4 6 0.80 1.7 0.54 0.042 2.0 F5 6 0.88 1.4 0.54 0.045 2.1 F6 8 0.75 1.6 0.54 0.039 1.8 F7 12 1.35 2.9 0.72 0.045 2.1 F8 16 1.49 3.2 0.90 0.047 2.2 F9 20 2.27 4.9 1.44 0.088 4.2 (Riskallah et al. 1983, Egypt) a-As μg/g body weight. b-Resistance ratio=LD50 of tested generation/ LD50 of S-FM strain
  • 17. Cont ……. 10/12/201517 F10 30 2.31 5.0 1.80 0.091 4.3 F11 40 2.43 5.3 2.16 0.130 6.2 F12 50 2.49 5.4 2.52 0.140 6.7 F13 60 2.73 5.9 2.88 0.150 7.1 F14 70 3.18 6.9 3.24 0.180 8.6 F15 80 4.24 9.2 3.60 0.190 9.0 F16 90 4.32 9.3 3.96 0.210 10.0 F17 100 4.25 9.2 4.32 0.270 12.8 F18 120 5.93 12.9 4.68 0.320 15.2 F19 140 7.00 15.2 5.04 0.350 16.7 F20 160 10.20 22.2 5.40 0.410 19.5 F21 180 12.10 26.4 5.76 0.420 20.1 F22 200 13.20 28.8 6.12 0.440 21.0 F23 15.10 32.8 0.570 27.1 Riskallah, et al. 1983
  • 19. 10/12/201519 I. Behavioral Resistance II. Physiological Resistance Reduced penetration Target site insensitivity Enhanced detoxification (Simon, 2008)
  • 20. 10/12/201520 I. Behavioral Resistance Development of ability to avoid a dose that would prove lethal. Stimulus dependent & matter of Hypersensitivity or Hyperirritability •Avoid lethal dose or treated surface •Leg Autotomy (Simon, 2008)
  • 21. 10/12/201521 Legs dropped No. moths % Moths in each activity state Dead Knocked down Active 0 94 31 12 57 1 46 20 10 70 2 30 20 7 73 3 5 0 20 80 4 1 0 0 100 1-4 82 18 10 72 Table.5:Leg-drop and activity status of diamondback adults at 48 h after walking on fenvalrate residues (1,000 mg/cm2) for 5 min (Moore et al.,
  • 22. 10/12/201522 Fig.3: Scheme of potential Behavioral and physiological changes associated with Resistance in insect (a) Susceptible insect, (b) Resistant insect (Corbell and Guessan, 2013)
  • 23. 10/12/201523 • Reduced penetration • Target site insensitivity • Enhanced detoxification II Physiological Resistance (Simon, 2008)
  • 24. 10/12/201524 A. Reduced penetration • Cuticle contains more protein and Lipid. • Increased sclerotization. • Binding protein and Lipid reservoir traps insecticide in the cuticle. • Slight resistance. (Simon, 2008)
  • 25. 10/12/201525 Fig.4: Means and variation in cuticle thicknesses (with 95% limits) of two samples of An. funestus. (Wood, et al. 2010, South Africa)
  • 26. Fig.5: Time-to-knockdown (KDT) during exposure to permethrin vs. mean cuticle thickness (microns). 10/12/201526 (Wood, et al. 2010, South Africa)
  • 27. 10/12/201527 • Reduced penetration alone- low level of Resistance Reduced penetration + Other mechanism- high level of resistance (Simon, 2008)
  • 28. 10/12/201528 B. Target site insensitivity (Simon, 2008)
  • 29. Types 10/12/201529 • Nerve insensitivity • AchE insensitivity • Reduction in midgut target site binding (Simon, 2008)
  • 30. 10/12/201530 Structure of Neuron and Nerve transmission Vesicles with ACh AChE Receptor site axon
  • 31. Mode of action of different chemicals 10/12/201531
  • 32. 10/12/201532 Nerve insensitivity • DDT and Pyrethroid Resistant strain Insensitive Na+ channel • Cyclodiene- Point mutation in GABA receptor protein (Simon, 2008)
  • 33. 10/12/201 5 33 AChE insensitivity • OP and carbamates resistant strains Insensitive AChE enzyme • Point mutation in receptor protein (Simon, 2008)
  • 34. Reduction in midgut target site binding 10/12/2015 34  Reduced binding of toxin  Disruption of Cadherin superfamily gene. Tobacco bud worms-showed high levels of resistance to Cry1Ac Pink boll worm- alteration in BtR-4 gene  Alteration of sugar structure- affects Bt toxin attachment
  • 35. Fig.6: The resistance development to chlorantraniliprole in the S strain of P. xylostella. 10/12/201535 (Gong, et al. 2014)
  • 36. 10/12/201536 C. Enhanced detoxification insecticide Detoxification of insecticides by enzymes Target site (Simon, 2008)
  • 37. 10/12/201537 • Detoxifying Enzymes a. Hydrolases –Carboxyl Esterase (CarE) i. Esterase gene amplification ii. Esterase mutation b. Mixed fuction oxidases (MFO’s) Cytochrome P450 monoxygenases (P450) c. Glutathion-S-transferases (GST) (Simon, 2008)
  • 38. 10/12/201538 Fig. 7: The three Principal types of insecticide resistance mechanisms in cross section through susceptible and resistant insects. (Karunamurthy and Sabesan, 2013)
  • 39. 10/12/201539 Resistance profile OPs Carbaryl, methomyl & Propoxur Carbofuran Synthetic pyrethroids IGRs Resistance mechanism involved Multifactorial Monofactorial Monofactorial Monofactorial Monofact orial Responsible biochemical entities Insensitivity, AChE, Carboxylesterase MFO’s MFO’s MFO’s MFO’s Resistance amplitude medium high high high high Table.7: Important mechanisms in DBM insecticide resistance (Cheng et al. 1998)
  • 40. 10/12/201540 Enzyme Strain Enzyme activity Rate P450 S 33.12± 4.48 a 1.00 GDLZ- R 35.94± 1.77 a 1.08 CarE S 37.52± 2.16 a 1.00 GDLZ- R 42.74± 10.06 a 1.14 GST S 10.20± 0.39 a 1.00 GDLZ- R 34.12± 9.69 b 3.34 Table.8: Activities of detoxification enzymes in different strains of P. xylostella L. against chlorantraniliprole (Zhen-di et al., 2014, China)
  • 41. 10/12/2015 41 Fig.8a: P450 activity of control and chlorantraniliprole exposed P.xylostella L. larvae after 6 h, 12h and 24h exposure. Data represent the mean ±SE of three replicates. “*” indicate significant difference from control and chlorantraniliprole exposure for 6 h, 12 h in S strain where *α=0.05. (Zhen-di, et al. 2014)
  • 42. 10/12/201542 Fig. 8b: CarE activity of control and chlorantraniliprole exposed P.xylostella L. larvae after 6 h, 12 h and 24 h exposure. Data represent the mean ±SE of three replicates. “*”indicate significant difference from control and chlorantraniliprole exposure for 6 h in S strain where *α=0.05. (Zhen-di, et al. 2014)
  • 43. 10/12/201543 Fig.8c : GST activity of control and chlorantraniliprole exposed P.xylostella L. larvae after 6 h, 12 h and 24 h exposure. Data represent the mean ±SE of three replicates. “*” indicate significant difference from control and chlorantraniliprole exposure for 6 h in susceptible strain and 12 h, 24 h in GDLZ-R strain where *α=0.05. (Zhen-di, et al. 2014)
  • 44. Table.9: Mode of resistance and number of cytochrome P450s, carboxylesterases, esterases and transferases among the genomes of blood-feeding insects 10/12/201544 Mode of resistance Pediculus humanus Anopheles gambiae Culex quinquefasciatus Aedes aegypti Cimex lectularius * TSR MR & TSR MR & TSR MR & TSR MR & TSR P450 37 106 172 158 73# CES Not reported 25 47 30 - EST 17 15 17 19 - TRA 13 31 37 32 14# MR = metabolic resistance; TSR=target sensitivity resistance; P450 = cytochrome P450s; CES = carboxylesterases; EST = esterases; TRA = transferases; # = occurrences; * as per 454 pyrosequencing data, not complete genome of the bed bug (Mamidala, et al. 2011)
  • 45. Table.10: Comparison of EST, GST and AChE activities in nine different populations of Oxya chinensis (Orthoptera: Acrididae) 10/12/201545 Population EST specific activitya (μ mol/min/mg protein) GST specific activitya (μ mol/min/mg protein) AChE specific activityb (μ mol/min/mg protein) XY 0.17±0.04e 79.19±41.22bcd 9.34±3.48a JY 0.36±0.10ab 83.68±46.11bcd 9.26±1.61a BDG 0.30±0.07c 96.37±45.40b 8.32±1.77a YC 0.10±0.01f 52.64±9.44d 4.83±0.78bc XX 0.25±0.06d 89.28±55.14bc 9.02±3.30a HZ 0.33±0.03bc 67.11±15.43bcd 2.80±0.70c BD 0.32±0.04bc 166.95±31.88a 2.18±0.46c CA 0.12±0.04f 81.42±32.52bcd 7.00±1.54ab JN 0.37±0.08a 73.83±48.67bcd 3.49±0.60c (Haihua, et al. 2007, China) a Average of 64 individual thoraxes, each with triplicate analyses. b Average of four groups of heads, each with triplicate analyses.
  • 46. Table.11: Metabolic enzyme activities of fourth instars from the SZ strain and the Fipronil-resistant SZ-F strain of Plutella xylostella. 10/12/201546 Detoxification enzyme Specific activity (Mean ± SE) SZ strain (susceptible) SZ-F strain (resistant) Ratio (SZ-F/SZ) Oxidases (pmol/min/mg protein) PNOD 0.26±0.06 0.28±0.04 1.07 ECOD 1.63±0.51 1.83±0.34 1.12 MCOD 4.52±1.1 4.71±0.59 1.04 Esterases (nmol/min/mg protein) α-NA esterase 102.2±12 108.5±4.1 1.06 GSTs (nmol/min/mg protein) CDNB conjugation 179.1±58 191.6±7.7 1.07 DCNB conjugation 5.06±0.3 5.74±0.31 1.13 P > 0.05; t- test (Ageng et al. 2006, China)
  • 47. Table.12:Resistance levels of Plutella xylostella strains to Acephate 10/12/201547 Strain n LC50(mg/L) 95%CL RR SS 288 16.8 14.0-20.3 1 OR 215 3316.7 2683.3-4253.6 197.4 KU-10 165 581.5 439.6-787.5 34.6 SMN 43 255.0 51.1-754.4 15.2 WH 252 90.2 59.3-129.1 5.4 BJ1-10 333 308.0 195.5-488.3 18.3 BJ3 91 1307.2 894.0-2092.8 77.8 RR: resistant ratio= LC50 of strains tested/LC50 of SS strain. (Sonoda, et al. 2014)
  • 48. Table.13: Mean resistance frequency * (%) to different chemistries in H. armigera population of Tamilnadu (a comparision among the three locations) 10/12/201548 Insecticides Coimbatore Poluvampatty Madukarai Fenvalerate 95.0 97.2 93.4 Cypermethrin 96.7 97.4 93.3 Deltamethrin 91.9 95.4 88.9 Lamdacyhalothrin 91.5 91.9 86.3 Betacyfluthrin 81.8 89.4 81.4 Quinalphos 49.2 34.4 38.9 Chlorpyrifos 49.3 46.6 44.0 Profenofos 35.4 24.5 27.8 Endosulfan 36.5 26.0 29.4 Thiodicarb 36.2 32.1 33.3 Spinosad 0.0 0.0 0.0 *Mean of resistance frequency data obtained for 49 weeks (June 2002- April 2003) (Ramasubramaniam and Ragupathy, 2004, Coimbatore)
  • 49. 10/12/201549 • Prolonged exposure to a single insecticide • High selection pressure • Large coverage area • Immigration or Migratory • Insects multiplying by asexual means • Short life cycle of insect • Selection at every stage of insect life cycle
  • 50. Table.14: Biological, genetic, and operational factors in resistance development. 10/12/2015 50 Factor Potential for resistance development Lower Higher Biological factors Population size Small Large Reproductive potential Low High Generation turnover One or less generations per year Many generations per year Pesticide metabolism Difficult Easy Number of target sites of the pesticide Multiple sites Single Specific Pest host range Narrow Wide International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
  • 51. 10/12/201551 Factor Potential for resistance development Lower Higher Genetic factors Occurrence of resistance genes Absent Present Number of resistance mechanisms One Several Gene frequency Low High Dominance of resistance genes Recessive Dominant Fitness of “R” individuals Poor Good Cross resistance Negative or none Positive Modifying genes Absent Present International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
  • 52. 10/12/2015 52 Factor Potential for resistance development Lower Higher Operational factors Activity spectrum of the pesticide Narrow spectrum Broad spectrum Pesticide application rate Less More Presence of secondary pests Absent (only the target pest is treated) Present (non targeted (potential) pests are also treated) Pest control tactics Multiple control tactics (chemical, biological, cultural) Continuous use of single method or compound International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
  • 53. 10/12/201553 Management of Insecticide Resistance  Integrated pest management • Grow trap crops • Inundative release of Biological agents • Swabbing & stem banding • Judicious use of insecticides (Need based & Recommended dose) • The use of insecticide synergists • Window system of pesticide application • Insecticide rotation • Area wide management
  • 54. Table.15: Phases of resistance monitoring and management for a new pesticide 10/12/201554 Timing Resistance detection and monitoring activities Other management activities 1-2 years before start of sales Establish sampling and testing methods & Survey for initial sensitivity data Assess risk During years of use Monitor randomly in treated areas for resistance, if justified by risk assessment of special importance of crop/pest Implement the RMP; watch practical performance of the pesticide closely International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
  • 55. 10/12/201555 As soon as signs of resistance have been detected Monitor to determine the extent and practical significance of resistance Study cross resistance, fitness of variants of resistant organisms, assess other factors affecting the development of resistance If resistance problem is confirmed, review and modify RMP Subsequently Monitor rate of spread or decline of resistance Watch pesticide performance; review RMPs International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, 2012.
  • 56. Figure. 11: Swabbing with mineral oil & 10/12/2015 56 (Ayyasamy & Regupathy, 2010, Tamil Nadu) Stem banding with black polythene sheet
  • 57. Table.16: Mean synergistic suppression (%) of insecticide resistance by MFO and CE inhibitors Insecticides Piperonyl butoxide (50 μg) Pungam oil (50 μg) Profenofos (0.1 μg) Fenvalerate 57.9 46.0 24.4 Cypermethrin 52.2 45.8 19.7 Endosulfan 14.2 2.1 19.5 Thiodicarb 0.6 -------- 2.9 10/12/2015 57 (Ramasubramaniam and Ragupathy, 2004, Coimbatore)
  • 58. Table.17: Combination products in pest management in different crop eco-system 10/12/201558 Combination products Dose (per ha) Target pest Bhendi Polytrin C 44EC (40% profenofos+ 4% cypermethrin) 2lit. Erias spp., Aphis gossypii Glover, Tetranychus cinnabarinus Boisdual, Amrasca devastans (Dist.) Cypermethrin+Chlorpyrifos 100+1000g a.i Erias vittella and Helicoverpa armigera Brinjal Polytrin C 44EC 0.044% Bemisia tabaci Spark 36 EC (35% of Triazophos+ 1% of Deltamethrin) 1.25 lit. Leucinodus orbonalis Guenee Carbosulfan + Quinalphos 1ml each/lit. Leucinodus orbonalis (Ragupathy, et al. 2004,
  • 59. Cont… 10/12/201559 Tomato Polytrin C 44 EC (40% profenofos+ 4% cypermethrin) 1 lit. Helicoverpa armigera Spark 36 EC (35% of Triazophos+ 1% of Deltamethrin) 1 lit. Helicoverpa armigera Lethal super 2 lit. Helicoverpa armigera Mango Nurelle D 505 1.5 ml/lit Amritodes atkinsoni L. Sugar beet Nagata 45 EC 675 g a.i Spodoptera litura F. Cabbage Spark 36 EC 1.25 lit. Plutella xylostella (L.) (Ragupathy, et al. 2004)
  • 60. Table.18: Insecticide resistance management guidelines for beet army-worm (March 2001). 10/12/201560 Insecticide class Early season(April to mid-june) Mid season (Mid- June through July) Late season (August and September) Bacillus thuringiensis Various products Various products Organophosphate Lorsban or Curacron Lorsban Carbamate Lannate Lannate Miscellaneous Steward Success Conform Success Steward Conform Pyrethroid Capture Asana Goodell, et al. 2001
  • 61. Table.19: Insecticide resistance management guidelines for Silver leaf whitefly (March 2001). 10/12/201561 Chemical class Initial build up Gradual invasion Heavy migration Insect growth regulator Chitin synthesis inhibitor Applaud Insect growth regulator Metamorphosis inhibitor Knack Chloronicotinyl Provado Amidene Ovasyn Pyrethroid Capture Pyrethroid+ organochlorin Pyrethroid+ Endosulfan Pyrethroid+ organophosphate/carbamate Denitol+Orthene/Curac ron/Lannate/Vydate Goodell, et al. 2001
  • 62. 10/12/2015 62 Rotation Number of WFT adults per plant Cumulative number of WFT adult 2DAA1 3DAA2 2DAA3 2DAA4 Untreated 14.1a 23.0a 44.8a 123.6a 205.5a Radiant/ Movento 0.8b 11.3b 40.4abc 16.8bcd 69.3bc Radiant/ Assail 1.5b 7.3b 31.7abcd 17.9bcd 58.4cd Radiant/ Venom 1.1b 8.6b 26.0cd 11.1cd 46.8de Radiant/ Beleaf 0.9b 13.1b 43.3ab 26.2b 83.5b Radiant / Requiem 1.2b 10.8b 36.5abc 15.5bcd 64.0cd Radiant/ Eco+ Req 1.4b 13.6b 30.7abcd 13.0cd 58.7cd Radiant/ Agri- Mek 1.4b 6.5b 18.9d 8.2d 35.0e Radiant/M- Pede 1.4b 12.2b 26.6bcd 22.7bc 62.9cd Table.20: Effect of several insecticide rotations on WFT on adult numbers (onion trial; Fresno, CA), 2009 (James et al., 2010) 2DAA1 = 2 days after the first application
  • 63. 10/12/201563 Rotation Number of WFT larvae per plant Cumulative number of WFT larvae 2DAA1 3DAA2 2DAA3 2DAA4 Untreated 72.6 a 118.0 a 127.1 a 305.1 a 624.0 a Radiant/ Movento 9.0 b 16.1 b 106.0 ab 36.3 b 168.0 bcd Radiant/ Assail 16.9 b 7.7 b 50.5 c 45.8 b 120.0 de Radiant/ Venom 11.1 b 12.7 b 43.4 c 62.0 b 128.0 cd Radiant/ Beleaf 10.2 b 11.5 b 83.5 b 50.3 b 156.0 bcd Radiant / Requiem 10.1 b 18.2 b 113.2 ab 63.3 b 204.0 b Radiant/ Eco+ Req 15.8 b 18.1 b 110.7 ab 38.2 b 184.0 bc Radiant/ Agri+ Mek 13.6 b 9.4 b 14.9 d 29.6 b 68.0 e Radiant- Pede 14.0 b 21.6 b 104.5 ab 51.1 b 192.0 b Table.21: Effect of several insecticide rotations on WFT on larval numbers (onion trial; Fresno, CA), 2009. (James et al., 2010) 2DAA1 = 2 days after the first application

Editor's Notes

  • #26: Mean cuticle thickness of intolerant specimen was 2.12μm & tolerant was 2.33μm giving mean diff. of 0.20μm
  • #27: Lenior regration of KDT & thickness shown signi. Trend c. thickness increasing length to KDT, there by inducing physiological R
  • #36: resistance ratio of F18 was 52.5 folds Reason: Rhynodene receptor transcript level lower in R strain than S strain.
  • #38: H –OP’s, carbamates, &pyrethroids Cy. P450-OP’s, carbamates, Pyrethroides,neonicotinoides, etc. GST- OP’s
  • #48: Reason : due to Acetyl choline esterase1 gene activity & extensive duplication of strain of DBM
  • #49: Reason: Profenofos is a specific synergist recommended to inhibit the activity of CE so R was lower Spinosad mode of action is entirely different than that of already exiting chemicals
  • #57: Need and scope for insecticide resistance management for the invasive papaya mealy bug Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink in small scale papaya farming system in Tamil Nadu, India.