methods of data collection in nursing research
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This document discusses various tools and methods used for data collection in research studies. It describes primary and secondary sources of data, as well as common data collection methods like interviews, questionnaires, attitude scales, and observations. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, while questionnaires contain open-ended or closed-ended questions. Attitude scales assess perspectives using tools like Likert scales or semantic differentials. Observations are structured, unstructured, participant, or non-participant. Proper planning is required to select the most appropriate data collection methods and tools for different research objectives.
methods of data collection in nursing research
- 1. TOOLS & METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
- 2. DATA • Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon under study. • It is a systematic process of collecting detailed information about desired objectives from selected sample under controlled settings. • In research studies two types of data are collected from primary and secondary sources.
- 3. Data Sources: A quality of research studies requires that highly reliable and valid data are to be collected. Information collected for different research studies generally depends on various sources like primary and secondary sources.
- 4. Primary Sources: • Data directly collected from research units, which may be individuals/ objects. • They provide the first hand information that is collected by the researcher directly from the respondents or the situations which may be collected through interviews, questioning, observation, etc.
- 5. Secondary Sources: • They are data collected from either internal or external secondary sources. • External sources involved existing materials such as published or unpublished records Published records may include journals, magazines, censes reports etc. Unpublished records may include dissertations, patient records, thesis etc. • Internal secondary sources are also known as private documents may include bio graphics, personal diaries, letters, etc.
- 6. The 5 W’s of Data Collection are: 1. What data is to be collected? 2. From whom data is to be collected? 3. Who will collect data? 4. From where the data will be collected? 5. When is the data collected?
- 7. Methods & Tools of Data Collection Methods of data collection: • The various steps used for gathering and analyzing data in a research investigation are known as the methods of data collection. Technique of data collection: • The means of gathering data with the use of specific tools that are used in given methods. Instruments/ Tools of data collection • Instrument is a device used to measure the concept of interest in a research project that the researcher uses to collect the data.
- 8. S. No. Methods/Techniques Tools Used 1. Interview Interview schedule, opinionnaire 2. Questioning (Self Report) Questionnaire, Opinionnaire,Attitude scale, VAS Observation 3. Observation Rating scale, Check lists, Anecdotes 4. Biophysical Methods In vivo & In vitro bio physiological methods 5. Other Methods Projective technique, Q- sorts, Vignets
- 9. Selection of Methods and Tools of Data Collection 1. The nature of phenomenon under study 2. Type of research subjects 3. Type of research study 4. Size of the study samples 5. Distribution of target population 6. Time frame of the study 7. Literacy level of the subjects 8. Availability of resource and manpower 9. Researchers knowledge level and competence
- 11. INTERVIEW Definition: • An interview is a conversation between two or more people, where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee. systematic conversation between investigator and an informant initiated • It may be defined as the two way an for obtaining information relevant to specific study.
- 12. Characteristics 1. The interviewer and the respondents are strangers. 2. It is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally. 3. Investigator records information furnished by respondents. 4. It is a conversation with specific purpose. 5. It should not need face to face because it can be conducted over telephone also. 6. It is not a standardized process.It can be modified according to the situation.
- 13. Types of interview 1. Structured Interview 2. Unstructured Interview 3. Semi Structured Interview 4. Indepth Interview 5. Focused Group Interview 6. Telephone Interview
- 14. Types 1. Structured Interview: It is a method of data collection in which the interview made with a detailed, standardized schedule. Same questions are put to all the respondents and in the same order.
- 15. 2. Unstructured Interview It is a method where the questions are not pre arranged and can be modified to meet the respondent’s intelligence, understanding and beliefs. It is not formalized & has open ended questions. Example: What is your opinion regarding mobile phone for under five children? What is your view regarding online teaching for school students?
- 16. 3. Semi Structured Interview • It is a flexible questions to be method brought that allows new up during the interview depending upon the situation.
- 17. 4. Indepth Interview This is an intensive and investigative interview conducted and aimed at studying the respondent’s opinion & emotions on the basis of interview guide. It is usually conducted for prisoners, juvenile criminals etc.
- 18. 5. Focused Group Interview It is an unstructured group interview technique where 8-12 members are brought together under the guidance of the trained interviewer, to focus on a specific phenomenon. All information including facial expression & body language are recorded for the study purpose.
- 19. 6. Telephone Interview • This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. • More flexible & quick way of obtaining information.
- 20. Interviewing Process a. Preparation for Interview • Fix-up appointment • Familiarity with interview schedule. b. Pre Interview Introduction • Researcher introduces himself to all respondents respectfully. • Choose a setting with as little distractionas possible • Explain purpose of the interview • Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
- 21. Cont… c. Developing Rapport • After introduction, the researchers start developing rapport with the respondents. This is developed through confidence-building & understanding the concerns of respondents.
- 22. Cont… n d. Carrying interview forward • Start the interview • Ask only one question at a time • Repeat the question if necessary • Listen carefully to the subjects answer • Observe the subject's facial expressions, gestures and tone of voice. • Do not show signs of surprise, shock or anger.
- 23. Cont… e. Recording the interview • Good information can be taken by note-taking • Diary or tape recorder can be used to record the response. f. Closing the interview • After the interview, a polite leave of the respondent by friendly smile & saying good bye.
- 24. Advantages • They are used to obtain people’s feelings, perceptions and opinions. • High response rate is achieved. • Respondents own words are recorded • Meaning of questions can be clarified Disadvantages • Time consuming for data collection • Costly process • High chances of interviews bias
- 25. QUESTIONNAIRE • A questionnaire is structured instrument consisting of a series of questions prepared by researcher that a research subject is asked to complete, to gather data from individuals about knowledge, attitude and feeling. • A questionnaire is a structured self report paper and pencil instrument that a research subject is asked to complete.
- 26. Types of questions 1. Open Ended Questions 2. Closed Ended Questions a. Dichotomous Questions b. Multiple Choice Questions c. Cafeteria Questions d. Rank Order Questions e. Contingency Questions f. Rating questions g. Importance questions h. Likert questions i. Bipolar questions j. Matrix questions
- 27. 1. Open Ended Questions • They are the questions which provide opportunity to the respondents to express their opinions and answers in their own way. Example: • Tell me about your relationship with yours neighbours. • Where do you want to be in next five years?
- 28. 2. Closed Ended Questions • These questions offer respondents a number of alternative replies, from which the subjects must choose the one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.
- 29. Close ended questions subtypes: a. Dichotomous Questions: • This requires respondents to make a choice between two alternatives such as yes or no, true or false, male or female. Example • Have you ever been hospitalized? a. Yes b. No
- 30. Cont.. b. Multiple Choice Questions: • These questions require respondents to make a choice between more than two alternatives. Example: • Who is known as Lady with the lamp? a. Mother teresa b. Sarojini naidu c. Florence nightingale d. None of these
- 31. Cont… c. Cafeteria Questions: • They allow respondents to select a response that most closely correspondents to their view. Q hormone Ex: Q: What do you think about replacement theory? • It is dangerous, it should be avoided • One should be cautious while using it • I am uncertain about my views • It is beneficial, should be promoted
- 32. Cont… d. Rank Order Questions: • These questions ask respondents to rank their responses from most favorable to least favorable. Example: Q: what according to you is most important for your life? Money Education Family
- 33. Cont… e. Contingency Questions: A question is asked further only respondent gives a particular if the response to previous question. Ex: Q: Are you stressed? • No • Yes If yes Why………………..
- 34. Cont.. f. Rating questions •Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges from poor to good. They may provide a number of choices. Example: 1. How do you rate the following Poor Good Very Good a) Service b) Cleanliness c) Parking d) Quality of food
- 35. Cont.. g. Importance question In this respondent is asked to rate the importance of a particular issue, on a rating scale of 1-5. Examples- 1. Exercising every day is ……… for the health. 1 2 3 4 5 Extremely important Very important Somewhat important Not very important Not at all important
- 36. Cont.. h. Likert Questions It help to know how strongly the respondents agrees with a particular statement. Example: 1. Person with multiple sex partners is at high risk of AIDS? 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly disagree
- 37. Cont.. i. Bipolar questions •These are questions that have two extreme answers. Respondent has to mark his or her response between two opposite ends of the scale. Examples: What is your balance of preference here? I like going for walk ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) I like watching movie
- 38. Cont… j. Matrix questions It include multiple questions and identical response categories are assigned. Questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix. Response categories are placed along the top and a list of questions down the side.
- 39. Cont.. Example: Please let me know your weekly schedule of the following: Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Walking Gym Aerobics Zumba
- 40. Guidelines for Designing a Good Questionnaire i. It must be developed in accordance with study objectives. ii. It should begin with the instructions for the respondents to provide the responses. iii. The questionnaire should be concise and brief. iv. Language should be according to the respondents knowledge about a particular language. v. As far as possible open ended questions should be avoided. vi. Avoid questions with difficult concepts. vii.Controversial and ambiguous questions should be avoided.
- 41. Cont… viii. There should be logical sequence of the questions. ix. Questions should be from general to more specific x. Avoid negative and double questions. Use positive statements xi. A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied by introduction to the study, purpose, and directions to fill the questionnaire.
- 42. Cont… Advantages: • Cost effective • Easy to analyze with statistics • Require less time and energy to administer • Can easily be used for larger sample size • Can be administered for distant samples (mailed/ posted)
- 43. Cont… Disadvantages: • Not suitable for all types of research studies • Provides only superficial information • Low return rate • People can attempt false information
- 44. ATTITUDE SCALES An attitude scale is a measurement tool used to assess an individual's attitude towards a particular object, concept, or event. Attitude refers to the positive or negative evaluations, feelings, or beliefs that individuals hold towards an object or issue.
- 45. Types of Attitude Scale 1. Likert Scale 2. Semantic Differential Scale 3. Visual Analogue Scale
- 46. 1. Likert Scale • A Likert scale is a rating scale used to measure opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It consists of a statement or a question, followed by a series of five or seven answer statements. • Respondents choose the option that best corresponds with how they feel about the statement or question.
- 47. Cont.. • Primarily original version of this scale was developed with five point scale (Strongly Agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree, Strongly Disagree). • Now in recent time one can even observe the likert scale with four points (Strongly Agree, Moderately Agree, Uncertain, Disagree) to seven points (Very Strongly Agree, Strongly Agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree, Strongly Disagree, Very Strongly Disagree).
- 49. Cont… Advantages: • Easy to construct and administer • It is considered more reliable and valid tool to assess attitude of subject • Less time consuming Disadvantages: • Feelings/ attitude may not be fully assessed • Casual approach of respondents may provide misleading data
- 50. 2. Semantic Differential Scale •Semantic Differential Scale is a rating scale used to measure the attitudes and opinions of respondents toward an object, person, event, or idea. •It uses a set of bipolar adjectives, such as "good-bad," "happy-sad," "strong-weak," etc., placed at opposite ends of a continuum. Usage: • Patient Satisfaction Survey • Customer Satisfaction Survey • Employee Survey
- 52. Cont… Advantages • Easy to administer • Easy to construct • Highly flexible Disadvantages: • It is time consuming to find appropriate subjects • Scale is susceptible to bias.
- 53. 3. Visual Analogue Scale • It is a tool used to help a person rate the intensity of certain sensations and feelings such as pain. • It is frequently used in clinical or community health analysis. For example, if a person suffering from pain can rate that pain from a degree ranging continuously from “no pain” to “Severe Pain”. Uses: • To measure the level of pain, anxiety or mood.
- 54. VAS for Mood Assessment VAS for Pain
- 55. Cont.. Advantages: •It is reliable and valid tool to measure the intensity of certain sensations and feelings. •The VAS takes < 1 minute to complete. •No training is required other than the ability to use a ruler.
- 56. Cont.. Disadvantages: •Can not be used for comparing across a group of individuals at one-time point. •The VAS is administered as a paper and pencil measure or digital. It cannot be administered verbally or by phone
- 57. OBSERVATIONS t Definition It is a technique for collecting the data or acquiring information through occurences that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.
- 58. Cont… Uses: • To understood an ongoing process or situation. • To gather data on individual behavior or steps/ sequence of any process or event. • To know about a physical setting.
- 59. Types 1. Structured observation 2. Unstructured observation 3. Participant observation 4. Non participant observation
- 60. Types a. Structured Observation: In this, researcher in advance prepares a structured or semi structured tool to observe the phenomenon under study. It is generally carried out by using tools like checklist or rating scale.
- 61. Cont.. b. Unstructured Observation: It is used for complete and nonspecific observation, specifically for qualitative studies. The tools are used by researcher are field diary, video recording etc.
- 62. Cont… c. Participant Observation: In this observer may live or work in field and actively participate in ongoing activities for the extended period.
- 63. Cont.. d. Non Participant Observation: In this observer works as an eaves dropper (secretly listening or observing), where an attempt is made to observe people without interacting with them. It is a technique used by psychologists to study children or animals.
- 64. Advantages: • It provides direct, real-time information on ongoing process or situation. • Allows researcher to see what people do rather than relying on what people say they did. • Data collected is accurate and reliable • Susceptible to ‘Hawthorne effect’, that is people usually perform better when they know they are being observed.
- 65. Cont.. Disadvantages: • Time consuming. • Slow and laborious. • Susceptible to observer bias. • Can be expensive. • Lack of co-operation from subjects • Can be unethical in some of the cases
- 66. Field Note •Field note is a qualitative notes of an observation made by a researcher in a research setting, which includes descriptive and reflective narrations of the observed behaviour, event, place or person. •Descriptive information is factual data that is being recorded. Includes time and date, physical setting, social environment, descriptions of the subjects being studied and their roles in the setting.
- 67. Anecdotes •It is a brief, non-judgemental written record of an observed incident. Anecdotes are record of what, when, where, how event happened and what was said and done. •An anecdotal record is a short, objective, descriptive summary of one event or incident writing down after the event has taken place.
- 68. RATING SCALES •Rating is the term used to express the opinion or judgement regarding some performance of a person, objects, situations or character. •It is a tool in which the one person simply checks of another person’s level of performance. •Rating scale could be three point, five point, seven point scale.
- 69. Types 1. Graphic Rating Scale 2. Descriptive Rating Scale 3. Numerical Rating Scale 4. Comparative Rating Scale
- 70. Cont… a. Graphic Rating Scale: • In this scale the performance is printed horizontally at various points from lowest to highest. Example: Semantic differential scale
- 71. Cont.. b. Descriptive Rating Scale: • This type of rating scale do not use number but divide the assessment into series of verbal phrases to indicate the level of performance. • Example: Likert Scale
- 73. Cont… 3. Numerical Rating Scale: • It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed number of points denoted by numerics. • Example: Visual Analog Scale
- 75. 4. Comparative Rating Scale: • The researcher makes a judgment about an attribute of a person by comparing it with that of a similar another person. Attribute Behavior Obedience Performance Student 1 Student 1
- 76. Cont… Advantages: • Easy to administer and score the measured attributes. • It can be easily used for a large group • It may be used for the comparison of personal characteristics of a subject or event. Disadvantages: • It is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about many aspects of individuals.
- 77. CHECKLIST A checklist is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected items of performances or attributes which are checked by researcher for the presence or absence. Characteristics: • Observe one respondent at one time • Clearly specify the characteristics of behavior to be observed • The observer should be trained how to use the checklist
- 78. Construction of checklist 1. Express each item in clear and simple language. 2. An intensive survey of the literature is made before making any checklist. 3. The list of items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into groups. 4. Avoid negative statement whenever possible. 5. Avoid lifting statement verbatim from the text. 6. Checklist must have quality of completeness and comprehensiveness.
- 79. Checklist S.NO. BEHAVIOUR DONE NOT DONE 1. Explain Procedure 2. Collect Necessary Equipment 3. Arrange Equipment 4. Prepares Patient 5. Wash Hands 6. Maintain Aseptic Technique 7. Observe Condition Of Wound 8. Clean Wound 9. Applies Dressing 10. Removes Equipment 11. Make Patient Comfortable 12. Complete Record Chart 13. Take Care Of Equipment
- 80. Cont… Advantages: • They can be developed very easily and quickly. • Checklist reduces the chances of error in observation. • It is useful to obtain a large amount of data at one time. • Consumes less time to record the observation.. • It is useful in evaluating learning activities. • It helps in evaluating procedural work.
- 81. Cont… Disadvantages: • Does not indicate quality of performance, so usefulness of checklist is limited. • It is very easy for certain important items to be omitted in a checklist.
- 82. BIO PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS Definition • This method involves the collection of bio physiological data from subjects by using the specialized equipments to determine physical and biological status of the subjects. Purpose: 1. To study physiological process. 2. Tostudy physiological outcome of nursing care. 3. To assess health status of the subject.
- 83. Types a. In vivo Bio Physiological Methods The measurements are directly performed over the organism or study subject by using specialized instruments or equipments. Ex: BP, Inch tape, weighing machine etc. b. In vitro Bio Physiological Methods They are the measurements carried out outside the organism or study subject by using specialized instruments or equipments. Ex: Blood test, CT Scan, MRI etc.
- 84. Cont… Advantages: • Bio-physiologic measures are relatively more accurate and errorless. • Provide valid measures for targeted variables. • Easy access to most of the instruments.
- 85. Cont… Disadvantages: • Some of instruments are very costly • It requires significant amount of training, knowledge and experience • The results produced by these instruments may be affected by environment. • The use may cause fear and anxiety among participants.
- 86. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE Definition: • These are the methods of measuring psychological attributes by providing respondents with unstructured stimuli to which they respond. • Researcher use respondent’s projections to discover hidden motives, urges, or intentions that can’t be found through direct questioning because the respondent either doesn’t want to tell or can’t figure out himself.
- 87. Types: 1. Association Technique 2. Completion Technique 3. Construction Technique 4. Expressive Technique
- 88. Cont… a. Association Technique: •The subjects are given a stimulus or situation to which they have to respond with the first word comes in their mind. The investigator correlates the response with given stimulus. •This technique is commonly used to illicit inner conflict regarding particular construct. Example: If the investigator announce word ‘fire’ the subject may respond ‘danger’.
- 89. Cont… b. Completion Technique: •The sentence completion method asks responders to finish sentences that have been left unfinished. •Example: “Visiting the mountains for vacation is…” “The purpose of golf is…” “Museum visitors tend to be…”
- 90. Cont… c. Construction Technique: •The focus is on the product or outcome of the subject for certain stimulus. •Researcher ask to construct a story or a picture for a given stimuli or concept. The Thematic Apperception test consist of a set of pictures of an event and respondents are asked to describe what they think the pictures represent. It evaluates a person's patterns of thought, attitude, and observational capacity.
- 91. Cont… d. Expressive Technique: •A subject is asked to role-play or act specific concept or situation. •Expressive technique focus on the manner in which the subject constructs something, rather than on what it represents. Ex. Role-play, Act etc.
- 92. Miscellaneous Type Drawing a picture: • Each participant is given a blank piece of paper and a pencil and is asked to draw a picture that might offer some insights on behavior and attitudes. Using Fantasy and Daydreaming: • Participants are provided asked to describe topic related fantasies and daydreams in order to surface characteristics or features that are important to the study. Ex- Story making Clay modeling: • Participants are provided with different colored clays and are requested to give shape to them to reflect their feelings and thoughts.
- 93. Cont… Advantages: •Access to unconscious thoughts and emotions. •Enhanced self-expression. •Provide a view of overall functioning of individuals •Stimulates creativity and imagination.
- 94. Cont… Disadvantages: • Expensive to administer because highly skilled research staff have to be employed. • Researcher should be skilled and trained. • Some subjects may not agree to participate in exercises such as role playing.
- 95. Q-SORTS Q methodology is a research method used in psychology and in social sciences to study people's "subjectivity”. In this techniques, participants are provided pre- written cards with words, phrases or statements and are asked to arrange theses cards in an order along with specific bipolar dimension.
- 96. Cont.. For example, in a Q study of people's views of a celebrity, a subject might be given statements like "He is a deeply religious man" and "He is a liar," and asked to sort them from "most like how I think about this celebrity" to "least like how I think about this celebrity."
- 97. Q Sort with 30 statements
- 98. Advantages of q-sorts: •Provide in depth study of small sample populations. •Interesting and different method to assess subjective behavior Disadvantages of q-sorts: •Time consuming and exhaustive procedure. •Only small sample can be studied.
- 99. VIGNETTES •Vignettes are self-report measure which provide a brief description of an event or situation to which participants are asked to react. •Vignettes provide a valuable technique for exploring people’s perceptions, beliefs and meanings about specific situations. •Vignettes are short scenarios in written or pictorial form, intended to elicit responses.
- 100. Uses of Vignettes 1. To tap general attitudes and beliefs. 2. To explore sensitive topics. 3. To compare perceptions of disparate groups. 4. Used in focus group discussions.
- 101. Designing Good Vignettes 1. Stories must appear reasonable and real to participants. 2. Stories need to avoid depicting eccentric characters and disastrous events. 3. Vignettes need to contain sufficient context. 4. Participant’s ability to engage with the story may be enhanced. 5. Vignettes must be presented in an appropriate format. 6. Vignettes should be readily understood, internally consistent and not too complex.
- 103. Advantages: •Give opportunity to explore topics in depth. •Make it easy for respondents to reply to the concerned topics. •The ability to collect information simultaneously from large numbers of subjects.
- 104. Disadvantages: •Volume of information can be large, may be difficult to record and reduce data clarity. •No guidelines for analysis and interpretations. •Vignette responses may not mirror real-life actions.