Minor Project Report on Hydraulic Bridge

Minor Project Report 2019 Hydraulic Bridge
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DECLARATION
We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the Minor
Project Report entitled “HYDRAULIC BRIDGE” In partial fulfilment for the
award of degree of Bachelor in Technology in Civil Engineering and submitted
to Civil Engineering Department of E-Max School of Engineering and Applied
Research, Gola (Ambala), is an authentic record of our work carried out during
a period from September – October under the supervision of Er. Mahesh
Sharma.
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidates are
correct to the best of my knowledge.
Er. A.K. WATAL Group 1
H.O.D
Civil Engg. Deptt.

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the students of Group I are the bonafide
students of this institution studying in 7th
Semester of B.Tech in
Civil Engineering.
The matter contained in this report is their own work, done in
collaboration with instructors and faculty members.
The same is being submitted by them in partial fulfilment for the
requirement of the award of the B.Tech in Civil Engineering by
Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.
Guided by: Submitted to:
Er. A.K. Watal (H.O.D) Er. A.K. Watal
Er. Mahesh Sharma H.O.D
Er. Hemant Gulati Civil Engg. Deptt.
Er. Sandeep Saharan

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Group Members
Aamir Sarfraz -7xxxxxx (Group Leader)
Waseem Akram -7xxxxxx
Waseem Raza -7xxxxxx
Ghulam Rasool -7xxxxxx
Bilal Ahmed Magray -7xxxxxx
Simran Khan -7xxxxxx
Priyanka -7xxxxxx
Varsha -7xxxxxx

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all we would like to thank our project guide Mr. MAHESH SHARMA
Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, E-Max School of
Engineering and Applied Research who has given valuable support during the
course of our project by clarifying our doubts and guiding us with his novel
ideas.
We would like to thank Prof. A.K. WATAL, Head of Department, Civil
Engineering, E-Max School of Engineering and Applied Research.
We extend our sincere thanks to all teaching staff of Civil Engineering
Department, those who helped us in completing this project successfully.
Lastly we also thank the people who directly or indirectly gave us
encouragement and support throughout the project.
Group I

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ABOUT E-MAX
E-max School of Engineering and Applied Research, approved by
AICTE, DTE – Haryana and affiliated to Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, is on the high road of preparing engineers and
technocrats of global standard through imparting an education that
prepares them for the emerging worldwide challenges.
ESEAR offers the learners advanced knowledge in the field of
technology as well as makes sincere efforts for their all-round
development. In addition, the Institute assists the learners in
acquiring an in-depth expertise in the area of specialization. ESEAR
follows a well-designed academic curriculum offering intensive
exposure to the latest market trends in technical and professional
education.
The qualified, competent and compassionate faculty, favorable
environment, modern infrastructure and stimulating atmosphere at
E-max School of Engineering & Applied Research enable students
to dream and to work hard to achieve their goals.
With an objective to achieve excellence in quality technical
education, the Institute offers B. Tech. in the branches of Computer
Science & Engineering, Computer Science & Communication
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Automobile Engineering and
Civil Engineering.

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Role and Responsibilities
My roles and responsibilities includes:
➢ Prepare a requirement document to reach expectations of project and to come up with
functionalities which are needed to be implemented.
➢ Documentation of expected output for various aspects with accepted margin error was
also documented.
➢ To design overall system based on workflow requirements.
➢ Discussion with the project guide and Head of Department on ways to improve the
design and to optimize performance.
➢ Choosing suitable components and methods based on the configurations availability
and requirements.
➢ Testing and remedies.
➢ Recommendations
As a trainee Civil Engineer, I wanted to work on a project work that would showcase my
engineering knowledge. I got the opportunity to work on HYDRAULIC BRIDGE. This project
was very important as it evaluated my skills and talents in my company.

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PERSONAL ENGINEERING ACTIVITY
As a Civil Engineer, before undertaking any task I checked the feasibility of the project. In this
project, my role is as team members. This report provides an insight into the design and
fabrication of a HYDRAULIC BRIDGE.
I wanted to know more details of the project before commencing; hence, I researched the topic
thoroughly by referring to journals and articles online. Additionally, I obtained more
information by taking references about the topic.

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INTRODUCTION

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HYDRAULIC ASSISTED BRIDGE
Hydraulically Assisted Bridges also abbreviated to HAB is a new concept into
bridge design which incorporates an integrated hydraulic system into the bridge
in order to carry more weight. The system is most suitable for arch based bridges
in which the main forces are directed in a horizontal sideways direction.
The hydraulic system is integrated into the main load bearing members of the
bridge can be minimally controlled by computers; however if calibrated and
constructed accurately, the system has the possibility for non-electronic
autonomic self-adjustment which entails low maintenance cost and a reduced
safety risk in an event of an electrical malfunction.
• Incorporates an integrated hydraulic system into the bridge in order to carry
more weight
• Suitable for arch based bridges
How it works
The bridge is chiefly appropriate for bridges which inherently distributes their
forces in a lateral/horizontal direction at the supports at the reactions. This
includes bridges based on the arch, such as bowstring arch bridges. At the
midpoint of the arch there is a pinned connection, essentially making it a three

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hinged arch (two at the supports). This implies any loading will cause the arch
to spread out and this is taken advantage by the hydraulic system.
Supports
As the load causes the three hinged arch to spread out, the end of the members
house a hydraulic piston. This piston is held in place via a pined connection so
it can slide into the shaft easily. As the hydraulic fluid is pushed under pressure,
the fluid travels through pipes eventually leading to a vertical shaft leading to
the mid-span of the bridge. Figure 2 shows details on the roller pin support and
the O-rings of the piston.

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Mid-Span of Bridge
At the mid-span, the high pressure hydraulic fluid causes another piston to
become raised. And this causes it to push with a vertical force, hence
counteracting the load that was initially implied. This is where calibration and
calculation is required.
The pressure provided by the hydraulic fluid related to the formula: P=F/A or
pressure = force per unit area. Hence the system can be calibrated to provide a
certain amount of vertical force provided by the vertical hydraulic by changing
the diameter of the piston and shafts. The correlation is, the smaller the diameter
of the piston/shaft assembly, the higher the pressure. The piston and shaft
assembly of the vertical column can also be altered and need not be equivalent
to the pistons at the supports.
Importantly, you can cause the vertical piston to displace too much than required
or displace by too little, hence detailed calculation is required.

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MOVEABLE BRIDGE
A moveable bridge, or movable bridge (common alternative spelling in
American English), is a bridge that moves to allow passage (usually) for boats
or barges.[1] In American English, moveable bridge and drawbridge are
synonymous, and the latter is the common term, but drawbridge can be limited
to the narrower, historical definition used in some other forms of English, in
which drawbridge refers only to a specific type of moveable bridge.
An advantage of making bridges moveable is the lower cost, due to the absence
of high piers and long approaches. The principal disadvantage is that the traffic
on the bridge must be halted when it is opened for passages. For seldom-used
railroad bridges over busy channels, the bridge may be left open and then closed
for train passages. For small bridges, bridge movement may be enabled without
the need for an engine. Some bridges are operated by the users, especially those
with a boat, others by a bridgeman (or bridge tender); a few remotely using
video-cameras and loudspeakers. Generally, the bridges are powered by electric
motors, whether operating winches, gearing, or hydraulic pistons. While
moveable bridges in their entirety may be quite long, the length of the moveable
portion is restricted by engineering and cost considerations to a few hundred
feet.
There are often traffic lights for the road and water traffic, and moving barriers
for the road traffic.
In the United States, regulations governing the operation of moveable bridges
(referred to as drawbridges)[2] – for example, hours of operation and how much
advance notice must be given by water traffic – are listed in Title 33 of the Code
of Federal Regulations;[3] temporary deviations are published in the Coast
Guard's Local Notice to Mariners.

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Types of movable bridges
• Drawbridge (British English definition) – the bridge deck is hinged on one end
• Bascule bridge – a drawbridge hinged on pins with a counterweight to facilitate
raising ; road or rail
• Rolling bascule bridge – an unhinged drawbridge lifted by the rolling of a large
gear segment along a horizontal rack
• Folding bridge – a drawbridge with multiple sections that collapse together
horizontally
• Curling bridge – a drawbridge with transverse divisions between multiple
sections that curl vertically
• Fan Bridge - a drawbridge with longitudinal divisions between multiple bascule
sections that rise to various angles of elevation, forming a fan arrangement.
• Vertical-lift bridge – the bridge deck is lifted by counterweighted cables
mounted on towers ; road or rail
• Table bridge – a lift bridge with the lifting mechanism mounted underneath it
• Retractable bridge (Thrust bridge) – the bridge deck is retracted to one side
• Submersible bridge – also called a ducking bridge, the bridge deck is lowered
down into the water
• Tilt bridge – the bridge deck, which is curved and pivoted at each end, is lifted
at an angle
• Swing bridge – the bridge deck rotates around a fixed point, usually at the centre,
but may resemble a gate in its operation ; road or rail
• Transporter bridge – a structure high above carries a suspended, ferry-like
structure
• Jet bridge – a passenger bridge to an airplane. One end is mobile with height,
yaw, and tilt adjustments on the outboard end
• Guthrie rolling bridge

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LITERATURE REVIEW

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HYDRAULIC
Hydraulics is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry,
and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids or
fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid version of pneumatics. Fluid
mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on
the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In fluid power, hydraulics
are used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of
pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and
most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design,
fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps. The principles of hydraulics are in
use naturally in the human body within the heart and the male erection.[3][4]
Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface
flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field
open channel flow studies the flow in open channels.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do
simple work. Heavy equipment is a common example.
In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine
to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and becomes pressurised
according to the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or
automatically by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes.
The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power
that can be transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high
power density and wide array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the
powering medium.

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PASCAL'S LAW
Pascal's law (also Pascal's principle or the principle of transmission of fluid-
pressure) is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that a pressure change
occurring anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout
the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere. The law was established
by French mathematician Blaise Pascal in 1647–48.
Definition
Pressure in water and air. Pascal's law applies only for fluids.
Pascal's principle is defined as:
A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted
undiminished to all points in the fluid.
This principle is stated mathematically as:

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is the hydrostatic pressure (given in pascals in the SI system), or the
difference in pressure at two points within a fluid column, due to the weight of
the fluid;
ρ is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system);
g is acceleration due to gravity (normally using the sea level acceleration due to
Earth's gravity, in SI in metres per second squared);
is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in
elevation between the two points within the fluid column (in metres in SI).
The intuitive explanation of this formula is that the change in pressure between
2 elevations is due to the weight of the fluid between the elevations. A more
correct interpretation, though, is that the pressure change is caused by the change
of potential energy per unit volume of the liquid due to the existence of the
gravitational field.[further explanation needed] Note that the variation with
height does not depend on any additional pressures. Therefore, Pascal's law can
be interpreted as saying that any change in pressure applied at any given point
of the fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid.
Explanation
If a U-tube is filled with water and pistons are placed at each end, pressure
exerted against the left piston will be transmitted throughout the liquid and
against the bottom of the right piston. (The pistons are simply "plugs" that can
slide freely but snugly inside the tube.) The pressure that the left piston exerts
against the water will be exactly equal to the pressure the water exerts against
the right piston. Suppose the tube on the right side is made wider and a piston
of a larger area is used; for example, the piston on the right has 50 times the area
of the piston on the left. If a 1 N load is placed on the left piston, an additional

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pressure due to the weight of the load is transmitted throughout the liquid and
up against the larger piston. The difference between force and pressure is
important: the additional pressure is exerted against the entire area of the larger
piston. Since there is 50 times the area, 50 times as much force is exerted on the
larger piston. Thus, the larger piston will support a 50 N load - fifty times the
load on the smaller piston.
Forces can be multiplied using such a device. One newton input produces 50
newtons output. By further increasing the area of the larger piston (or reducing
the area of the smaller piston), forces can be multiplied, in principle, by any
amount. Pascal's principle underlies the operation of the hydraulic press. The
hydraulic press does not violate energy conservation, because a decrease in
distance moved compensates for the increase in force. When the small piston is
moved downward 100 centimeters, the large piston will be raised only one-
fiftieth of this, or 2 centimeters. The input force multiplied by the distance
moved by the smaller piston is equal to the output force multiplied by the
distance moved by the larger piston; this is one more example of a simple
machine operating on the same principle as a mechanical lever.
Pascal's principle applies to all fluids, whether gases or liquids. A typical
application of Pascal's principle for gases and liquids is the automobile lift seen
in many service stations (the hydraulic jack). Increased air pressure produced
by an air compressor is transmitted through the air to the surface of oil in an
underground reservoir. The oil, in turn, transmits the pressure to a piston, which
lifts the automobile. The relatively low pressure that exerts the lifting force
against the piston is about the same as the air pressure in automobile tires.
Hydraulics is employed by modern devices ranging from very small to
enormous. For example, there are hydraulic pistons in almost all construction
machines where heavy loads are involved.
Applications of Pascal's law
• The underlying principle of the hydraulic jack and hydraulic press.
• Force amplification in the braking system of most motor vehicles.
• Used in artesian wells, water towers, and dams.

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• Scuba divers must understand this principle. At a depth of 10 meters under
water, pressure is twice the atmospheric pressure at sea level, and increases by
about 100 kPa for each increase of 10 m depth.
• Usually Pascal's rule is applied to confined space (static flow), but due to the
continuous flow process, Pascal's principle can be applied to the lift oil
mechanism (which can be represented as a U tube with pistons on either end).
However, the lift height will be in microns because energy will be drained and
pressure will be diminished after each impact with the lifting material, but force
exerted will be equal.
• Applied force in cylinder P1A1.
• The underlying principal of hot isostatic pressing

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BRIDGE
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way
underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing
passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that each serve a
particular purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary
depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the
bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds
available to build it.
History
The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of cut wooden logs or
planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam
arrangement. Some early Americans used trees or bamboo poles to cross small
caverns or wells to get from one place to another. A common form of lashing
sticks, logs, and deciduous branches together involved the use of long reeds or
other harvested fibers woven together to form a huge rope capable of binding
and holding together the materials used in early bridges.
The Arkadiko Bridge is one of four Mycenaean corbel arch bridges part of a
former network of roads, designed to accommodate chariots, between the fort
of Tiryns and town of Epidauros in the Peloponnese, in southern Greece. Dating
to the Greek Bronze Age (13th century BC), it is one of the oldest arch bridges
still in existence and use. Several intact arched stone bridges from the
Hellenistic era can be found in the Peloponnese.
The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans. The Romans
built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would
damage or destroy earlier designs. Some stand today. An example is the
Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, in Spain. The Romans also used
cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type
of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock.

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Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for
cement was lost (then later rediscovered).
In India, the Arthashastra treatise by Kautilya mentions the construction of dams
and bridges. A Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The
bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the
chief architect of emperor Chandragupta I. The use of stronger bridges using
plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. A
number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed
by the Mughal administration in India.
Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction existed at the time of
the Warring States, the oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou
Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also
historically significant as it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental
arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar
Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous Roman era
Trajan's Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel segmental arches in wooden
construction.
Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca
civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European
colonization in the 16th century.
During the 18th century there were many innovations in the design of timber
bridges by Hans Ulrich Grubenmann, Johannes Grubenmann, and others. The
first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716.
A major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of the Iron
Bridge in Shropshire, England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as
arches to cross the river Severn.
With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron
were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to

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support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength,
much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.
In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Bryła designed the first welded road bridge in
the world, the Maurzyce Bridge which was later built across the river Słudwia
at Maurzyce near Łowicz, Poland in 1929. In 1995, the American Welding
Society presented the Historic Welded Structure Award for the bridge to Poland.

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Types of bridges
Bridges can be categorized in several different ways. Common categories
include the type of structural elements used, by what they carry, whether they
are fixed or movable, and by the materials used.
• Structure type
Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending,
torsion and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will
employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will
predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or
cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement.
In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members,
as in a truss.
Beam bridge
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units
and can be either simply supported when the beams only connect across a single
span, or continuous when the beams are connected across two or more spans.
When there are multiple spans, the intermediate supports are known as piers.
The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar
simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges can range from small, wooden
beams to large, steel boxes. The vertical force on the bridge becomes a shear
and flexural load on the beam which is transferred down its length to the
substructures on either side They are typically made of steel, concrete or wood.
Beam bridge spans rarely exceed 250 feet (76 m) long, as the flexural stresses
increase proportional to the square of the length (and deflection increases
proportional to the 4th power of the length). However, the main span of the Rio-
Niteroi Bridge, a box girder bridge, is 300 metres (980 ft).

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Truss bridge
A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a
truss. This truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units.
The connected elements (typically straight) may be stressed from tension,
compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are
one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges
shown in this article have simple designs which could be easily analyzed by
nineteenth and early twentieth century engineers. A truss bridge is economical
to construct owing to its efficient use of materials.
Cantilever bridge
Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams supported on
only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend
from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle
the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are constructed using much the same
materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in the action of
the forces through the bridge.

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Some cantilever bridges also have a smaller beam connecting the two
cantilevers, for extra strength.
The largest cantilever bridge is the 549-metre (1,801 ft) Quebec Bridge in
Quebec, Canada.
Arch bridges
Arch bridges have abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into
the abutments at either side. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the
Greeks, and include the Arkadiko Bridge.
With the span of 220 metres (720 ft), the Solkan Bridge over the Soča River at
Solkan in Slovenia is the second largest stone bridge in the world and the longest
railroad stone bridge. It was completed in 1905. Its arch, which was constructed
from over 5,000 tonnes (4,900 long tons; 5,500 short tons) of stone blocks in
just 18 days, is the second largest stone arch in the world, surpassed only by the
Friedensbrücke (Syratalviadukt) in Plauen, and the largest railroad stone arch.
The arch of the Friedensbrücke, which was built in the same year, has the span
of 90 m (295 ft) and crosses the valley of the Syrabach River. The difference
between the two is that the Solkan Bridge was built from stone blocks, whereas
the Friedensbrücke was built from a mixture of crushed stone and cement
mortar.
The world's current largest arch bridge is the Chaotianmen Bridge over the
Yangtze River with a length of 1,741 m (5,712 ft) and a span of 552 m (1,811
ft). The bridge was opened April 29, 2009 in Chongqing, China.

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Tied arch bridge
Tied arch bridges have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from
conventional arch bridges. Instead of transferring the weight of the bridge and
traffic loads into thrust forces into the abutments, the ends of the arches are
restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the structure. They are also called
bowstring arches.
Suspension bridge
Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges
were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges,
the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The

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caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the bed of the lake, river or sea.
Sub-types include the simple suspension bridge, the stressed ribbon bridge, the
underspanned suspension bridge, the suspended-deck suspension bridge, and
the self-anchored suspension bridge. There is also what is sometimes called a
"semi-suspension" bridge, of which the Ferry Bridge in Burton-upon-Trent is
the only one of its kind in Europe.
The longest suspension bridge in the world is the 3,909 m (12,825 ft) Akashi
Kaikyō Bridge in Japan.
Cable-stayed bridge
Cable-stayed bridges, like suspension bridges, are held up by cables. However,
in a cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables
are proportionately higher. The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in
1784 by C. T. (or C. J.) Löscher.
The longest cable-stayed bridge since 2012 is the Russky Bridge in Vladivostok,
Russia.

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• Fixed or movable bridges
Moving a Bloomingdale Trail bridge from Ashland to Western on a Saturday in
Chicago.
Moving a Bloomingdale Trail bridge from Ashland to Western in Chicago.
Most bridges are fixed bridges, meaning they have no moving parts and stay in
one place until they fail or are demolished. Temporary bridges, such as Bailey
bridges, are designed to be assembled, and taken apart, transported to a different
site, and re-used. They are important in military engineering, and are also used
to carry traffic while an old bridge is being rebuilt. Movable bridges are

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designed to move out of the way of boats or other kinds of traffic, which would
otherwise be too tall to fit. These are generally electrically powered.
• Double-decked bridges
Double-decked (or double-decker) bridges have two levels, such as the George
Washington Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen County, New Jersey,
USA, as the world's busiest bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles
annually;[25][26] truss work between the roadway levels provided stiffness to
the roadways and reduced movement of the upper level when the lower level
was installed three decades after the upper level. The Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap
Shui Mun Bridge in Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks, and on
their lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks for MTR metro trains.
Some double-decked bridges only use one level for street traffic; the
Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis reserves its lower level for
automobile and light rail traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle
traffic (predominantly students at the University of Minnesota). Likewise, in
Toronto, the Prince Edward Viaduct has five lanes of motor traffic, bicycle
lanes, and sidewalks on its upper deck; and a pair of tracks for the Bloor–
Danforth subway line on its lower deck. The western span of the San Francisco–
Oakland Bay Bridge also has two levels.
Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle
upon Tyne, completed in 1849, is an early example of a double-decked bridge.
The upper level carries a railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic.
Other examples include Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait and Craigavon
Bridge in Derry, Northern Ireland. The Oresund Bridge between Copenhagen
and Malmö consists of a four-lane highway on the upper level and a pair of
railway tracks at the lower level. Tower Bridge in London is different example
of a double-decked bridge, with the central section consisting of a low level
bascule span and a high level footbridge.

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COMPONENTS & DESCRIPTIONS

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EXPERIMENTAL COMPONENTS
• HYDRAULIC BRIDGE MODEL
• RACK & PINION ARRANGEMENT
• BATTARY 12V
• DC MOTOR 12V
• CONNECTORS
• HOSE
• IR SENSOR
• LED
DESCRIPTIONS
• RACK & PINION ARRANGEMENT
A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which
convert rotational motion into linear motion. A circular gear called "the pinion"
engages teeth on a linear "gear" bar called "the rack"; rotational motion applied
to the pinion causes the rack to move relative to the pinion, thereby translating
the rotational motion of the pinion into linear motion.
For example, in a rack railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive
or a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a steep slope.
For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack. This basic rack
is the profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius (i.e. a toothed straight
edge).
A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions
for the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter.
Applications
Rack and pinion combinations are often used as part of a simple linear actuator,
where the rotation of a shaft powered by hand or by a motor is converted to
linear motion.

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The rack carries the full load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is
usually small, so that the gear ratio reduces the torque required. This force, thus
torque, may still be substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction
gear immediately before this by either a gear or worm gear reduction. Rack gears
have a higher ratio, thus require a greater driving torque, than screw actuators.
• BATTERY 12V
A battery electric multiple unit, battery electric railcar or accumulator railcar is
an electrically driven multiple unit or railcar whose energy is derived from
rechargeable batteries that drive its traction motors.

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The main advantage of these vehicles is their clean, quiet operation. They do
not use fossil fuels like coal or diesel fuel, emit no exhaust gases and do not
require the railway to have expensive infrastructure like electric ground rails or
overhead catenary. On the down side is the weight of the batteries, which raises
the vehicle weight and their range before recharging of between 300 and 600
kilometers. Battery electric units have a higher purchase price and running cost
than petrol or diesel railcars and need a network of charging stations along the
routes they work.
Battery technology has greatly improved over the past 20 years broadening the
scope of use of battery trains, moving away from limited niche applications.
Despite higher purchase and running costs, on certain lines battery trains make
economic sense as the very high cost of full line electrification is eliminated.

34
From March 2014 a passenger battery train has been in operation in Japan.
Britain is experimenting with passenger battery trains using lithium batteries.
The battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired together to
generate the required system voltage.
The types of batteries used include:
• Lead-Acid
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
• Lithium Ion
The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio
over the more common Lead-Acid batteries, but are more costly to maintain.
The battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired together to
generate the required system voltage. Typically, teams use system voltages
between 84 and 108 volts, depending on their electrical system. For example,
Tesseract uses 512 li-ion batteries, broken down into twelve modules, which are
each equivalent to a car battery, but only weigh 5 lbs each. Through an
innovative pack design, the batteries are ventilated with even airflow to
minimize temperature differences between the modules.

35
• CONNECTORS
In our system hose connectors are used . Hose connectors normally comprise an
adoptee hose nipple. These types of connectors are made up of brass (or)
Aluminum (or) hardened pneumatic steel. For these type hose connectors no
need of hose clamp these are self-locking hose connectors. a Multi way four
way hose connecter.
The universal combination at an attractive price. Can be widely used thanks to
resistant materials. Easy to install thanks to optimised bending radii. Limited
reset effect. Attractively priced: the universal solution for metal fittings. Perfect
for standard pneumatic applications – in many different fields. Wide range of
variants Over 1000 types for maximum flexibility in standard applications.
Hydrolysis resistant For applications in damp environments or in contact with
water at up to 60 °C. Resistant to pressure Secure connection when used with
pressure ranges of up to 14 bar. Economical for pneumatic installations in the
high pressure ranges.
Hose Connector

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THREE WAY HOSE CONNECTOR
The powerful combination for applications involving pressure ranges up to 16
bar For example, for applications with the pressure booster Robust, flexible and
reliable connection for the automotive industry. Fulfils the requirements Heat
resistant For reliable compressed air supply in high temperature ranges. Whether
with 10 bar at 80 °C or 6 bar at 150 °C – always delivers maximum process
security. Anti-static Electrically conductive tubing combined with a solid-metal
fitting Approved for the food Industry Food and Drug Administration
certification for use in the food industry:

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Four way hose connector
The hydrolysis-resistant combination with increased functions. Designed to
meet the highest demands, This combination shines in applications which
require the highest possible hygiene standards for food. The cost-effective
alternative to stainless steel, perfect for e.g. critical environments such as the
splash zone: resistant to practically all common cleaning agents, with maximum
corrosion protection. Resistant to media Completely resistant to all cleaning
agents and lubricants and even permits the transportation of acids and lyes
without any problems.
Flame-retardant Safe in areas where there is a risk of fire thanks to flame-
retardant properties to Resistant to welding Spatter The economical combination
for applications not in close proximity to welding applications. Also reliable for
applications in direct proximity to welding splatter Double-sheathed tube and
special fitting.

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• HOSES
Hoses used in this pneumatic system are made up of polyurethane. These hose
can with stand at a maximum pressure level of 10 N/m². Polyurethane combines
the best properties of both plastic and rubber. It offers abrasion and tear
resistance, high tensile and elongation values, and low compression set.
Polyurethane is naturally flexible and exhibits virtually unlimited flexural
abilities. Combining good chemical resistance with excellent weathering
characteristics sets polyurethane apart from most other thermoplastics. It has
exceptional resistance to most gasolines, oils, kerosene, and other petroleum
based chemicals, making it an ideal choice for fuel lines (although additives in
today’s gasoline and petroleum products warrant field testing).

39
Poly Urathane Tubes
APPLICATIONS OF PU TUBE:
• Any time condensation can occur with small actuators, air grippers and air
operated valves. Condensation in a pneumatic system will cause operating
failure and affect the life of pneumatic equipment.
• Manufacturers of electrical components.
• When you need to eliminate water condensation but you cannot use a membrane
or desiccant dryer (as you cannot use a fast exhaust).
BENEFITS OF PU TUBE:
• Longer life of other pneumatic equipment.
• Prevents operational failure of small actuators, air grippers and pilot operated
valves due to condensation.
• Avoids corrosion in other pneumatic equipment.
• Diffuses water vapour in the piping to the outside before it liquefies, so we avoid
problems such as dried grease or ozone when using other types of dryers.
• Easy mounting.
• MOTOR

40
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct
current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely
on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have
some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically
change the direction of current flow in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed
can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by
changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used
in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current
but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger
DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in
drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made
replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.
• IR SENSOR

41
What is an IR sensor?
An IR sensor is a device which detects IR radiation falling on it. There are
numerous types of IR sensors that are built and can be built depending on the
application. Proximity sensors (Used in Touch Screen phones and Edge
Avoiding Robots), contrast sensors (Used in Line Following Robots) and
obstruction counters/sensors (Used for counting goods and in Burglar Alarms)
are some examples, which use IR sensors.
Working Mechanism
An IR sensor is basically a device which consists of a pair of an IR LED and a
photodiode which are collectively called a photo-coupler or an opto-coupler.
The IR LED emits IR radiation, reception and/or intensity of reception of which
by the photodiode dictates the output of the sensor. Now, there are so many ways
by which the radiation may or may not be able to reach the photodiode.
Direct incidence
We may hold the IR LED directly in front of the photodiode, such that almost
all the radiation emitted, reaches the photodiode. This creates an invisible line
of IR radiation between the IR LED and the photodiode. Now, if an opaque
object is placed obstructing this line, the radiation will not reach the photodiode

42
and will get either reflected or absorbed by the obstructing object. This
mechanism is used in object counters and burglar alarms.
Indirect Incidence
High school physics taught us that black color absorbs all radiation, and the
color white reflects all radiation. We use this very knowledge to build our IR
sensor. If we place the IR LED and the photodiode side by side, close together,
the radiation from the IR LED will get emitted straight in the direction to which
the IR LED is pointing towards, and so is the photodiode, and hence there will
be no incidence of the radiation on the photodiode. Please refer to the right part
of the illustration given below for better understanding. But, if we place an
opaque object in front the two, two cases occur:
• Reflective Surface
If the object is reflective, (White or some other light color), then most of the
radiation will get reflected by it, and will get incident on the photodiode. For
further understanding, please refer to the left part of the illustration below.
• Non-reflective Surface
If the object is non-reflective, (Black or some other dark color), then most of the
radiation will get absorbed by it, and will not become incident on the
photodiode. It is similar to there being no surface (object) at all, for the sensor,
as in both the cases, it does not receive any radiation.

43
LM358M is a general purpose Dual Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp). Knowing
the working of an Op-amp here is really of no use to us, as we are not using it
as an amplifier as such, so we will only be talking about how we use it here in
the IR sensor circuit, what it does, but not much about how it does it. So
basically, we use it to compare two voltages, one is fixed and the other varies
with an environmental parameter. If the parameter controlled voltage is higher
than the fixed the voltage, then the IC should give one output, and if it is lower
than the fixed voltage, then it should give another output. So, we see that the IC
gives only two types of outputs, which we design to be 5 Volts and 0 Volts. This
makes our sensor digital.

44

45
EXPERIMENTAL MODEL

46
WORKING PRINCIPLE
The working principle of the simple hydraulic bridge this is to use a hydraulic
piston in accordance with the application of the principle of Pascal: "The change
in fluid pressure dterapkan closed cannot be compressed, distributed and not
reduced to any portion of the fluid and the wall cross-section. "
If we exert a force on the piston (represented by injection) containing fluid
uncompressed which is connected with the other piston prop under the bridge,
with the assumption of cross-sectional area both pistons together, the force
applied will be channeled to a piston that is under the bridge with the same great
style.
This causes the piston under the bridge has a style for lift the bridge so that the
bridge can be upwards. Conversely, if we pull the piston back as before, the
piston under the bridge will be interested and cause the bridge down.
IR sensor: Sensors are basically electronic devices which are used to sense the
changes that occur in their surroundings. The change may be in color,
temperature, moisture, sound, heat etc. They sense the change and work
accordingly. In IR sensor the there is emitter and detector. Emitter emits the IR
rays and detector detects it.
The IR sensor basically consists of three components:
• IR LED (emitter)
• Photodiode (detector)
• Op-Amp

47
IR LED:
IR LED is a light emitting diode which emits the IR radiations. The basic
function of the emitter is to convert electricity into light. It works on the
principle of recombination of the electron-hole pair. As in the conduction band
of a diode, electrons are the majority carrier and in the valence band, holes are
majority carrier. So when an electron from a conduction band recombines with
a hole of valance band, some amount of energy is released and this energy is in
the form of light. The amount of energy released is depends upon the forbidden
energy gap. The IR Led has two legs, the leg which is longer is positive and
other leg is negative.

48
Photo Diode:
The photodiode is a p-n junction diode which is connected in reverse bias
direction. The basic function of the detector is to convert light into electricity.
As its name implies that it works effectively only when the certain number of
photon or certain amount of light falls on it. When there is no fall of light on the
photodiode it has an infinite resistance and act as an open switch but as the light
starts falling on the photodiode, the resistance becomes low and when the full
intensity of light fall on the photodiode then its resistance becomes zero and it
starts act like a closed switch.

49
Op-Amp:
Op-Amp stands for operational amplifier. It is a DC-coupled high gain amplifier
with differential inputs and single output. Typically the output of the op-amp is
controlled by either negative feedback or positive feedback. Due to the fact that
it performs several operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
integration etc, it is named as operational amplifier. It has two inputs pins and
one output pin.

50
Working:
We know that the white surface reflects all the radiations falls on it whereas the
black color absorbs them. When the supply is given to IR sensor, LED starts
emitting light radiations. If the surface is of white color then it reflects all the
radiations. As these radiations starts falling on the photodiode which is
connected in reverse bias, the resistance of the photodiode starts decreasing
rapidly and the voltage drop across the diode also decreases. The voltage at Pin
3 starts increases, as it reaches just beyond the voltage of Pin 2 the comparator
gives high output. In Case of the black surface, LED emits light but it is not
reflected by the surface, so the photodiode detects nothing and its resistance
remains infinite. Hence the comparator gives low output.

51
ADVANTAGES
If accurately calibrated there is no need for computers to control the hydraulic
actuators. The hydraulic rams can be in motion only by the loading applied to
it. That is to say if a certain load is applied on the bridge, the hydraulic ram
applies an appropriate force upwards to counteract any deflections. This implies
that there is very little maintenance concerning automated systems and in
situations such as blackouts or malfunctions, the bridge will not be in any
immediate concern for failure.
As a result of applying a force upwards that is dependent on the load and
displacement of the bridge, the quantity of material required to construct the
bridge is reduced. The material alone does not have to handle all imposed
loading; the load is distributed onto the hydraulic rams. Consequently less
money can be used in purchasing materials and the project cost is reduced
(arguably, the money may be spent on the hydraulic systems).
Certainly, elegant bridges may be constructed with thinner structural members,
which can increase its aesthetic and social impact on the community around it.
What is more is that if the load becomes to great and causes the mid-span piston
to go down, then the support pistons will push inwards resulting in the arch
heading upwards; hence they maintain equilibrium.

52
DISADVANTAGES
As a consequence of the vertical hydraulic column being required to be located
in the centre of the arch, there are intrinsic complications. For example, to install
the hydraulic pipe connections would require tunnelling either underground or
to lay the pipes over ground; this entails placing construction workers in hostile
environments and they have to be specialised workers. This requires extensive
training which can affect the building project economically.
Vertical column type hydraulic bridges may never be used in arch bridges
required to span gaps which are very high in the context of the altitude of the
locale. Without solid ground for the column to rest on, the action of the hydraulic
will cause deflection and eventual failure. However there are methods to
overcome this problem.
Possible hydraulic failure at the three main points can be caused by very high
forces and pressures due to excessive loading on the main bridge. The high

53
pressure of hydraulic fluid can cause failure at any O-ring and gasket seals
rendering it useless.
Overcoming the Disadvantages
The disadvantages of having to lay hydraulic pipes underground in hostile
conditions and also having no possible use in arches in high altitude applications
can be resolved by eliminating the single vertical hydraulic column. Rather it
can be replaced by utilising hydraulic components placed at an angle, thus
connecting the supports to mid-span. However this would require calibration of
the diameter of the hydraulic face in order to provide additional forces with a
higher vertical component. Otherwise, angling the hydraulic components nearer
to vertical will provide a greater vertical force.
As a result, with this method, the hydraulic assisted bridges can be built over
hostile gaps and at higher altitudes which is very beneficial.
The problems with seal failure can be resolved by adding several, thicker O-
rings and gaskets and increasing the area of the hydraulic face, reducing pressure
which reduces the possibility leaks and failures.

54
APPLICATIONS
Potential Applications
As stated before, this innovation is appropriate for, but not wholly restricted to,
arch bridges. Hence it could be applied to almost all current applications of arch
bridges which include:
• Pedestrian Footbridges
• Water Transportation
• Vehicular Transportation
• Light Vehicles
• Freight Vehicles
• Railway Transportation
Indeed the hydraulic system can be applied in novel shaped bridges. Figure 5
shows why it would work on a "Y" shaped bridge because the protruding
members are displaced by the same angle. However they move different lengths
at different spots hence the hydraulic piston at 'x' (the closer to the centre-line)
will be depressed first causing the piston at 'y' to move upwards, assisting in
holding the load.

55
Shaped bridge utilising the hydraulically assisted system
The Hydraulic System applied to other shaped bridges

56
CONCLUSION
After completing the project, conclude that our project is simple in construction
and compact in size for use. Manufacturing of HYDRAULIC BRIDGE is easy
and cost of the die is less.

Minor Project Report on Hydraulic Bridge

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Minor Project Report on Hydraulic Bridge