Modelling & Thermal analysis of pulse jet engine using CFD
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This document summarizes a study that used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze the combustion characteristics of a pulse jet engine. The study modeled a pulse jet engine design using CAD software and then conducted a CFD analysis using two different combustion models: an eddy dissipation model and a finite rate chemistry model. The results showed that the eddy dissipation model generated higher thrust than the finite rate chemistry model. Specifically, the eddy dissipation model produced higher exit pressures and velocities. The study concluded the proper selection of combustion model is important for accurately evaluating performance metrics like thrust generated from a pulse jet engine.
![International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
© 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 608
Modelling & Thermal analysis of pulse jet engine using CFD
Rahul Prajapati1, Prof. Swati D. Chaugaonkar2
1 M.Tech. Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering SGSITS Indore (M.P.) India
2 Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering SGSITS Indore (M.P.) India
---------------------------------------------------------------------***---------------------------------------------------------------------
Abstract - The pulsejet engines are used as propulsion
systems in various types of rockets, missiles, and pilotless
aircraft. The objective of current research is to investigate the
combustion characteristics of pulsejetenginesusingfiniterate
chemistry and an eddy dissipation combustion model using
under pseudo-static state conditions. The combustionanalysis
is conducted on a pulsejet engine using techniques of
“Computational Fluid Dynamics” (CFD). The researchfindings
have shown that proper selection of combustion model is
essential for proper evaluation of exit pressure and thrust
force generated from pulsejet engine. The pulsejetenginewith
the eddy dissipation model is found to generate higher thrust
force as compared to the finite rate chemistry model.
Key Words: Fuel Inlet, Pulsejet, Combustion, CFD, Thrust
generation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Pulsejet Engines are hollow tubes that use sound waves to
drive fluid flow and generate thrust. One of the most basic
types of air-breathing propulsion that has been created to
date is the pulsejet engine. Pulsejet engines are inexpensive
to build and maintain since they have few moving
components. There is no such thing as a "misfire" in a pulse
jet, which makes them lightweight, scalable, affordable, and
somewhat effective in converting fuel into heat and thrust.
The fundamental benefit of pulsejet engines is their simple
design, which has no moving parts. Due to these benefits,
they are perfect for utilization in unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs). These benefits of the pulse jet engine over an
internal combustion or Stirling engine include:
Extremely low-tech, manufactured with few or no
moving components [1].
Due to the fuel's deflagration, it burns highly
effectively.
Unlike Stirling engines and internal combustion
engines, it can run on virtually any kind of fuel.
It creates a substantial amount of power while only
weighing a very tiny amount, making it superior to
internal combustion engines and Stirling enginesin
terms of its power-to-weight ratio.
It can function at a high altitude. Due to extremely
thin air at high altitudes, propeller aircraft are
typically required to keep below a certain altitude.
Commercial passenger airplanes typically travel at
high altitudes, for instance, since it is more efficient
(the thin air has relatively little air resistance).
Additionally, high-altitude engine performance is
required for aerospace vehicles (and also demands
an engine that doesn't breathe air; this second
requirement is difficult but might be resolved by
changing fuel) [2,3}
Figure 1: Pulsejet Engine
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Ordon et al. [4] Researchers at University of Texas at
Arlington constructed a numerical model of a valveless
pulsejet that involves combustion in order to assess the
effectiveness of a pulsejet with a synchronised injection
ignition system.
Kiker et al. [5] Post-World War II, the United States Navy
conducted research on pulsejets as part of Project Squid.
Engineers at SNECMA in France conducted substantial
studies on pulse jets. Lockwood of Hiller Aircraft, with the
assistance of French engineers, researched operation of
pulsejets. This is a significant achievement due to the fact
that it is first study of its kind that has been extensively
recorded and is rigorous.
Geng et al. [6] E. Tharratt's Thenextsignificantadvancement
in analytical assessment of pulsejets was heuristic method
by linearization of a highly nonlinear issue. At theUniversity
of Calgary, Kentfield and his colleagues created the first](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/irjet-v10i1103-230204112818-d7e313ee/85/Modelling-Thermal-analysis-of-pulse-jet-engine-using-CFD-1-320.jpg)
![International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
© 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 609
computer simulations of cyclic processes of valveless
pulsejets.
Sayres et al. [7] Since2004, North Carolina State University,
has conducted a significant amount of research on pulsejets.
This study has included analytical, experimental, and
numerical studies. These studies have proved that it is
possible to operate pulsejets that are as little as 8
centimeters in length.
Titova et al. [8] Consider that the principle underlying their
technique is, to begin with relatively simple chemical
systems and then progressively advance to more complex
ones. This is analogous to the work done by Warnatz in that
both make an effort to limit the number of species and
reactions which are required to model combustion.
Numerous reactions known to alter ignition time are
highlighted in the mechanism's revisions. These include the
addition or modification of numerous processes that create
to combat OH radicals from fuels and intermediates species
and need for additional reaction steps, particular examples
such as methanol autoignition at high temperatures. In
reality, since its initial release in 2001,theupdatenoteshave
detailed continuous incremental advances in matching
ignition data quickly it has been provided.
3. OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this study is to apply finite rate chemistry &
eddy dissipation combustion models to the problem of
analyzing the combustion characteristics of a pulsejet
engine. The combustion analysis is conducted on pulsejet
engine using techniques of Computational Fluid Dynamics.
• CAD modeling of new designs with multiple fuel
inlets.
• CFD analysis using ANSYS-CFX software using new
design with multiple fuel inlets.
• Determining thrust generated, pressure plot and
velocity plot for new design with multiple fuel
inlets.
4. METHODOLOGY
The CFD analysis is based on Navier’s stokes equationwhich
involves the conservation of momentum, mass, and energy.
Figure 2 illustrates how thedesignof thepulsejetengine was
created utilizing design software. The developed model is
converted in a compatible file format, i.e., iges. This file
format .iges makes this file compatible to be opened in
ANSYS simulation package.
Figure 2: Design of pulsejet engine
Figure 3: Imported design of pulsejet engine
Pulsejet engines are depicted in figure 3 above, which
depicts the imported design. Pulsejet design is checked for
geometric errors, imperfections etc. The model of pulsejet
engine is discretized with fine relevance and adaptive
meshing type. The meshing is done withtetrahedral element
type and fine
Figure 4: Meshed design of pulsejet engine
After meshing, the loads and boundary conditions are
applied on pulsejet engine, whichinvolvesairinletcondition,
fuel inlet condition and air outlet conditions.
Figure 5: Boundary condition of pulsejet engine](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/irjet-v10i1103-230204112818-d7e313ee/85/Modelling-Thermal-analysis-of-pulse-jet-engine-using-CFD-2-320.jpg)
![International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
© 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 611
pressure values at the air inlet valves and in the region
between fuel inlet and air inlet. In a pulsejetengine, pressure
rises towards the combustion zone and falls further away
from it.
Figure 11: Pressure distribution plot for eddy dissipation
combustion model
Figure 12: Velocity distribution plot for eddy dissipation
combustion model
The velocity distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet
engine across the plane, as shown in figure 12. The velocity
distribution plot shows a higher magnitude of deformation
near the air inlet and reduces along the combustion zone.
The velocity is uniform along the exit of the nozzle. The
maximum velocity magnitude obtained is 590.5m/s.
Figure 13: Pressure distribution plot for finite rate
chemistry combustion model
The pressure distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet
engine with a finite rate chemistry model, as shown infigure
13. The plot shows higher pressure values at the air inlet
valves and in the region between the air inlet & fuel inlet. In
a pulsejet engine, the pressure is highest at the combustion
zone and decreases as the engine gets longer.
Figure 14: Velocity distribution plot for finite rate
chemistry combustion model
The velocity distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet
engine across the plane, as shown in figure 14. The velocity
distribution plot shows a higher magnitude of deformation
near the air inlet and reduces along the combustion zone.
The velocity is uniform along the exit of the nozzle with a
maximum magnitude of 593.1m/s.
6. CONCLUSION
The CFD simulation enabled to investigationthecombustion
characteristics of pulsejet engineswithdifferentcombustion
models. The research findings have shown that proper
selection of combustion model is essential for proper
evaluation of exit pressure and thrust force generated from
pulsejet engine. The pulsejet engine with the eddy
dissipation model is found to generate higher thrustforceas
compared to the finite rate chemistry model.
• For all the design configurations of the pulsejet
engine the combustion zone is observed to have
maximum pressure and static enthalpy which
reduces along the exit of the pulsejet engine.
• Among the several fuel inlets designs for pulsejet
engines, the design with three fuel inlets
demonstrated the highest pressures and thrust
REFERENCES
[1]http://web.archive.org/web/20171120231420/http://g
ofurther.utsi.edu:80/Projects/PulseDE.htm
[2]http://news.google.com/patents/about?id=vOZsAAAAEB
AJ
[3] http://www.google.com/patents?vid=USPAT6216446
[4] R.L. Ordon, Experimental investigations into the
operational parameters of a 50 cm class pulsejetengine, M.S.
Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, 2006.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/irjet-v10i1103-230204112818-d7e313ee/85/Modelling-Thermal-analysis-of-pulse-jet-engine-using-CFD-4-320.jpg)
![International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
© 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 612
[5] A.P. Kiker, Experimental investigations on mini pulsejet
engines, M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering., NC State University, Rayleigh, NC,
27695, 2005.
[6] T. Geng, Numerical simulations of pulsejet engines, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, 2007.
[7] J.S. Sayres, Jr., Computational fluiddynamicsforpulsejets
and pulsejet related technologies,M.S.Thesis,Department of
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, NC StateUniversity,
Raleigh, NC, 27695, 2007.
[8] N.S. Titova, P.S. Kuleshov, A.M. Starik, Kinetic mechanism
of propane ignition and combustion in air, Combust. Explos.
Shock Waves 47 (No. 3) (2011) 249e264, https://
doi.org/10.1134/S0010508211030014.
[9] G.S.L. Andreis, R.S. Gomes, A.L. De Bertoli, A reduced
kinetic mechanism for propane flames, Engenharia Termica
(Therm. Eng.) 11 (No.1 e2) (2012) 37e43.
[10] W.K. Metcalfe, S.M. Burke, S.S. Ahmed, H.J. Curran, A
hierarchical and comparative kinetic modeling study of C1-
C2 hydrocarbon and oxygenated fuels, Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 45
(No. 10) (2013) 638e675,
https://doi.org/10.1002/kin.20802.
[11] P. Gokulakrishnan, C.C. Fuller, M.S. Klassen, R.G. Joklik,
Y.N. Kochar, S.N. Vaden, T.C. Lieuwen, J.M. Seitzman,
Experiments and modeling of propane combustion with
vitiation, Combust. Flame 161 (No. 8) (2014) 2038e2053,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2014.01.024.
[12] N. Zettervall, K. Nordin-Bates, E.J.K. Nilsson, C. Fureby,
Large eddy simulation of a premixed bluff body stabilized
flame using global and skeletal reaction mechanisms,
Combust. Flame 179 (2017) 1e22,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2016.12.007.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/irjet-v10i1103-230204112818-d7e313ee/85/Modelling-Thermal-analysis-of-pulse-jet-engine-using-CFD-5-320.jpg)
Modelling & Thermal analysis of pulse jet engine using CFD
- 1. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 608 Modelling & Thermal analysis of pulse jet engine using CFD Rahul Prajapati1, Prof. Swati D. Chaugaonkar2 1 M.Tech. Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering SGSITS Indore (M.P.) India 2 Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering SGSITS Indore (M.P.) India ---------------------------------------------------------------------***--------------------------------------------------------------------- Abstract - The pulsejet engines are used as propulsion systems in various types of rockets, missiles, and pilotless aircraft. The objective of current research is to investigate the combustion characteristics of pulsejetenginesusingfiniterate chemistry and an eddy dissipation combustion model using under pseudo-static state conditions. The combustionanalysis is conducted on a pulsejet engine using techniques of “Computational Fluid Dynamics” (CFD). The researchfindings have shown that proper selection of combustion model is essential for proper evaluation of exit pressure and thrust force generated from pulsejet engine. The pulsejetenginewith the eddy dissipation model is found to generate higher thrust force as compared to the finite rate chemistry model. Key Words: Fuel Inlet, Pulsejet, Combustion, CFD, Thrust generation. 1. INTRODUCTION Pulsejet Engines are hollow tubes that use sound waves to drive fluid flow and generate thrust. One of the most basic types of air-breathing propulsion that has been created to date is the pulsejet engine. Pulsejet engines are inexpensive to build and maintain since they have few moving components. There is no such thing as a "misfire" in a pulse jet, which makes them lightweight, scalable, affordable, and somewhat effective in converting fuel into heat and thrust. The fundamental benefit of pulsejet engines is their simple design, which has no moving parts. Due to these benefits, they are perfect for utilization in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). These benefits of the pulse jet engine over an internal combustion or Stirling engine include: Extremely low-tech, manufactured with few or no moving components [1]. Due to the fuel's deflagration, it burns highly effectively. Unlike Stirling engines and internal combustion engines, it can run on virtually any kind of fuel. It creates a substantial amount of power while only weighing a very tiny amount, making it superior to internal combustion engines and Stirling enginesin terms of its power-to-weight ratio. It can function at a high altitude. Due to extremely thin air at high altitudes, propeller aircraft are typically required to keep below a certain altitude. Commercial passenger airplanes typically travel at high altitudes, for instance, since it is more efficient (the thin air has relatively little air resistance). Additionally, high-altitude engine performance is required for aerospace vehicles (and also demands an engine that doesn't breathe air; this second requirement is difficult but might be resolved by changing fuel) [2,3} Figure 1: Pulsejet Engine 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Ordon et al. [4] Researchers at University of Texas at Arlington constructed a numerical model of a valveless pulsejet that involves combustion in order to assess the effectiveness of a pulsejet with a synchronised injection ignition system. Kiker et al. [5] Post-World War II, the United States Navy conducted research on pulsejets as part of Project Squid. Engineers at SNECMA in France conducted substantial studies on pulse jets. Lockwood of Hiller Aircraft, with the assistance of French engineers, researched operation of pulsejets. This is a significant achievement due to the fact that it is first study of its kind that has been extensively recorded and is rigorous. Geng et al. [6] E. Tharratt's Thenextsignificantadvancement in analytical assessment of pulsejets was heuristic method by linearization of a highly nonlinear issue. At theUniversity of Calgary, Kentfield and his colleagues created the first
- 2. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 609 computer simulations of cyclic processes of valveless pulsejets. Sayres et al. [7] Since2004, North Carolina State University, has conducted a significant amount of research on pulsejets. This study has included analytical, experimental, and numerical studies. These studies have proved that it is possible to operate pulsejets that are as little as 8 centimeters in length. Titova et al. [8] Consider that the principle underlying their technique is, to begin with relatively simple chemical systems and then progressively advance to more complex ones. This is analogous to the work done by Warnatz in that both make an effort to limit the number of species and reactions which are required to model combustion. Numerous reactions known to alter ignition time are highlighted in the mechanism's revisions. These include the addition or modification of numerous processes that create to combat OH radicals from fuels and intermediates species and need for additional reaction steps, particular examples such as methanol autoignition at high temperatures. In reality, since its initial release in 2001,theupdatenoteshave detailed continuous incremental advances in matching ignition data quickly it has been provided. 3. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study is to apply finite rate chemistry & eddy dissipation combustion models to the problem of analyzing the combustion characteristics of a pulsejet engine. The combustion analysis is conducted on pulsejet engine using techniques of Computational Fluid Dynamics. • CAD modeling of new designs with multiple fuel inlets. • CFD analysis using ANSYS-CFX software using new design with multiple fuel inlets. • Determining thrust generated, pressure plot and velocity plot for new design with multiple fuel inlets. 4. METHODOLOGY The CFD analysis is based on Navier’s stokes equationwhich involves the conservation of momentum, mass, and energy. Figure 2 illustrates how thedesignof thepulsejetengine was created utilizing design software. The developed model is converted in a compatible file format, i.e., iges. This file format .iges makes this file compatible to be opened in ANSYS simulation package. Figure 2: Design of pulsejet engine Figure 3: Imported design of pulsejet engine Pulsejet engines are depicted in figure 3 above, which depicts the imported design. Pulsejet design is checked for geometric errors, imperfections etc. The model of pulsejet engine is discretized with fine relevance and adaptive meshing type. The meshing is done withtetrahedral element type and fine Figure 4: Meshed design of pulsejet engine After meshing, the loads and boundary conditions are applied on pulsejet engine, whichinvolvesairinletcondition, fuel inlet condition and air outlet conditions. Figure 5: Boundary condition of pulsejet engine
- 3. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 610 The air inlet boundary condition is defined as shown in figure 8. The inlet air is defined with different massfractions of CO2, H2O, Jet A fuel and O2. These conditions of mass fractions are shown in figure 7. Figure 6: Eddy dissipation combustion model of pulsejet engine The combustion model is defined for the analysis as shown in figure 6 and is set to eddy dissipation and finite rate chemistry for subsequent analysis. Figure 7: Mass fraction of each gases and fuels Figure 8: Air inlet boundary condition The fuel inlet boundary conditions are defined for the pulsejet domain, as shown in figure 9. The fuel inlet involves definition of normal speed, and mass fraction of JetA fuel is set to 1. Figure 9: Fuel inlet boundary condition Figure 10: Air outlet boundary condition The air outlet boundary conditions are defined for the pulsejet engine, as shown in figure 10 above. The outlet boundary condition is defined with 0 relative pressure difference. 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The pressure distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet engine, as shown in figure 11. The plot shows higher
- 4. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 611 pressure values at the air inlet valves and in the region between fuel inlet and air inlet. In a pulsejetengine, pressure rises towards the combustion zone and falls further away from it. Figure 11: Pressure distribution plot for eddy dissipation combustion model Figure 12: Velocity distribution plot for eddy dissipation combustion model The velocity distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet engine across the plane, as shown in figure 12. The velocity distribution plot shows a higher magnitude of deformation near the air inlet and reduces along the combustion zone. The velocity is uniform along the exit of the nozzle. The maximum velocity magnitude obtained is 590.5m/s. Figure 13: Pressure distribution plot for finite rate chemistry combustion model The pressure distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet engine with a finite rate chemistry model, as shown infigure 13. The plot shows higher pressure values at the air inlet valves and in the region between the air inlet & fuel inlet. In a pulsejet engine, the pressure is highest at the combustion zone and decreases as the engine gets longer. Figure 14: Velocity distribution plot for finite rate chemistry combustion model The velocity distribution plot is generated for the pulsejet engine across the plane, as shown in figure 14. The velocity distribution plot shows a higher magnitude of deformation near the air inlet and reduces along the combustion zone. The velocity is uniform along the exit of the nozzle with a maximum magnitude of 593.1m/s. 6. CONCLUSION The CFD simulation enabled to investigationthecombustion characteristics of pulsejet engineswithdifferentcombustion models. The research findings have shown that proper selection of combustion model is essential for proper evaluation of exit pressure and thrust force generated from pulsejet engine. The pulsejet engine with the eddy dissipation model is found to generate higher thrustforceas compared to the finite rate chemistry model. • For all the design configurations of the pulsejet engine the combustion zone is observed to have maximum pressure and static enthalpy which reduces along the exit of the pulsejet engine. • Among the several fuel inlets designs for pulsejet engines, the design with three fuel inlets demonstrated the highest pressures and thrust REFERENCES [1]http://web.archive.org/web/20171120231420/http://g ofurther.utsi.edu:80/Projects/PulseDE.htm [2]http://news.google.com/patents/about?id=vOZsAAAAEB AJ [3] http://www.google.com/patents?vid=USPAT6216446 [4] R.L. Ordon, Experimental investigations into the operational parameters of a 50 cm class pulsejetengine, M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, 2006.
- 5. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056 Volume: 10 Issue: 01 | Jan 2023 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2022, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 7.529 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 612 [5] A.P. Kiker, Experimental investigations on mini pulsejet engines, M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering., NC State University, Rayleigh, NC, 27695, 2005. [6] T. Geng, Numerical simulations of pulsejet engines, Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, 2007. [7] J.S. Sayres, Jr., Computational fluiddynamicsforpulsejets and pulsejet related technologies,M.S.Thesis,Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, NC StateUniversity, Raleigh, NC, 27695, 2007. [8] N.S. Titova, P.S. Kuleshov, A.M. Starik, Kinetic mechanism of propane ignition and combustion in air, Combust. Explos. Shock Waves 47 (No. 3) (2011) 249e264, https:// doi.org/10.1134/S0010508211030014. [9] G.S.L. Andreis, R.S. Gomes, A.L. De Bertoli, A reduced kinetic mechanism for propane flames, Engenharia Termica (Therm. Eng.) 11 (No.1 e2) (2012) 37e43. [10] W.K. Metcalfe, S.M. Burke, S.S. Ahmed, H.J. Curran, A hierarchical and comparative kinetic modeling study of C1- C2 hydrocarbon and oxygenated fuels, Int. J. Chem. Kinet. 45 (No. 10) (2013) 638e675, https://doi.org/10.1002/kin.20802. [11] P. Gokulakrishnan, C.C. Fuller, M.S. Klassen, R.G. Joklik, Y.N. Kochar, S.N. Vaden, T.C. Lieuwen, J.M. Seitzman, Experiments and modeling of propane combustion with vitiation, Combust. Flame 161 (No. 8) (2014) 2038e2053, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2014.01.024. [12] N. Zettervall, K. Nordin-Bates, E.J.K. Nilsson, C. Fureby, Large eddy simulation of a premixed bluff body stabilized flame using global and skeletal reaction mechanisms, Combust. Flame 179 (2017) 1e22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2016.12.007.