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Meta analysis of Binary Data Using Profile Likelihood 1st
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Author(s): Dankmar Bohning, Sasivimol Rattanasiri, Ronny Kuhnert
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Language: english

META-ANALYSIS of
BINARY DATA USING
PROFILE LIKELIHOOD
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Interdisciplinar y Statistics
META-ANALYSIS of
BINARY DATA USING
PROFILE LIKELIHOOD
Dankmar Böhning
University of Reading
UK
Ronny Kuhnert
Robert Koch-Institut
Berlin, Germany
Sasivimol Rattanasiri
Ramathibodi Hospital
Bangkok,Thailand
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Böhning, Dankmar.
Meta-analysis of binary data using profile likelihood / Dankmar Böhning,
Ronny Kuhnert, and Sasivimol Rattanasiri.
p. cm. -- (Interdisciplinary statistics series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-58488-630-3 (alk. paper)
1. Meta-analysis. 2. Medicine--Research--Evaluation. 3. Social
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Contents
Preface xi
Abbreviations xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The occurrence of meta-analytic studies with binary outcome 1
1.2 Meta-analytic and multicenter studies 7
1.3 Center or study effect 9
1.4 Sparsity 10
1.5 Some examples of MAIPDs 12
1.6 Choice of effect measure 14
2 The basic model 23
2.1 Likelihood 23
2.2 Estimation of relative risk in meta-analytic studies using the
profile likelihood 24
2.3 The profile likelihood under effect homogeneity 25
2.4 Reliable construction of the profile MLE 28
2.5 A fast converging sequence 29
2.6 Inference under effect homogeneity 33
3 Modeling unobserved heterogeneity 41
3.1 Unobserved covariate and the marginal profile likelihood 42
3.2 Concavity, the gradient function and the PNMLE 43
3.3 The PNMLE via the EM algorithm 45
vii

viii CONTENTS
3.4 The EMGFU for the profile likelihood mixture 46
3.5 Likelihood ratio testing and model evaluation 47
3.6 Classification of centers 48
3.7 A reanalysis on the effect of beta-blocker after myocardial
infarction 48
4 Modeling covariate information 55
4.1 Classical methods 55
4.2 Profile likelihood method 59
4.3 Applications of the model 62
4.4 Summary 74
5 Alternative approaches 75
5.1 Approximate likelihood model 75
5.2 Multilevel model 76
5.3 Comparing profile and approximate likelihood 77
5.4 Analysis for the MAIPD on selective tract decontamination 80
5.5 Simulation study 82
5.6 Discussion of this comparison 85
5.7 Binomial profile likelihood 87
6 Incorporating covariate information and unobserved hetero-
geneity 93
6.1 The model for observed and unobserved covariates 93
6.2 Application of the model 100
6.3 Simplification of the model for observed and unobserved
covariates 102
7 Working with CAMAP 105
7.1 Getting started with CAMAP 106
7.2 Analysis of modeling 111
7.3 Conclusion 121

CONTENTS ix
8 Estimation of odds ratio using the profile likelihood 123
8.1 Profile likelihood under effect homogeneity 124
8.2 Modeling covariate information 126
9 Quantification of heterogeneity in a MAIPD 131
9.1 The problem 131
9.2 The profile likelihood as binomial likelihood 134
9.3 The unconditional variance and its estimation 134
9.4 Testing for heterogeneity in a MAIPD 140
9.5 An analysis of the amount of heterogeneity in MAIPDs: a case
study 143
9.6 A simulation study comparing the new estimate and the
DerSimonian-Laird estimate of heterogeneity variance 144
10 Scrapie in Europe: a multicountry surveillance study as a
MAIPD 149
10.1 The problem 149
10.2 The data on scrapie surveillance without covariates 151
10.3 Analysis and results 152
10.4 The data with covariate information on representativeness 153
A 169
A.1 Derivatives of the binomial profile likelihood 169
A.2 The lower bound procedure for an objective function with a
bounded Hesse matrix 170
A.3 Connection between the profile likelihood odds ratio estimation
and the Mantel-Haenszel estimator 172
Bibliography 175
Author index 183
Subject index 186

Preface
With the increasing number of empirical studies on a question of interest, the
topic of systematic reviews and meta-analysis is becoming of sustainable inter-
est. Ideally, all studies involved in a meta-analysis should have all individual
patient data available. This situation is sometimes also called meta-analysis
of pooled data. On the other extreme only an effect measure such as the odds
ratio is available from published studies. Clearly, in the latter situation fewer
options are available. For example, the effect measure cannot be changed in the
meta-analysis. This book considers a compromise situation that is frequently
available: from the published literature a 2 × 2 table is available containing
the successes and failures in the treatment arm as well as the successes and
failures in the control arm. Although also in this situation individual patient
data are not available, there is considerably more information present than
in a meta-analysis based entirely on reported effect measures. We call this
situation a meta-analysis with individually pooled data (MAIPD). In MAIPD
different effect measures can be computed such as the odds ratio, risk ratio,
or risk difference accompanied by a standard error, which is more reliably
computed than the one conventionally available in a meta-analysis from pub-
lished effect measures. The book is devoted to the analysis and modeling of a
MAIPD.
The book is outlined as follows. In chapter 1, the meta-analytic situation of
a MAIPD is introduced and illustrated with several examples. In chapter 2
the basic model is introduced including the profile likelihood method and a
discussion of it under homogeneity. In section 3, the model is extended to
cope with unobserved heterogeneity, which is captured by means of a non-
parametric mixture leading to the nonparametric mixture profile likelihood.
The gradient function is introduced and the nonparametric profile maximum
likelihood estimator (PNMLE) is characterized. The latter can be computed
by means of the EM algorithm with gradient function update (EMGFU). This
ends section 3. Section 4 provides modeling of covariate information. Elements
of log-linear modeling are used and ways for finding the profile maximum
likelihood estimator, including standard errors, are provided. In chapter 5 al-
ternative approaches to the profile likelihood method are discussed including
an approximated likelihood model on the basis of the normal distribution as
well as the multilevel approach. Chapter 6 discusses ways to model covariate
information and unobserved heterogeneity simultaneously. Chapter 7 gives an
xi

xii PREFACE
illustration of the program CAMAP, which has been developed for the analy-
sis of a MAIPD and is accompanying and supplementing this book as freely
downloadable software. Chapter 9 approaches the problem of quantifying het-
erogeneity in a MAIPD. Not only it is important to decide whether there is
or there is not heterogeneity, but also, if there is, how large is the amount
of heterogeneity in the MAIPD. Chapter 10 shows that the methodology can
also be applied to a surveillance problem, here the surveillance of scrapie in
Europe, and is not restricted to clinical trials.
The idea for this book started while Dankmar Böhning was still professor
at the Charité Medical School Berlin (Germany) where he had been exposed
over many years to the problems of meta-analysis and systematic reviews. The
various chapters that are contained in this book grew over time in which the
various ways of modeling were explored. It should be mentioned that vari-
ous projects were supported and generously funded by the German Research
Foundation (DFG), which accompanied the principal investigator over many
years with interest and support. The coauthors of this book, Sasivimol Rat-
tanasiri and Ronny Kuhnert, developed their dissertational projects out of
the theme of this book, in fact, their dissertations became part of it. Clearly,
not all aspects of meta-analysis could be covered. The problem of publication
bias is not discussed. We felt that publication bias is more relevant for meta-
analysis based upon published literature, whereas clinical trials with planned
and registered studies included in the meta-analysis are less prone to this form
of bias. Also, Bayesian methods are used only in an empirical Bayesian sense,
for example when using the maximum posterior allocation rule for allocation
of the individual studies into their associated clusters. We felt that a full
Bayesian approach would have increased complexity, size, and timeframe of
the book (as well as the associated software) considerably, which we preferred
to avoid.
The book should be of interest for almost everyone interested in meta-analysis.
Many chapters contain new developments not available in the current litera-
ture. This is particularly true for chapters 4, 6, 8, and 10. The book might
be well used as a supplementary textbook in any graduate course on meta-
analysis with emphasis on applied statistics.
Finally, we, Dankmar Böhning, Ronny Kuhnert, Sasivimol Rattanasiri, would
like to thank deeply:
• the German Research Foundation (DFG) for its enormous financial and
academic support,
• professor em. Dr. Frank-Peter Schelp for generously supporting this project
while we were working under his leadership in the Institute for International
Health of the Charité Medical School Berlin,
• Victor Del Rio Vilas (Veterinary Laboratory Agency, UK) for pointing
out the potential in using the methodology of a MAIPD in surveillance
problems,

PREFACE xiii
• professor Heinz Holling (Münster, Germany) for his long-lasting interest
and cooperation in many areas of applied statistics, but in particular in
meta-analysis,
• professors Anne and John Whitehead (Lancaster, UK) for the many dis-
cussions we had on meta-analysis and other questions of interest,
• Dr Mike Dennett (Reading, UK) for taking the burden of head of section,
• the publisher Chapman & Hall/CRC, in particular, Rob Calver and his
team for his challenged patience with the delivery of this book,
• our children, Anna-Siglinde and Laura, for the play time we took away from
them,
• our spouses Tan, Katja, and Prasan for their tolerance they showed with
this seemingly endless project,
• and our parents for their love.
Dankmar Böhning (Reading, UK)
Ronny Kuhnert (Berlin, Germany)
Sasivimol Rattanasiri (Bangkok, Thailand)
February 2008

Abbreviations
AIC — Akaike Information Criterion
AL — Approximate Likelihood
AS — Abattoir Stock
BCG — Bacillus Calmette-Guérin
BIC — Bayesian Information Criterion
BHAT — Beta-Blocker Heart Attack Trial
BSE — Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
CALGB — Cancer and Leukemia Group B
CAMAP — Computer-Assisted Meta-Analysis with the Profile Likelihood
CI — Confidence Interval
EM — Expected Maximization
EMGFU — EM Algorithm with Gradient Function Update
EU — European Union
FS — Fallen Stock
IHD — Ischaemic Heart Disease
log — Natural Logarithm
MAIPD — Meta-Analysis for Individually Pooled Data
MAP — Maximum Posterior Allocation Rule
MC — Multicenter
MH — Mantel-Haenszel
MHE — Mantel-Haenszel Estimate
ML — Maximum Likelihood
MLE — Maximum Likelihood Estimator
ML — Multilevel
NRT — Nicotine Replacement Therapy
PL — Profile Likelihood
PLRT — Profile Likelihood Ratio Test
PML — Profile Maximum Likelihood
PMLE — Profile Maximum Likelihood Estimator
PNMLE — Profile Nonparametric Maximum Likelihood Estimator
OR — Odds Ratio
RP — Representativeness
RR — Relative Risk
TB — Tuberculosis
TSE — Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
xv

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 The occurrence of meta-analytic studies with binary outcome
The present contribution aims to provide a unifying approach to modeling
treatment effect in a meta-analysis of clinical trials with binary outcome.
In recent years, meta-analysis has become an essential method used to pro-
vide more reliable information on an intervention effect. Additionally, it has
been demonstrated to provide a powerful statistical tool to analyze and po-
tentially combine the results from individual studies. Numerous international
publications have demonstrated the quality and the common practicability
of meta-analysis (see for example Cooper and Hedges (1994), Sutton et al.
(2000), DuMouchel and Normand (2000), Jones (1992), or Greenland (1994)).
Important for our situation here is the availability of the number of events
xT
i (xC
i ) and the person-time under risk nT
i (nC
i ) (total of time every person
spent under risk) in the treatment arm (control arm) for each clinical trial i
involved in the meta-analysis of a total of k studies. If all persons spend iden-
tical time under risk nT
i is equivalent to the sample size, and the same is true
for the control arm. We call this situation of meta-analysis a meta-analysis
using individually pooled data (MAIPD). Table 1.1 shows the principal layout
of the required information.
Table 1.1 Principal layout of the required information in a MAIPD for study i
Arm Number of Deaths Person-Time
Treatment xT
i nT
i
Control xC
i nC
i
Frequently, data in the format of Table 1.1 are presented on the basis of trial
sizes (so that each person contributes the identical person-time). However, we
believe that the concept of person-time is far more general and we prefer to
lay out the concept for situations that cover varying person-times.
For illustration, consider the data given in Table 1.2 taken from Petitti (1994).
The table contains outcome data from a large randomized clinical trial of
antiplatelet treatment for patients with a transient ischemic attack or ischemic
1

2 INTRODUCTION
stroke identified by the Antiplatelet Trialists’ Collaboration (1988) as eligible
for their meta-analysis. An event was defined as first myocardial infarction,
stroke, or vascular failure. In this case, all patients had a similar study period
as their time being under risk so that the person-time n of each trial arm
corresponds to the number of patients under risk, here 1,250. The data shown
in Table 1.2 came from the European Stroke Prevention Study Group (1987).
Table 1.2 Data from a randomized trial of antiplatelet therapy for treatment of tran-
sient ischemic attack of stroke
Arm Number of Deaths Number at Risk
Treatment 182 1,250
Control 264 1,250
A quick analysis with the package STATA (StataCorp. (2005)) shows that the
estimate of the risk ratio, defined as the ratio of xT
/nT
to xC
/nC
, is given as
182/1,250
264/1,250 = 0.6894 with a 95% confidence interval of 0.5806 − 0.8186, indicat-
ing a significant preventive effect of the treatment. If Table 1.2 contains all the
evidence available for assessing the question of the effect of treatment, then
this is all that could be done on this level of information. However, Petitti
(1994) provides data from a second randomized trial containing the outcome
date from the United Kingdom Transient Ischemic Attack Aspirin Trial (un-
published), which we provide here as Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 Data from a second randomized trial of antiplatelet therapy for treatment
of transient ischemic attack of stroke
Arm Number of Deaths Number at Risk
Treatment 348 1,621
Control 204 814
An analysis of the data of Table 1.3 similar to the analysis of Table 1.2 delivers
an estimate of the risk ratio 348/1,621
204/1814 = 0.8566 with a 95% confidence interval
of 0.7366 − 0.9962, indicating a significant, but more borderline preventive ef-
fect of the treatment. This change of effect size might have substantial reasons
or might be purely due to chance. It definitely required further and deeper
analysis.
Hence, having simply another trial available raises already several questions:
• a) How can the trial-specific risk ratio estimates be combined?
• b) Is the combination an efficient use of information?

THE OCCURRENCE OF META-ANALYTIC STUDIES 3
• c) Is the combination itself valid?
Table 1.4 shows the results of an analysis of these data using the package
STATA (StataCorp. (2005)). A Mantel-Haenszel estimate is calculated as
θ̂MH =
X
i
wiθ̂i/
X
i
wi,
where θ̂i are the study-specifc risk ratio estimates of studies i = 1, 2 and the
Mantel-Haenszel weights are given as wi = nT
i xC
i /(nT
i + nC
i ). The Mantel-
Haenszel approach is a well-known approach (see Woodward (1999)) and, as
it will be established later, a reasonably efficient approach. To provide a better
intuitive understanding we write the Mantel-Haenszel estimator as
θ̂MH =
P
i xT
i nC
i /(nT
i + nC
i )
P
i xC
i nT
i /(nT
i + nC
i )
,
which follows the Mantel-Haenszel construction rule of taking sums before
ratios. The estimator is remarkably robust against the occurrences of zero
events in the individual studies. As Table 1.4 shows, adjusting for a study effect
by means of stratifying over studies will prevent a confounding effect which
could occur when simply considering the pooled estimate of both studies.
Comparing the crude (0.8142) and study-adjusted effects (0.7742) we observe
a very small confounding effect of study showing the simply pooled estimate
of relative risk would underestimate the true underlying relative risk.
Table 1.4 STATA-output (StataCorp. (2005)) from the two randomized trials of an-
tiplatelet therapy for treatment of transient ischemic attack of stroke
Study RR 95% Conf. Interval M-H Weight
Table 1.2 0.6894 0.5806 - 0.8186 132.00
Table 1.3 0.8566 0.7366 - 0.9962 135.80
Crude 0.8142 0.7288 - 0.9095
M-H combined 0.7742 0.6912 - 0.8672
Test of homogeneity (M-H) χ2
(1) =3.478 Pr> χ2
(1) = 0.0622
The final issue raised above was if the study-specific relative risk estimates
can be validly combined via the Mantel-Haenszel method. This is approached
by the test of homogeneity which compares the study-specific estimates of
relative risk and is found in Table 1.4 to be 3.478 which is not significant on
a chi-square distribution with 1 degree of freedom. We conclude that there is
no evidence for rejecting a relative risk common to the two studies so that the
Mantel-Haenszel summary measure appears reasonable.

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INDEX OF AUTHORS
INDEX OF AUTHORS INDEX OF AUTHORS, WITH BIOGRAPHICAL
AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Allen, J. Mord.—Born, Montgomery, Ala., March 26, 1875.
Schooling ceased in the middle of high-school. Since seventeen
years of age a boiler-maker. Home, St. Louis, Mo. Authorship:
Rhymes, Tales and Rhymed Tales, Crane and Company, Topeka,
Kas., 1906. 48-50, 223-226.
Allen, Winston.—230.
Bailey, William Edgar.—Born, Salisbury, Mo. Educated in the
Salisbury public schools. Authorship: The Firstling, 1914. 65-67,
213-214.
Bell, James Madison.—Born, Gallipolis, Ohio, 1826. Educated in
night schools after reaching manhood. Prominent anti-slavery
orator, friend of John Browne. Poetical Works, with biography by
Bishop B. W. Arnett, 1901. 32-37.
Braithwaite, William Stanley.—Born, Boston, Mass., 1878. Mainly
self-educated. His three books of original verse are: Lyrics of Life
and Love, 1904; The House of Falling Leaves, 1908; Sandy Star
and Willie Gee, 1922. In Who’s Who. 105-109, 263.
Burrell, Benjamin Ebenezer.—Born, Manchester Mountains,
Jamaica, 1892. Descended from Mandingo kings on his father’s
side, and on his mother’s from Cromantees and Scotch.
Contributor to The Crusader and other magazines. 249-250.
Carmichael, Waverley Turner.—Born, Snow Hill, Ala. Educated in
the Snow Hill Institute and Harvard Summer School. Authorship:
From the Heart of a Folk, The Cornhill Company, Boston, 1918.
53 219-220.
Clifford, Carrie W.—Born, Chillicothe, Ohio. Educated at
Columbus, O. Has done much editorial and club work.
Authorship: The Widening Light, Walter Reid Co., Boston, 1922.
240.

Conner, Charles H.—Born, Grafton, N. Y., 1864. Father, a slave who
found freedom by way of the underground railway. Mainly self-
educated. Worker in the ship-yards, Philadelphia. Authorship: The
Enchanted Valley, published by himself, 1016 S. Cleveland Ave.,
Philadelphia, 1917; contributor to magazines. 209-213.
Corbett, Maurice Nathaniel.—Born, Yanceyville, N. C., 1859.
Educated in the common schools and Shaw University. Served in
North Carolina Legislature. Delegate to numerous political
conventions. Clerk in Census Bureau, then in the Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C., until stricken with paralysis in
1919. Authorship: The Harp of Ethiopia, Nashville, 1914. This is
an epic poem of about 7,500 rhymed lines, narrating the entire
history of the Negro in America. It is a noteworthy undertaking.
Corrothers, James David.—Born, Michigan, 1869. Educated at
Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., and at Bennett College,
Greensboro, N. C., Minister of the Zion Methodist Episcopal
Church. Died, 1919. Books: Selected Poems, 1907; The Dream
and the Song, 1914. 37, 85-89.
Cotter, Joseph Seamon, Jr.—Born, Louisville, Ky., 1895. Died,
1919. Books: The Band of Gideon, Cornhill Company, 1918;
another volume of poems now in press. 67-68, 70, 80-84.
Cotter, Joseph Seamon, Sr.—Born, Bardstown, Ky., 1861. Educated
in Louisville night school (10 months). Now school principal in
Louisville, member of many societies, author of several books: A
Rhyming, 1895; Links of Friendship, 1898; Caleb, the
Degenerate, 1903; A White Song and a Black One, 1909; Negro
Tales, 1912. In Who’s Who. 52, 70-80, 220-221, 248-249.
Dandridge, Raymond Garfield.—Born, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1882.
Educated in Cincinnati grammar and high schools. First devoted
to drawing and painting until paralytic stroke, 1911. Authorship:
The Poet and Other Poems, Cincinnati, 1920. 54, 169-173, 221-
223.
Dett, R. Nathaniel.—Born of Virginia parents at Drummondsville,
Ontario, Canada, October 11, 1882; studied in various colleges
and conservatories in Canada and the United States. Director of

music at Lane College, Mississippi, Lincoln Institute, Missouri,
and at Hampton Institute, Virginia, his present position. 214-217.
DuBois, W. E. Burghardt.—Born, Great Barrington, Mass., 1868.
Education: Fisk University, A. B.; Harvard, A. B., A. M., and Ph.
D.; Berlin. Professor of economics and history in Atlanta
University, 1896-1910. Now editor of The Crisis, New York,
Books: The Souls of Black Folk, 1903; Darkwater, 1919, and
numerous others. In Who’s Who. 201-205.
Dunbar, Paul Laurence.—1872-1906. 37, 38-48.
Dunbar-Nelson, Alice Ruth Moore (née).—Born, New Orleans,
1875. Education: in New Orleans public schools and Straight
University, and later in several northern universities. Taught in
New Orleans, Washington, and Brooklyn, and other cities.
Married Paul Laurence Dunbar, 1898. At present Managing
Editor of Philadelphia and Wilmington Advocate. Books: Violets
and Other Tales, New Orleans, 1894; The Goodness of St.
Rocque, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1899; Masterpieces of Negro
Eloquence, 1913; The Dunbar Speaker and Entertainer, 1920.
Contributor to numerous magazines. 144-148.
Dungee, Roscoe Riley.—58.
Este, Charles H.—57.
Fauset, Miss Jessie.—Born, Philadelphia. Education: A. B., Cornell,
Phi Beta Kappa; A. M., University of Pennsylvania; student of the
Guilde Internationale, Paris. Interpreter of the Second Pan-
African Congress. Literary Editor of The Crisis. 160-162.
Fenner, John J., Jr.—245.
Fisher, Leland Milton.—Born, Humboldt, Tenn., 1875. Died, under
thirty years of age, at Evansville, Ind., where he edited a
newspaper. Left behind an unpublished volume of poems. 189-
190.
Fleming, Mrs. Sarah Lee Brown.—Clouds and Sunshine, The
Cornhill Company, Boston, 1920.
French, James Edgar.—Born in Kentucky, studied for the ministry,
died young. 253-254.

Grimké, Miss Angelina Weld.—Born, Boston, Mass., 1880.
Educated in various schools of several states, including the Girls’
Latin School of Boston and the Boston Normal School of
Gymnastics. Now teacher of English in the Dunbar High School,
Washington, D. C. Authorship: Rachel, a prose drama, Cornhill
Co., Boston, 1921; poems and short stories uncollected. 152-156.
Grimké, Mrs. Charlotte Forten.—Born, Philadelphia, 1837 (née
Forten). Educated in the Normal School at Salem, Mass. She was
a contributor to various magazines, including The Atlantic
Monthly and The New England Magazine. Poems uncollected.
155-156.
Hammon, Jupiter.—Born, c. 1720. “The first member of the Negro
race to write and publish poetry in this country.” Extant poems:
An Evening Thought, 1760; An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatley,
1778; A Poem for Children with Thoughts on Death, 1782; The
Kind Master and the Dutiful Servant (date unknown.) These are
included in Oscar Wegelin’s Jupiter Hammon, American Negro
Poet, New York, 1915. 20-21, 23.
Hammond, Mrs. J. W.—Home, Omaha, Neb. Occupation: Trained
nurse. 142-144.
Harper, Mrs. Frances Ellen Watkins (née).—Born, Baltimore, Md.,
of free parents, 1825. Died, Philadelphia, 1911. Educated in a
school in Baltimore for free colored children, and by her uncle,
William Watkins. Married Fenton Harper, 1860. From about 1851
devoted herself to the cause of freedom for the slaves.
Authorship: Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects, Philadelphia,
1857; Poems, Philadelphia, 1900. 26-32.
Harris, Leon R.—Born, Cambridge, Ohio, 1886. First years spent in
an orphanage, where he got the rudiments of education. Then was
farmed out in Kentucky. Running off, he made his way to Berea
College and later to Tuskegee, getting two or three terms at each.
Now editor of the Richmond (Indiana) Blade. Authorship:
numerous short stories in magazines; The Steel Makers and Other
War Poems (pamphlet), 1918. 63-64, 180-184.
Hawkins, Walter Everette.—Born, Warrenton, N. C., 1886.
Educated in public schools. Since 1913 in the city post-office of

Washington D. C. Authorship: Chords and Discords, Richard G.
Badger, Boston, 1920. 62, 119, 126, 234-235, 240.
Hill, Leslie Pinckney.—Born, Lynchburg, Va., 1880. B. A. and M. A.
of Harvard. Teacher at Tuskegee; formerly principal of Manassas
(Va.) Industrial School; now principal of Cheyney (Pa.) State
Normal School. Authorship: The Wings of Oppression, The
Stratford Company, Boston, 1921. 52, 131-138.
Horton, George M.—Born, North Carolina. Authorship: Poems by a
Slave, 1829. Poetical Works, 1845. Several volumes from 1829 to
1865. 25.
Hughes, James C.—187-189.
Hughes, Langston.—Born, Joplin, Mo., February 1, 1902. Ancestry,
Negro and Indian; grand-nephew of Congressman John M.
Langston. Education: High School, Cleveland, O., one year at
Columbia University; traveled in Mexico and Central America.
Contributor to magazines. Home, Jones’s Point, N. Y. Contributor
to The Crisis. 199-201.
Jamison, Roscoe C.—Born, Winchester, Tenn., 1886; died at Phœnix,
Ariz., 1918. Educated at Fisk University. Authorship: Negro
Soldiers and Other Poems, William F. McNeil, South St. Joseph,
Mo., 1918. 191-195.
Jessye, Miss Eva Alberta.—Born, Coffeyville, Kan., 1897. Educated
in the public schools of several western states; graduated from
Western University, 1914. Director of music in Morgan College,
Baltimore, 1919. Now teacher of piano, Muskogee, Okla. 68-69,
139-142.
Johnson, Adolphus.—The Silver Chord, Philadelphia, 1915. 104-
105.
Johnson, Charles Bertram.—Born, Callao, Mo., 1880. Educated at
Western College, Macon, Mo.; two summers at Lincoln Institute;
correspondence courses, and a term in the University of Chicago.
Educator and preacher. Authorship: Wind Whisperings (a
pamphlet), 1900; The Mantle of Dunbar and Other Poems (a
pamphlet), 1918; Songs of My People, 1918. Home, Moberly, Mo.
52, 63, 95-99.

Johnson, Fenton.—Born, Chicago, 1888. Educated in the public
schools and University of Chicago. Authorship: A Little
Dreaming, Chicago, 1914; Visions of the Dusk, New York, 1915.
Songs of the Soil, New York, 1916. Editor of The Favorite
Magazine, Chicago. 64-65, 99-103.
Johnson, Mrs. Georgia Douglas.—Born, Atlanta, Ga. Educated at
Atlanta University, and in music at Oberlin. Home, Washington,
D. C. Books: The Heart of a Woman, the Cornhill Co., Boston,
1918; Bronze, B. J. Brimmer Co., Boston, 1922. 61, 148-152,
232-233, 249.
Johnson, James Weldon.—Born, Jacksonville, Fla., 1871. Educated
at Atlanta and Columbia Universities. United States consul in
Venezuela and Nicaragua. Author of numerous works. Original
verse: Fifty Years and Other Poems, the Cornhill Company,
Boston, 1917. In Who’s Who. 54, 90-95, 226-227, 235-236.
Johnson, Mrs. Mae Smith (née).—Born, Alexandria, Va., 1890. Now
Secretary at the Good Samaritan Orphanage, Newark, N. J.
Contributor of verse to papers and magazines. The grandmother
of the poet escaped from slavery in Virginia. She lived to be
ninety-two years old. 57, 251-252.
Jones, Edward Smythe.—Authorship: The Sylvan Cabin and Other
Verse, Sherman, French & Co., Boston, 1911. 163-169.
Jones, Joshua Henry, Jr.—Born, Orangeburg, S. C., 1876. Educated
Central High School, Columbus, O., Ohio State University, Yale,
and Brown. Has served on the editorial staffs of the Providence
News, The Worcester Evening Post, Boston Daily Advertiser and
Boston Post. At present he is on the staff of the Boston Telegram.
Authorship: The Heart of the World, the Stratford Company,
Boston, 1919; Poems of the Four Seas, the Cornhill Company,
Boston, 1921. 113-119, 234, 256-257.
Jones, Tilford.—231-232.
Jordan, W. Clarence.—190-191.
Jordan, Winifred Virginia.—Contributor to The Crisis. 56.
Lee, Mary Effie.—Contributor to The Crisis. 56.

Lewis, Corinne E.—Student in the Dunbar High School, Washington,
D. C. 255.
Lewis, Ethyl.—60-61.
McClellan, George Marion.—Born, Belfast, Tenn., 1860. Educated
at Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn., of which he became financial
agent. Later, principal of the Paul Dunbar School, Louisville, Ky.
Authorship: The Path of Dreams, John P. Morton, Louisville, Ky.,
1916. 55, 173-179, 246-247.
McKay, Claude.—Born, Jamaica, 1889. Has resided in the United
States ten or eleven years. Till lately on the editorial staff of the
Liberator. Books: Constab Ballads, London, 1912; Spring in New
Hampshire, London, 1920. 126-131, 241-242, 244.
Margetson, George Reginald.—Born, 1877, at St. Kitts, B. W. I.
109-111.
Means, Sterling M.—Authorship: The Deserted Cabin and Other
Poems, A. B. Caldwell, publisher, Atlanta, 1915. 222-223.
Miller, Kelly.—Born, Winsboro, S. C., 1863. Educated at Howard
and Johns Hopkins Universities. Degrees: A. M. and LL. D.
Professor and dean in Howard University. Books: Race
Adjustment, 1904; Out of the House of Bondage, Neale Publishing
Co., New York, 1914. In Who’s Who. 206-209.
Moore, William.—Contributor to The Favorite Magazine. 111-112.
Ray, H. Cordelia.—Authorship: Poems, The Grafton Press, New
York, 1910. 257-260.
Razafkeriefo, Andrea.—Born, Washington, D. C., 1895, of Afro-
American mother and Madagascaran father. Educated only in
public elementary school. Regular verse contributor to The
Crusader and The Negro World. 197-198, 247-248, 263-264.
Reason, Charles L.—Born in New York in 1818. Professor at New
York Central College in New York and head of the Institute for
Colored Youth in Philadelphia. Authorship: Freedom, New York,
1847. 23-24.
Riley, Edwin Garnett.—Contributor to many newspapers and
magazines. 262.
Sexton, Will.—Contributor to magazines. 197, 233-234.

Shackelford, Otis.—Educated at Lincoln Institute, Jefferson City,
Mo. Authorship: Seeking the Best (prose and verse). The verse
part of this volume contains a poem of some 500 lines entitled
“Bits of History in Verse, or A Dream of Freedom Realized,”
modeled on Hiawatha.
Shackelford, Theodore Henry.—Born, Windsor Canada, 1888.
Grandparents were slaves in southern states. At twelve years of
age had had only three terms of school. At twenty-one entered the
Industrial Training School, Downington, Pa., and graduated four
years later. Studied a while at the Philadelphia Art Museum.
Authorship: My Country and Other Poems, Philadelphia, 1918.
Died, Jamaica, N. Y., February 5, 1923. 228.
Spencer, Mrs. Anne.—Born, Bramwell, W. Va., 1882. Educated at
the Virginia Seminary, Lynchburg, Va. Contributor to The Crisis.
156-159.
Underhill, Irvin W.—Born, Port Clinton, Pa., May 1, 1868. In
boyhood, with irregular schooling, assisted his father, who was
captain of a canal boat. At the age of 37 suddenly lost his sight.
Author of Daddy’s Love and Other Poems, Philadelphia. Home,
Philadelphia. 184-187.
Watkins, Lucian B.—Born, Chesterfield, Virginia, 1879. Educated in
public schools of Chesterfield, and at the Virginia Normal and
Industrial Institute, Petersburg. First teacher, then soldier. Books:
Voices of Solitude, 1907, Donohue & Co., Chicago; Whispering
Winds, in manuscript. Died, 1921. 59, 236-239, 252-253.
Watson, Adeline Carter.—232.
Wheatley, Phillis.—Born in Africa, 1753. Brought as a slave to
Boston, where she died in 1784. Many editions of her poems in
her lifetime. Poems and Letters, New York, 1916. 23-24.
Wiggins, Lida Keck.—Authorship: The Life and Works of Paul
Laurence Dunbar, J. L. Nichols & Company, Naperville, Ill. 41.
Whitman, Albery A.—Born in Kentucky in 1857. Began life as a
Methodist minister. Authorship: The Rape of Florida, Not a Man
and Yet a Man, and Twasnita’s Seminoles. 32, 35-36.
Williamson, D. T.—260-261.

Wilson, Charles P.—Born in Iowa of Kentucky parents, 1885.
Printer and theatrical performer. 179-180.

INDEX OF TITLES
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, V, W, Y.
PAGE
Apology for Wayward Jim.—James C. Hughes, 188
Ask Me Why I Love You.—W. E. Hawkins, 125
A Song.—Roscoe C. Jamison, 193
As the Old Year Passed.—William Moore, 112
At the Closed Gate of Justice.—J. D. Corrothers, 88
At the Carnival.—Mrs. Anne Spencer, 158
At Niagara.—R. Nathaniel Dett, 216
At the Spring Dawn.—Miss Angelina W. Grimké, 154
Autumn Sadness.—W. S. Braithwaite, 108
Band of Gideon, The.—Joseph S. Cotter, Jr., 83
Black Mammy, The.—J. W. Johnson, 236
Black Violinist, The.—Winston Allen, 230
Bomb Thrower, The.—Will Sexton, 197
Boy and the Ideal, The.—Joseph S. Cotter, Sr., 74
Brothers.—J. H. Jones, Jr., 118
Castles in the Air.—Roscoe C. Jamison, 193
Christmas Cheer.—Miss Corinne E. Lewis, 255
Chicken in the Bread Tray.—Folk Song, 15
Compensation.—Joseph S. Cotter, Jr., 82
Counting Out.—J. Mord Allen, 48
Credo.—W. E. Hawkins, 119
Dawn.—Miss Angelina W. Grimké, 153
Daybreak.—G. M. McClellan, 246
Death of Justice, The.—W. E. Hawkins, 123
De Innah Part.—R. G. Dandridge, 221

Don’t-Care Negro, The.—Joseph S. Cotter, Sr., 220
Dream and the Song, The.—J. D. Corrothers, 85
Dreams of the Dreamer, The.—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 148
Dunbar.—J. D. Corrothers, 37
Dunbar and Cotter.—J. E. French, 253
Easter Message, An.—Mrs. Carrie W. Clifford, 240
Ebon Maid.—L. B. Watkins, 252
Edict, The.—Roscoe C. Jamison, 194
El Beso.—Miss Angelina W. Grimké, 154
Ere Sleep Comes Down to Soothe the Weary Eyes.—Paul Laurence
Dunbar, 41
Eternity.—R. G. Dandridge, 172
Expectancy.—William Moore, 112
Facts.—R. G. Dandridge, 172
Fattening Frogs for Snakes.—Folk Song, 117
Feet of Judas, The.—G. M. McClellan, 177
Flag of the Free.—E. W. Jones, 167
For You Sweetheart.—L. M. Fisher, 189
Foscati.—W. S. Braithwaite, 108
Goodbye, Old Year.—J. H. Jones, Jr., 256
Harlem Dancer, The.—Claude McKay, 128
Heart of the World, The.—J. H. Jones, Jr., 117
Hero of the Road.—W. E. Hawkins, 122
Hills of Sewanee, The.—G. M. McClellan, 176
Hopelessness.—Roscoe C. Jamison, 195
If We Must Die.—Claude McKay, 241
In Bondage.—Claude McKay, 129
In Memory of Katie Reynolds.—G. M. McClellan, 178
In Spite of Death.—W. E. Hawkins, 62
In the Heart of a Rose.—G. M. McClellan, 54

I Played on David’s Harp.—Fenton Johnson, 65
I See and Am Satisfied.—Kelly Miller, 207
I Sit and Sew.—Mrs. Alice Dunbar-Nelson, 145
It’s All Through Life.—W. T. Carmichael, 53
It’s a Long Way.—W. S. Braithwaite, 106
I’ve Loved and Lost.—L. B. Watkins, 237
Juba.—Folk Song, 16
Life.—Paul Laurence Dunbar, 43
Life of the Spirit, The.—Charles H. Conner, 210
Light of Victory.—George Reginald Margetson, 110
Lights at Carney’s Point, The.—Mrs. Alice Dunbar-Nelson, 146
Litany of Atlanta, A.—W. E. B. DuBois, 202
Loneliness.—Miss Winifred Virginia Jordan, 56
Lynching, The.—Claude McKay, 128
Mammy’s Baby Scared.—W. T. Carmichael, 219
Mater Dolorosa.—L. P. Hill, 134
Message to the Modern Pharaohs.—L. B. Watkins, 239
Months, The.—Miss H. Cordelia Ray, 257
Mother, The.—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 249
My Lady’s Lips.—J. W. Johnson, 226
My People.—C. B. Johnson, 95
Mulatto’s Song, The.—Fenton Johnson, 101
Mulatto to His Critics, The.—Joseph S. Cotter, Jr., 67
Nation’s Greatness, A.—Edwin G. Riley, 262
Negro, The.—Langston Hughes, 200
Negro, The.—Claude McKay, 244
Negro Child, The.—Joseph S. Cotter, Sr., 248
Negro Church, The.—Andrea Razafkeriefo, 198
Negro Woman, The.—Andrea Razafkeriefo, 247
Negro Singer, The.—J. D. Corrothers, 89
New Day, The.—Fenton Johnson, 102

New Negro, The.—Will Sexton, 197
New Negro, The.—L. B. Watkins, 236
Octoroon, The.—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 151
Ode to Ethiopia.—Paul Laurence Dunbar, 44
Oh, My Way and Thy Way.—Joseph S. Cotter, Sr., 81
Old Plantation Grave, The.—S. M. Means, 222
Ole Deserted Cabin, De.—S. M. Means, 223
Old Friends.—C. B. Johnson, 97
Old Jim Crow.—Anonymous, 231
Optimist, The.—Mrs. J. W. Hammond, 143
Oriflamme.—Miss Jessie Fauset, 162
O Southland.—J. W. Johnson, 92
Peace.—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 61
Plaint of the Factory Child, The.—Fenton Johnson, 101
Poet, The.—R. G. Dandridge, 170
Prayer of the Race That God Made Black, A.—L. B. Watkins, 59
Psalm of the Uplift, The.—J. Mord Allen, 50
Puppet-Player, The.—Miss Angelina W. Grimké, 153
Rain Song, A.—C. B. Johnson, 99
Rainy Days.—Andrea Razafkeriefo, 263
Rain Music.—Joseph S. Cotter, Jr., 81
Rise! Young Negro—Rise!—John J. Fenner, Jr., 245
Sandy Star.—W. S. Braithwaite, 106
Self-Determination.—L. P. Hill, 137
She Hugged Me.—Folk Song, 17
Singer, The.—Miss Eva A. Jessye, 69
Slump, The.—W. E. Bailey, 65
Smothered Fires.—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 150
Somebody’s Child.—Charles P. Wilson, 179
So Much.—C. B. Johnson, 98
Soul and Star.—C. B. Johnson, 96

Southern Love Song, A.—J. H. Jones, Jr., 115
Spring in New Hampshire.—Claude McKay, 127
Spring with the Teacher.—Miss Eva A. Jessye, 139
Steel Makers, The.—Leon R. Harris, 182
Sunset.—Miss Mary Effie Lee, 56
Thanking God.—W. S. Braithwaite, 109
Thanksgiving.—W. S. Braithwaite, 262
The Flowers Take the Tears.—Joseph S. Cotter, Sr., 76
The Glory of the Day Was in Her Face.—J. W. Johnson, 226
These Are My People.—Fenton Johnson, 100
Threshing Floor, The.—Joseph S. Cotter, Sr., 75
Time to Die.—R. G. Dandridge, 171
To——.—R. G. Dandridge, 171
To a Negro Mother.—Ben E. Burrell, 249
To America.—J. W. Johnson, 53
To a Caged Canary....—L. P. Hill, 136
To a Nobly-Gifted Singer.—L. P. Hill, 137
To a Rosebud.—Miss Eva A. Jessye, 141
To a Wild Rose.—W. E. Bailey, 213
To Hollyhocks.—G. M. McClellan, 176
To My Grandmother.—Mrs. Mae Smith Johnson, 251
To My Lost Child.—Will Sexton, 233
To My Neighbor Boy.—Mrs. J. W. Hammond, 143
To My Son.—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 232
To Keep the Memory of Charlotte Forten Grimké.—Miss Angelina W.
Grimké, 155
To Our Boys.—Irvin W. Underhill, 185
Truth.—Mrs. Frances E. W. Harper, 28
Turn Out the Light.—J. H. Jones, Jr., 114
Vashti.—Mrs. Frances E. W. Harper, 30
Victim of Microbes, A.—J. Mord Allen, 224
Violets.—Mrs. Alice Dunbar-Nelson, 55

Want of You, The.—Miss Angelina W. Grimké, 154
We Wear the Mask.—Paul Laurence Dunbar, 47
What Is the Negro Doing?—W. Clarence Jordan, 190
What Need Have I for Memory?—Mrs. Georgia Douglas Johnson, 149
While April Breezes Blow.—D. T. Williamson, 260
Winter Twilight, A.—Miss Angelina W. Grimké, 153
With the Lark.—Paul Laurence Dunbar, 46
Young Warrior, The.—J. W. Johnson, 94
Zalka Peetruza.—R. G. Dandridge, 180

FOOTNOTES:
[1] Happily a great number of these, about three hundred and fifty, accompanied
by an essay setting forth their nature, origin, and elements, are now made accessible
in Negro Folk Rhymes, by Thomas W. Talley, of Fisk University; the Macmillan
Company, publishers, 1922.
[2] We are enabled to give the following poems by the kind permission of Dodd,
Mead and Company, the publishers of Dunbar’s works.
[3] The Dunbar Speaker and Entertainer, containing the best prose and poetic
selections by and about the Negro Race, with programs arranged for special
entertainments. Edited by Alice Moore Dunbar-Nelson. J. L. Nichols & Co.,
Naperville, Ill.
[4] Bronze has now been published. See Index of Authors.
[5] A Short History of the American Negro. By Benjamin Brawley. The Macmillan
Company.
[6] Published by Harcourt, Brace & Company, by whose kind permission I use this
selection.

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