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Ben Beattie-Hood
Modern TypeScript
A Practical Guide to Accelerate Your
Development Velocity

Ben Beattie-Hood
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
ISBN 978-1-4842-9722-3 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9723-0
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9723-0
© Ben Beattie-Hood 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and
exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter
developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names,
trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that
such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws
and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to
assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a
warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions
that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
This Apress imprint is published by the registered company
APress Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New
York, NY 10004, U.S.A.

Any source code or other supplementary material
referenced by the author in this book is available to readers
on GitHub. For more detailed information, please visit
https://www.apress.com/gp/services/source-code.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1:How TypeScript Came to Be
Introduction
History
The Problem
Scalable Velocity
Testing Allows Scale
Docs Allow Scale
Types Provide Both Testing and Docs
Summary
Chapter 2:Getting Started with the Developer
Experience
Introduction
Environment and IDE
No-Frills TypeScript Setup
Debugging TypeScript
TypeScript Within a More Realistic Setup
Honorable Mentions
Summary
Chapter 3:TypeScript Basics
Introduction
Structural Typing
JavaScript Types Are Structural Contracts
Adding Explicit Types to JavaScript

Optionality
All The Sugar
Array and Object Destructuring, Spread, and
Rest
Async
Generators
Inferred Types
Types, Automagically
Type Widening and Narrowing
Auto-narrowing, but Not Too Much
Type Assertions
Compile-Time Assertions
Runtime Assertions
any and unknown Keywords
Caution:Handle with Care
Parameterized Values
Index Signatures
Function Signatures
Constructor Signatures
A New Mental Model
Summary
Chapter 4:Classes
Introduction
Classes
Constructors

Access Modifiers
Fields
Getters and Setters
Methods
Inheritance
Implements
Static Modifier
Warning 1:Classes Are Not Types
Warning 2:Classes Can Cause Scope Bleed
Summary
Chapter 5:Computed Types
Introduction
Type Aliases
Using Type Aliases
Union Types
Intersection Types
Generic Types
Type Parameters
const Modifier on Generic Parameters
Generic Constraints
Inferred Type Keywords
typeof Type Inference Keyword
keyof Type Inference Keyword
Where’s the valueof Type Inference Keyword?

Utility Types
Record<Keys, Type>
Pick<Type, Keys>
Omit<Type, Keys>
Partial<Type>
Required<Type>
Readonly<Type>
Exclude<Type, Keys>
Extract<Type, Keys>
Parameters<Funct
ionType>
ConstructorParam
eters<ClassType>
ReturnType<Funct
ionType>
Conditional Types
extends Keyword
infer Keyword
Extracting Inferred Types
Distributive and Nondistributive Conditional
Types
Conditional Types via Property Accessors
Mapped Types
Changing the Type of Fields
Adding and Removing Fields
Renaming Fields
Recursive Types
Recursion Within an Object Type

Recursion over a Tuple Type
Template Literals
Summary
Chapter 6:Advanced Usage
Introduction
Expect and IsEqual
Compute
JsonOf
Flatten
UrlParameters
UrlParameters with Optional Params
Further Reading
Summary
Chapter 7:Performance
Introduction
Reducing Inline Types
Reducing Inferred Types
Inline Caching Using Conditional Types
Reduce Intersections
Reduce Union Types
Partition Using Packages and Projects
Partitioning Using Packages
Partitioning Using Projects
Other Performance Tweaks

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Debugging Performance Issues
Using the @typescript/
analyze-trace NPM
Package
Using a Trace Viewer Within Your Browser
Summary
Chapter 8:Build
Introduction
Compiler Options
Recommended tsconfig.
json Settings
Other Options
Linting
Installing ESLint
Ideal Ruleset
Additional Strict Errors
Additional Strict Warnings
Removed Rules
Further Rules
JSX/
TSX
Modules
Module Types Explained
Exports and Imports
How TypeScript Resolves Modules
Summary
Chapter 9:Wrap Up
Index

About the Author
Ben Beattie-Hood
is a principal software engineer
and professional mentor with over
20 years of industry experience.
He currently specializes in front-
end technology, technical
strategy, system design, and
development and training in
TypeScript, React, and related
technologies.
Ben is passionate about
evolvable systems, about creating
learning organizations, and about
how ideas are formed and
communicated. He has given a
wide range of talks covering product development, event
sourcing microservices, event storming practice, modern
database internals, functional programming, front-end
design and build, as well as coaching in TypeScript as a
velocity tool.
Ben lives with his beautiful wife and two children in
Melbourne, Australia, where he loves to hike and travel.

About the Technical Reviewer
Oscar Velandia
is a front-end developer at Stahls.
He has worked the past four years
with Typescript, transitioning
projects from Vanilla JavaScript to
TypeScript, creating MVP
projects, and working on large
TypeScript, Next.js, and React
code bases.

(1)
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of
Springer Nature 2023
B. Beattie-Hood, Modern TypeScript
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9723-0_1
1. How TypeScript Came to Be
Ben Beattie-Hood1
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Introduction
As we start our TypeScript journey, we delve into the
background of this powerful programming language. To
truly grasp the capabilities of TypeScript, it is essential to
understand its roots and the context in which it evolved.
We’ll take a brief trip through the history of JavaScript and
ECMAScript and how these played into the development of
TypeScript in late 2012. This brief background will help us
get both a clearer sense of the problems TypeScript solves
as well as the reasoning behind some of the evolution of
TypeScript itself. Understanding these key points, around
the need for more scalable velocity, and how testing and
docs can be delivered in the simplest possible way to solve
this will give us a strong foundation for fully understanding
the direction and outcomes of the TypeScript language.
History
To truly understand TypeScript, it is important to
understand some of the background of the language. We
want to get onto the fun stuff with types, but this
background is necessary, so I’ll keep it short and to the

point. Because when looking into TypeScript, you’ll
undoubtedly come across references to both JavaScript and
ECMAScript and their versions – so how do all these fit
together? So let’s rewind the clock to get a quick overview.
The first version of JavaScript was released in 1995, and
it quickly gained popularity among web developers. In
1996, Microsoft introduced their own version of JavaScript
called JScript. And so in 1997, JavaScript was submitted to
the European Computer Manufacturers Association
(ECMA) in an effort to standardize. This resulting standard
was called ECMAScript and was released in 1999.
So the important thing to note here is that ECMAScript
is a standard, not a language. That means that it defines
how features like objects, functions, variables, closures,
operators, error handling, etc., all work and interoperate,
but it doesn’t define the actual implementation for them.
JavaScript then became the first implementation of
ECMAScript, defining the syntax and being implemented in
runtimes in early browsers.
So ECMAScript v1 (also known as ES1) was released in
1997 and was implemented by concurrent versions of
JavaScript. And like any new specification, features missing
from the ECMAScript specification quickly began to be
found, and so ECMAScript v2 (ES2) was released shortly
after in 1998 and ECMAScript v3 (ES3) in 1999.
At this point, the specification allowed for single
language files to import values into a global memory space,
but things were pretty rudimentary. The next phase of work
would be to define how modules worked – how large
parcels of code could interoperate without using a global
variable store. However, with contention between primary
contributors such as Adobe and Mozilla Foundation,
eventually the next iteration (ES4) was postponed as a leap
that was too great at the time. And without tooling like
modules to manage complexity, most projects stabilized on

a single or few, manually crafted, monolithic js-file
approach, and the industry eventually settled onto using
frameworks like jQuery (2006) to facilitate basic-to-
midscale UI interactions.
Then in 2008–2009, a series of major breakthroughs
occurred in nearly domino effect, which changed the
course of the JavaScript, and ECMAScript, ecosystem
massively (Figure 1-1).
Figure 1-1 Sequence of major breakthroughs in the JS ecosystem
1.
In 2008, Google released the Chrome browser, with a
new, faster JavaScript runtime engine called V8.
2.
In 2009, Chrome’s new V8 engine was picked up by a
team led by Ryan Dahl as the basis for a new server
runtime they called Node.js. This ran plain JavaScript,
but from a CLI or system service, to support non-front-
end tasks.
3.
Meanwhile, an independent team of volunteers had
been working on an alternative to the stalled
ECMAScript module problem – a new JavaScript
module workaround they called CommonJS.
4. As Node.js rapidly grew, they needed a way to solve
ECMAS i t’ i i d l bl d i k d

ECMAScript’s missing modules problem and so picked
up the CommonJS as a suitable workaround. This
allowed them to then create the Node Package
Manager (NPM) in 2010, as a way of sharing Node.js
modules.
5.
During all this time, V8’s significant increase in
browser performance triggered further improvements
in browsers such as Safari and Firefox and therefore
product potential. This renewed interest in JavaScript
as a platform for delivering user experiences.
6.
Larger, more sophisticated user experiences in front
end were needed, and so the community began using
NPM as a way of sharing front-end packages too.
7.
This triggered a new front-end module system called
Asynchronous Module Definition (a.k.a. AMD, via
RequireJS), and with this standard, a new wave of
front-end development began to increase with
exponential rapidity.
8.
To allow module systems to work on both the browser
and on Node.js, a third module system grandiosely
titled Universal Module Definition was released, which
basically packaged both AMD and CommonJS formats
in a single bundle.
9.
The renewed development, as well as increasing
sharding of front- and back-end module systems,
coupled with the hugely increased contribution and
investment in the JavaScript ecosystem, saw the
reconvening of the ECMAScript group and eventual
creation of the ECMAScript module system (ES
Modules, or ESM) in 2015.

We explore these module formats in more detail in
the “Modules” section in Chapter 8.
Phew – that’s a lot to take in! But the main thing you
need to know is that during 2009–2010, there was a huge
upsurge in the JavaScript ecosystem. This continued to
have exponential growth, until NPM became the largest
and most active package repository in the world and still
continues as such today, 2× larger than all other public
package ecosystems combined and with now over 32k
packages published or updated every month (Figure 1-2).
Figure 1-2 Total number of packages on NPM over recent years
The Problem
It would be right to say that the JavaScript ecosystem, to
put it mildly, is flourishing. To keep up with the rapid
development, NPM packages often depend on each other –
each package providing specialism in discrete areas, with
best-of-breed packages ever emerging. In one recent study,

it was found that over 60% of packages had a dependency
chain greater than three layers deep; and another found
that over 61% of packages could be considered abandoned
with dependent ecosystems likely to need to swap them for
replacements.
So it comes with the territory in JavaScript that one will
be managing dependencies, constantly working out what
packages are compatible with others, and trying to test
against flaws. But if we have to face continually updating
packages, how will we know that an update will still work?
Scalable Velocity
Scalable velocity is important in software development
because it enables teams to maintain a consistent pace of
development and predictable expectations, even as the
project grows in complexity and size. But with an ever-
shifting foundation, businesses faced needing to mitigate
the risk of continual unknown compatibility.
Fortunately, there are two tools built for ensuring
scalable velocity: Testing and Docs.
Testing Allows Scale
The first tool to protect against churn from ecosystem
velocity is exhaustive testing. Ignoring for a moment the
problems that overtesting can cause (calcification and
friction; we’ll come back to these), there’s no denying that
we can feel confident updating a whole batch of packages if
we have tests that ensure our program still works
afterward.
And so 2010–2011 saw the rapid increase of JavaScript
testing frameworks, such as Jasmine and Mocha. These
provided a standardized way to write tests against
JavaScript products and as such a way to ensure teams to
retain velocity at scale.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

625 “However desirous the proprietor of another Foundery may be to persuade the
public into an idea of a superiority in his own favour, owing to Rapid improvements for
upwards of Sixty years, a little time may, perhaps, suffice to convince impartial and
unbiassed Judges that the very elegant Types of the WORSHIP STREET MANUFACTORY,
though they cannot indeed boast of their existence longer than about Twenty years !
will yet rank as high in Beauty, Symmetry, and intrinsic Merit as any other whatever,
and ensure equal approbation from the Literati not only in this Country but in every
quarter of the Globe.”
626 For a short time following Mr. Fry’s death his widow is said to have been
associated with her sons in the conduct of the letter-foundry. Mrs. Fry lived at Great
Marlow, and afterwards in Charterhouse Square, London, where she died, Oct. 22,
1803, aged 83.
627 The Printer’s Grammar. London, printed by L. Wayland. 1787. 8vo.
628 We have the following volume very beautifully printed:—C. Plinii Cæcilii Secundi
Epistolarum Libri x. Sumptibus editoris excudebant M. Ritchie et J. Samuells. Londini,
1790. 8vo. At end:—Typis Edmundi Fry.
629 This excellent artist was a Scotchman, and printed in Bartholomew Close in 1785.
He was one of the first who started in emulation of Baskerville as a fine printer; his
series of Mr. Homer’s Classics (Sallust, 1789; Pliny, 1790; Tacitus, 1790; Q. Curtius;
Cæsar, 1790; Livy, 1794) established his reputation. His quarto Bible and the Memoirs
of the Count de Grammont are also celebrated. He printed on Whatman’s paper with
admirable ink and most careful press-work, and is stated to have produced most of his
books by his own personal and manual labour.
630 From this press the following elegantly printed volume was issued in 1788:—The
Beauties of the Poets, being a Collection of Moral and Sacred Poetry, etc., compiled by
the late Rev. Thomas Janes of Bristol. London, printed at the Cicero Press by and for
Henry Fry, No. 5 Worship Street, Upper Moorfields. 1788. 8vo. At one time Henry Fry
appears to have had a partner named Couchman.
631 A New Guide to the English Tongue in five parts by Thomas Dilworth . . .
Schoolmaster in Wapping. Stereotype Edition. London. Andrew Wilson, Camden Town.
8vo. Contains portraits, tail piece and 12 fable cuts.
632 Pantographia; containing accurate copies of all the known Alphabets in the World,
together with an English explanation of the peculiar Force or Power of each Letter; to
which are added specimens of all well authenticated Oral Languages; forming a
comprehensive Digest of Phonology. By Edmund Fry, Letter Founder, Type Street,
London, 1799. Roy. 8vo. A few copies were printed on vellum, one of which is in the
Cambridge University Library.
633 The Printer’s Grammar or Introduction to the Art of Printing: containing a concise
History of the Art, etc., by C. Stower, Printer. London. Printed by the Editor. 1808, 8vo.
The same work also shows extracts and specimens from Pantographia.

634 Hazard was also the designer of a pair of cases, a plan of which is shown by
Stower, p. 463.
635 The Rev. Samuel Lee, B.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew at Cambridge, was a
constant visitor at Type Street, and personally directed the cutting of many of the
founts.
636 Dr. Fry’s system was virtually that first introduced by Mr. Alston, of Glasgow, to
which reference is made ante, p. 78
, where details are also given as to the other
principal systems of type for the Blind. A “lower-case” was subsequently added to Dr.
Fry’s fount by his successors, and in this form the type was largely used by the various
Type Schools following Mr. Alston’s method. Full particulars of this award, with
specimens, maybe seen in Vol. I of the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of
Arts.
637 Hansard mentions a Two-line English Engrossing, two sizes of Music, and the
matrices of Dr. Wilkins’ Philosophical Character; none of which, however, formed part
of this Foundry.
638 Of the supposed antiquity of this interesting fount an account has already been
given at pages 200–5, ante. By a curious confusion of names and dates, Dr. Fry, in his
specimens stated that “this character was cut by Wynkyn de Worde, in exact imitation
of the Codex Alexandrinus in the British Museum” ! This absurd anachronism—the
more extraordinary as emanating from an antiquary of Dr. Fry’s standing—appears to
have arisen from the fact that at the sale of James’ Foundry the matrices lay in a
drawer which bore the name, “De Worde.” This circumstance misled Paterson, the
auctioneer, into advertising the fount as the genuine handiwork of De Worde, a printer
who lived a century before the Codex was brought into this country. The further
coincidence that Dr. Woide of the British Museum was, at the time of the sale, engaged
in producing an edition of the Codex, with facsimile types prepared by Jackson the
founder, doubtless added—by the similarity of the names De Worde and Dr. Woide—to
the confusion. After its purchase, the fount first appeared in Joseph Fry and Sons’
Specimen of 1786, without note. But, in the subsequent specimens of the Foundry,
bearing his own name, Dr. Fry introduced the fiction, which remained unchallenged for
a quarter of a century.
639 In addition to which Dr. Fry possessed, in an imperfect condition (many of the
characters having been recut), the Great Primer Arabic of Walton’s Polyglot. According
to Hansard he also had a set of matrices, English body, from the first punches cut by
William Caslon; but this seems to be an error.
640 Used in Bagster’s Polyglot. The same fount was cast on Long Primer with movable
points. Hansard is in error in stating that Dr. Fry cut a Nonpareil Syriac.
641 An error still less explicable than that of the Alexandrian Greek, but which not only
Dr. Fry’s successors, but Hansard himself has copied. The following seems to be the
“good authority” on which the assertion is based. In 1819, Mr. Bulmer, the eminent
printer, printed for the Roxburghe Club, Mr. Hibbert’s transcript of the MS. fragment of

the translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, made by Caxton about 1480, and preserved
in the library of Pepys at Magdalen College, Cambridge. The body of the work was set
in the English Black bought by Dr. Fry at James’ Sale—but in two places a smaller size
of type was required to print passages omitted in Caxton’s translation, but supplied by
the Editor in the original French of Colard Mansion’s edition. For these passages the
Pica Black was selected, and as the French text contained several accents and
contractions, these had to be specially cut. This task Dr. Fry performed, and
understanding that the letter was to be used for printing a work of Caxton’s, he
appears, without further enquiry, to have assumed that the work in question was a fac-
simile reprint, and that his old matrices had been discovered to bear the impress of the
veritable character used by that famous man. Had he seen the book in question he
would have discovered that not only was it a transcript from a MS. of which no printed
copy had ever been known to exist, but that the very passages in which the boasted
type was used, were passages which did not even appear in a work of Caxton at all.
The matrices are very old. They were in Andrews’ foundry about 1700, and in all
probability came there from Holland, as they closely resemble the other old Dutch
Blacks in James’ Foundry.
642 In the Small Pica, No. 2, was printed The Two First Books of the Pentateuch, or
Books of Moses, as a preparation for learners to read the Holy Scriptures. The types
cut by Mr. Edmund Fry, Letter Founder to His Majesty, from Original Irish Manuscripts,
under the care and direction of T. Connellan (2nd Edit.) Printed at the Apollo Press,
London, J. Johnson, Brook Street, Holborn, 1819. 12mo.
643 Whatever singularity M. Didot may have indulged in in the first strikes from his
famous punches for his own use, the matrices now in the possession of Dr. Fry’s
successors are of most unmistakeable copper throughout. And it does not appear that
more than one set of the strikes was needed to meet all the demands made upon this
complicated letter by the printers of the day.
644 Gentleman’s Magazine, May, 1836.

16. JOSEPH JACKSON, 1763
645 Nichols’ Lit. Anec., ii, 358–9; and Gentleman’s Magazine, 1792, p. 93.
646 Dissert., p. 83.
647 Probably as a rubber, in which occupation he is represented as engaged in the
View of the Caslon Foundry given in the Universal Magazine for June 1750 (see
frontispiece).
648 Dissertation, p. 83.
649 Mr. Halhed thus refers to this circumstance in the introduction to his Bengal
Grammar (see post): “That the Bengal letter is very difficult to be imitated in steel will
readily be allowed by every person who shall examine the intricacies of the strokes, the
unequal length and size of the characters, and the variety of their positions and
combinations. It was no easy task to procure a writer accurate enough to prepare an
alphabet of a similar and proportionate body throughout, with that symmetrical
exactness which is necessary to the regularity and neatness of a fount. Mr. Bolts (who
is supposed to be well versed in this language) attempted to fabricate a set of types for
it with the assistance of the ablest artists in London. But, as he has egregiously failed
in executing even the easiest part, or primary alphabet, of which he has published a
specimen, there is no reason to suppose that his project when completed would have
advanced beyond the usual state of imperfection to which new inventions are
constantly exposed.”
650 This distinguished scholar and self-made typographer was born in the year 1751.
He entered the East India Company’s Civil Service, where he devoted himself not only
to the study of the Oriental languages, but to the actual production of the types
necessary to extend the study of those languages among his fellow-countrymen, with
extraordinary skill and perseverance. He succeeded in cutting the punches and casting
the types for Halhed’s Grammar of the Bengal Language, published at Hoogly in
Bengal in 1778, 4to. In his preface to that work, Mr. Halhed, after referring to Mr. Bolts’
failure, in the passage quoted in the preceding note, thus describes the undertaking:
—“The advice and even solicitation of the Governor-General prevailed upon Mr. Wilkins,
a gentleman who has been some years in the India Company’s Civil Service in Bengal,
to undertake a set of Bengal Types. He did, and his success has exceeded every
expectation. In a country so remote from all connection with European artists, he has
been obliged to charge himself with all the various occupations of the Metallurgist, the
Engraver, the Founder, and the Printer. To the merit of invention he was compelled to
add the application of personal labour. With a rapidity unknown in Europe, he
surmounted all the obstacles which necessarily clog the first rudiments of a difficult art,
as well as the disadvantages of solitary experiment; and has thus singly, on the first
effort, exhibited his work in a state of perfection which in every part of the world has
appeared to require the united improvements of different projectors and the gradual
polish of successive ages.” Mr. Wilkins persevered in his noble undertaking of rendering

the Oriental languages available to the English scholar through the medium of
typography. With this view he compiled from the most celebrated native Grammars and
Commentaries a work entirely new to England on the Structure of the Sanskrita
tongue. Of the difficulties and discouragements attendant on the execution of this self-
imposed task he thus speaks in his Preface:—“At the commencement of the year in
1795, residing in the country and having much leisure, I began to arrange my materials
and prepare them for publication. I cut letters in steel, made matrices and moulds, and
cast from them a fount of types of the Deva Nagari character, all with my own hands;
and, with the assistance of such mechanics as a country village could afford, I very
speedily prepared all the other implements of printing in my own dwelling-house; for
by the second of May of the same year I had taken proofs of 16 pages, differing but
little from those now exhibited in the first two sheets. Till two o’clock on that day
everything had succeeded to my expectations; when alas! the premises were
discovered to be in flames, which, spreading too rapidly to be extinguished, the whole
building was presently burned to the ground. In the midst of this misfortune, I happily
saved all my books and manuscripts, and the greatest part of the punches and
matrices; but the types themselves having been thrown out and scattered on the lawn,
were either lost or rendered useless.” About ten years afterwards the Directors of the
East India Company encouraged Dr. Wilkins, then Librarian to the Company, to resume
his labours and cast new types, as the study of the Sanskrita had become an important
object in their new College at Hertford. Dr. Wilkins complied, and the Grammar of the
Sanskrita Language, London, 1808, 4to, duly appeared from Bulmer’s Press, and was
allowed to be a monument at once of beautiful typography and erudite industry. Dr.,
subsequently Sir Charles, Wilkins died May 13th, 1836, at the advanced age of 85.
Specimens of his Bengali and Sanskrit may be seen in Johnson’s Typographia, ii, 389–
94.
651 A Vocabulary, Persian, Arabic, and English, containing such words as have been
adopted from the two former of these languages, and incorporated into the Hindvi;
together with some hundreds of compound verbs formed from Persian or Arabic nouns
and in universal use. Being the seventh part of the new Hindvi Grammar and
Dictionary. London, 1785. 4to.
652 The Domesday letter of Cottrell and Jackson may be seen in juxtaposition in Fry’s
Pantographia, 1799, pp. 50 and 314; also in Stower’s Printer’s Grammar, 1808, p. 253.
Jackson’s also appears in Johnson’s Typographia (ii, p. 248), from which work our
account is chiefly taken.
653 Domesday Book seu Liber Censualis Willelmi primi Regis Angliæ inter Archivos
Regni in Domo capitulari Westmonasterii asservatus. Jubente Rege Augustissimo
Georgio Tertio prelo mandatus. Londini. Typis J. Nichols. 2 vols. Folio. 1783.
654 Domesday Book Illustrated. London. 1788. 8vo.
655 Dr. Woide was appointed Assistant Librarian at the British Museum in 1782.
656 See ante, p. 200
–5.

657 A specimen of this letter may be seen in Dr. Fry’s specimens, also in his
Pantagraphia, p. 126.
658 Gough, writing in the Gentleman’s Magazine, vol. lvi, p. 497, says:—“It was
reserved, therefore, for the industry and application of Dr. Woide . . . to rescue this
valuable MS. from the fate which befel a MS. of the Septuagint in the Cottonian Library
of equal antiquity, type, and, value, of which a very few fragments escaped the fire in
1733, by adopting the facsimile mode of reproduction, which, from the great expense
attending it, has unfortunately been adopted in so few instances.” The facsimile of the
Laudian Codex, comprising the Acts of the Apostles, published by Hearne at Oxford in
1715, had been the only previous successful attempt of this kind in England. Hearne’s
facsimile, however, was engraved, and not from type. A list of the most important
subsequent facsimile reproductions from Codices of the Holy Text is given in Horne’s
Introduction (edit. 1872), iv, pp. 682–3.
659 Novum Testamentum Græcum è Codice MS. Alexandrino qui Londini in Bibliothecâ
Musei Britannici asservatur, descriptum a Carolo Godofredo Woide . . . Musei Britannici
Bibliothecaria Londini. Ex prelo Jeannis Nichols. Typis Jacksonianis, 1786. Folio.
660 Psalterium Græcum è Codice MS. Alexandrino qui Londini in Bibliothecâ Musei
Britannici asservatur Typis ad similitudinem ipsius Codicis Scripturæ fideliter
descriptum. Curâ et labore H. H. Baber. Londini, 1812. Folio.
661 Vetus Testamentum Græcum è Codice MS. Alexandrino qui Londini in Bibliothecâ
Musei Britannici asservatur, Typis ad similitudinem ipsius Codicis Scripturæ fideliter
descriptum. Curâ et labore H. H. Baber, Londini, 1816–21. 4 vols., Folio. Mr. Baber, the
better to preserve the identity of the original in his fac-similes, introduced a
considerable number of fresh types as well as numerous woodcuts.
662 Codex Theodori Bezæ Cantabrigiensis, Evangelia et Acta Apostolorum
complectens, quadratis literis, Græco-Latinus. Academia auspicante summâ qua fide
potuit, adumbravit, expressit, edidit, codicis historiam præfixit, notasque adjecit T.
Kipling. Cantabrigiæ è prelo Academico, impensis Academiæ, 1793. 2 vols., Folio.
663 Gent. Mag., 1793, p. 733.
664 Mores’ Dissert., Appendix, p. 98.
665 Prosodia Rationalis, an Essay towards establishing the Melody and Measure of
Speech by Symbols. London, 1779. 4to.
666 An Essay towards Establishing the Melody and Measure of Speech, to be
expressed and perpetuated by peculiar Symbols. London, 1775. 4to.
667 The Holy Bible, embellished with Engravings from Pictures and Designs by the
most eminent Artists. London: printed for Thomas Macklin by Thomas Bensley, 1800. 7
vols. Folio.
668 See p. 336
, post. Jackson’s fount is used to the end of Numbers.
669 Lit. Anec., ii, 360.

670 The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Cæsar to the Revolution in
1688. By David Hume. London: printed by T. Bensley, for Robert Bowyer, 1806. 10
vols. Folio.
671 Gent. Mag., 1792, p. 166.
672 John William Pasham, originally of Bury St. Edmund’s, where he published the
Bury Flying Weekly Journal. He removed to Blackfriars in London, where, in 1776, he
published a beautiful pocket edition of the Bible in 24mo, which obtained the title of
the Immaculate Bible, on account of the rarity of its errors. It had foot-notes, which
could be cut off in the binding if required. Of this Bible, Lemoine says “it is spoiled by
being dried in a kiln, which has entirely changed the colour of the paper; besides, the
colour of the print is uneven, one side being darker than the other.” This Bible is said
to have been printed in a house on Finchley Common. Mr. Pasham died Dec. 1783.
.
674 The prefatory note to this specimen runs as follows:—“Sir, Having completed my
new Specimen, I take the opportunity of sending you a copy, and flatter myself it will
meet with your approbation. I shall be happy to receive your future orders, and you
may be assured of every possible attention being paid to the execution of those you
may favour me with. I remain, your obedient humble servant, William Caslon. Salisbury
Square, Jan. 1, 1798.”
675 He made an offer in 1817 to travel on commission for the founders generally, but
his services in this direction were not made use of.
676 The Circular announcing this improvement is dated Salisbury Square, Jan. 1,
1810. The new types are offered at 1s. 10d. per lb., and, as an encouragement to
buyers, 1s. per lb. is offered for old metal.
. This appears to have been intended as an improvement on the
invention of Nicholson, who was the first (in 1790) to suggest the casting of types
wedge-shaped, for fixing on cylinders. (p. 119.)
678 Considerable prominence is naturally given to the large letters “cast in moulds and
matrices” by the new “Sanspareil” method.

17. WILLIAM MARTIN, 1790
.
680 George Nicol was born in 1741, and was for many years bookseller to King George
III. He married a niece of the first Alderman Boydell in 1787. The idea of the Boydell
Shakespeare originated with him. He was a prominent member of the literary clubs of
his day, and a personal friend of the Duke of Roxburghe. He died in 1829, aged 88.
681 A history of this celebrated Press would almost involve a history of fine printing in
the first quarter of the present century. Dibdin, in the second volume of his
Bibliographical Decameron, has given a list of its most famous impressions. Bulmer
was a personal friend of Thomas Bewick, the engraver, many of whose blocks were cut
for his books. He spared no pains to render the typography of his press the most
correct and beautiful England had hitherto known. He retired in 1819, leaving Mr. Wm.
Nicol, only son of his friend George Nicol, to carry on the business. Mr. Bulmer died
Sept. 9, 1830, in his 74th year, greatly honoured and respected.
682 The Dramatic Works of William Shakespeare. Revised by G. Steevens. London:
1792–1802. 18 parts in 9 vols. Atlas folio. With 100 engravings.
683 Bibl. Decam., ii, 384.
684 The Poetical Works of John Milton, with a life of the Author by William Hayley.
London: 1794–7. 3 vols. Folio.
.
686 Bibl. Decam., ii, 384.
687 Poems by Goldsmith and Parnell. London: 1795. 4to. This work was illustrated
with woodcuts by Bewick. It is said that George III ordered his bookseller to procure
the blocks of the engravings for his inspection, that he might convince himself they
were wood and not copper.
688 Typographia, p. 311.
689 Nichols, Illust. Lit., viii, 485.
690 Musæus. The Loves of Hero and Leander. (Greek and English.) London. Printed by
W. Bulmer & Co. Typis Gulielmi Martin. 1797. 4to. This work was privately printed by
Mr. Bulmer for Mr. Grosvenor Bedford, the translator.
691 The Press: a Poem. Published as a Specimen of Typography by John M cCreery.
Liverpool: printed by J. M cCreery. Houghton Street, 1803. 4to.
692 Typographical Antiquities, &c., greatly enlarged, with copious notes, by T. F.
Dibdin, London: 1810–12–16–19. 4 vols. 4to. The work was not completed. The first
volume was not printed at the Shakespeare Press.
693 Bibliotheca Spenceriana; or, a Descriptive Catalogue of Books printed in the XV
Century, and of many valuable First Editions in the Library of George John, Earl

Spencer. London: 1814–15. 4 vols. 8vo.
694 The Bibliographical Decameron; or, Ten Days’ Pleasant Discourse upon Illuminated
Manuscripts, and Subjects connected with early Engraving, Typography and
Bibliography. London, 1817. 3 vols, 8vo.
695 Amongst which were the early publications of the Roxburghe Club, instituted by
Earl Spencer, in 1812, for the republication of rare books or unpublished MSS. M.
Renouard censures Bulmer for the use of worn type in the Edition of Ben Jonson’s
Works, 1816. 9 vols. 8vo. “L’habile M. Bulmer aurait dû jeter à la fonte les caractères
usés dont il a fait usage pour cette volumineuse édition, et les libraires entrepreneurs
n’auroient pas dû lui en permettre l’emploi.”
696 Illust. Lit., viii, 485.
697 An early specimen of Thorowgood’s shows a Black, the matrices of which, it is
stated, “were purchased by Messrs. Fry & Steele at the breaking up of the Cleveland
Row Foundry.” As, however, Messrs. Fry & Steele’s partnership terminated about 1808,
we consider the whole statement doubtful.

18. VINCENT FIGGINS, 1792
698 Lit. Anec., ii, 361.
699 Hansard. Typographia, 359.
.
701 The Seasons. By James Thomson. Illustrated with Engravings by F. Bartolozzi,
R.A., and P. W. Tomkins, Historical Engraver to their Majesties, from original pictures
painted for the work by W. Hamilton, R.A. London: Printed for P. W. Tomkins, New
Bond Street. The letter press by T. Bensley. The Types by V. Figgins. 1799. Folio.
703 Paradise Lost, by John Milton, with Notes and Life of the Author. . . . By Samuel
Johnson, LL.D. Engravings by Heath, &c. London: Printed for J. Parsons, 1796. 2 vols.
8vo.
704 Sir William Ouseley was born in 1771, and accompanied his brother Sir Gore
Ouseley, the ambassador to Persia, to that country as secretary. He published Persian
Miscellanies in 1795, and Oriental Collections in 1797–1800. In the advertisement at
the close of the 1st volume of the latter work, he states, “I have employed a few
leisure hours in superintending the execution of a new Persian Type, which will, I trust,
exhibit as faithful a representation of the true Taleek character as can be effected by
any imitative powers of the Typographick Art.” Of this new fount he shows a single line
as specimen, which, however, if cut by Mr. Figgins, is not the Paragon Persian which
subsequently appeared in his specimen books. Nor did it appear, as promised, in the
Oriental Collections of 1798, the quotations in which continued to be printed in Arabic
characters.
705 The Persian Moonshee, by Francis Gladwin, Esquire. Calcutta. London, reprinted
1801. 4to.
706 This important enquiry was the result of an address of the House of Commons to
the King, in 1800, setting forth the necessity of a better provision for the arrangement,
preservation and use of the various Public Records scattered among the numerous
offices of the kingdom. The Commission thereupon appointed were empowered to take
all necessary measures to “methodize, regulate and digest the records, etc.”, preserved
in all Public Offices and repositories, and “to superintend the printing of such calendars
and indexes and original records and papers” as it should be deemed desirable to print.
With this large task before them, the Commissioners went actively to work, and in
1800 and 1806 published their first Reports. The following important publication,
issued under the Direction of the Commission, was commenced in 1800:—Reports from
the Commissioners appointed to execute the measures recommended by a Select
Committee of the House of Commons respecting the Public Records of the Kingdom,
etc., London, 1800–19, 2 vols., folio. The appendix forming the second volume
contains facsimiles of all the Charters (including Magna Charta) and Inrollments from

Stephen to William and Mary, with the Seals inserted in the several works printed under
the Commission. The list of the subsequent publications of the Commission is very
extensive, and includes verbatim copies, with all abbreviations and contractions, of the
most important documents in the kingdom.
707 The first important work in connection with the Scotch Record Commission was
Inquisitionum ad Capellam Domini Regis retornatarum quæ in publicis Archivis Scotiæ
adhuc servantur Abbrevatio cum Indicibus, Edinburgh, 1811–16, 3 vols., folio, and a
Supplement.
708 These types perished in the fire of Mr. Nichols’ printing office in 1808, see ante, p.
321
.
709 Lit. Anec., ii, 361.
710 Biblia Sacra Polyglotta, Textus Archetypos, Versionesque præcipuas ab Ecclesiâ
Antiquitùs receptas complectentia. London: 1817–28. 5 parts, 4to, 4 vols., 8vo. This
Bible comprises the original Hebrew text of the Old Testament, the Samaritan
Pentateuch, the Septuagint Greek version of the Old Testament, the Vulgate Latin and
the Authorised English version of the entire Bible, the original Greek of the New
Testament, and the venerable Peschito or Syriac version of it. This Polyglot was
republished with the addition of Spanish, French, Italian, and German versions in 1831,
with learned prolegomena by Dr. Samuel Lee.
.
712 Novum Testamentum Syriace denuo recognitum atque ad fidem Codicum MSS.
emendatum. Impressit R. Watts. London 1816, 4to. Dr. Buchanan was born in 1766
and went to India in 1796, where his researches led to the discovery, among other
things, of some interesting Hebrew Manuscripts of portions of the Bible, on goat skins
and tablets of brass. He died in the year 1815. The Syriac Testament was corrected by
him as far as the Acts, and completed by Dr. Lee, Arabic Professor at Cambridge. See
ante, p. 68
.
714 The matrices of the Long Primer and Brevier cut for the Scotch Record
Commission were given up to the Government.
715 Hansard omits the Double Pica Greek cut for Oxford University, the matrices of
which were retained by Mr. Figgins. A specimen appears in the book of 1823.
716 The fount for Bagster’s Polyglot.
717 The punches, matrices and moulds of this fount were deposited in the East India
Company’s Library.
718 It would be an omission not to mention here Mr. Vincent Figgins II’s interesting
reprint of the 2nd Edition of Caxton’s Game of the Chesse, London, 1855, sm. folio. Mr.
Figgins cut a fount of type after the original, “which” he remarks, “is a mixture of black-
letter and the character called secretary,” the black predominating. The “Caxton Black”

so produced has been the only attempt made to approach a facsimile of Caxton’s letter
by means of type. In his remarks, Mr. Figgins gives his reasons for concluding, from the
variety in the form of the letters, that they were not cast from a matrix but cut
separately by hand. This theory Mr. Blades, in his “Life of Caxton,” disproves, pointing
out that the Type No. 2* used in the second edition of Caxton’s work is really an old
fount originally cast from matrices, and, when worn, trimmed up by hand to form the
punches for a new fount—a circumstance amply sufficient to account for the
irregularities observed. These irregularities are, of course, sufficient to prevent the
absolute possibility of anything like an exact facsimile by means of type. It is, however,
interesting to note that John Whittaker’s famous restorations of Caxtonian and other
early printed works, were to a certain extent accomplished by means of typography. Mr.
Dibdin, in his Bibliographical Decameron (ii, 415), describes the operation as follows:
—“He has caused to be engraved or cut four founts of Caxton’s letter. These are cut in
the manner of binders’ tools for lettering, and each letter is separately charged with
ink, and separately impressed on the paper. Some of Caxton’s types are so riotous and
unruly that Mr. Whittaker found it impossible to carry on his design without having at
least twenty of such irregular letters engraved. The process of executing the text with
such tools shall be related in Mr. Whittaker’s own words:—‘A tracing being taken with
the greatest precision from the original leaf, on white tracing paper, it is then laid on
the leaf (first prepared to match the book it is intended for) with a piece of blacked
paper between the two. Then by a point passing round the sides of each letter, a true
impression is given from the black paper on the leaf beneath. The types are next
stamped on singly, being charged with old printing ink prepared in colour exactly to
match each distinct book. The type being then set on the marks made by tracing, in all
the rude manner and at the same unequal distances observable in the original, they
will bear the strictest scrutiny and comparison with their prototype; it being impossible
to make a facsimile of Caxton’s printing in any other way, as his letters are generally
set up irregularly and at unequal distances, leaning various ways,’‫‏‬
” etc.

19. MINOR FOUNDERS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
.
720 Printers’ Grammar, p. 31.
, n.
722 Mr. Ilive the elder is named in Samuel Negus’s list of Printers, published by Bowyer
in 1724, as one of those “said to be high flyers”. He was a benefactor to Zion College,
and printed the classical catalogue of their library from the letter P.
723 Marius de Calasio. Concordantiæ Bibliorum Hebr. et Lat. edente Guil. Romaine, 4
vols., Lond. 1747, folio.
724 Anecdotes of Bowyer, p. 130.
725 “Emboldened by his first adventure, he determined to become the public teacher
of infidelity. For this purpose he hired the use of Carpenters’ Hall, where for some time
he delivered his Orations, which consisted chiefly of scraps from Tindal and other
similar writers” (Chalmers’ Biog. Dict., xix, 228).
726 The Book of Jasher. With Testimonies and Notes explanatory of the Text. To which
is prefixed various Readings. Translated into English from the Hebrew, by Alcuin of
Britain, who went a Pilgrimage into the Holy Land, etc. Printed in the year 1751. 4to.
The fraud was immediately detected and exposed. The work was reprinted, without
acknowledgment and with some variations, at Bristol in 1829, by a Rev. C. R. Bond.
Both editions are now rare.
727 Dissert., p. 65.
728 These are enumerated in Gough’s British Topography, i, 637.
729 British Topography, i, 597.
.
731 A Specimen of the Printing Types and Flowers belonging to John Reid, Printer,
Bailie Fyfe’s Close, Edinburgh, etc. Edinburgh, 1768. 8vo. All the other founts shown
are either Wilson’s or Caslon’s.
732 History of Printing in America. 2nd Edit. Albany, 1874. i, 31.
733 The first attempt to introduce type-founding in America had been made by
Mitchelson, a Scotchman, in 1768, and failed. In 1769, Abel Buel, of Connecticut,
succeeded in casting several founts of Long Primer. Christopher Sower, in 1772,
brought over a foundry from Germany to Germantown in Pennsylvania. John Bay also
founded in the same town about 1774. Benj. Franklin and his grandson Bache brought
over a foundry from France in 1775 to Philadelphia, which, however, had ceased its
operations when Baine and his grandson, some ten years later, established their
foundry in the same city.
734 See Abridgments of Specifications relating to Printing, p. 87. See also ante, p. 78
.

735 Typog. Antiq., p. 81. This appears to be the person whom Gough, in his list of
departed worthies of the eighteenth century, includes among the letter founders, as
“Jurisson, d. 1791”. (Gent. Magaz., lxxiii, part i, p. 161.)
.
737 “British Foundry. S. & C. Stephenson respectfully submit the present edition of
their Specimen to the public with the hope that they shall continue to experience the
flattering encouragement hitherto received, and for which they beg to return their most
sincere thanks.
“To those of the Trade who have not hitherto used the Types of the British Foundry,
it may be necessary to observe, that they are composed of the very best Metal, and
that they are justified to paper and body agreeable to the usual standard.
“As the Establishment of this Foundry comprises eminent engravers on wood and
brass, orders in either of these branches will be executed in the best stile of the Art.
February, 1797.”
A first part of the specimen appears to have been issued in 1796, and the whole
book in 1797.

20. WILLIAM MILLER, 1809
738 Bibliography of Printing, ii, 42.
739 Typog., p. 366.
740 Ibid., p. 361.
741 A specimen of this type “the smallest ever manufactured in this country,” was
exhibited, and contains the whole of Gray’s Elegy in 32 verses, in 2 columns,
measuring 3 3
⁄
4 inches each in depth.
742 Dictionary for the Pocket; French and English; English and French, &c., by John
Bellows, Gloucester, from type cast specially for the work by Miller and Richard, Type
founders to the Queen, Edinburgh. 1873. 24mo.

21. THE MINOR FOUNDERS, 1800–1830
743 Sheffield, 3rd edit., 1841, 12mo. A similar proposal, only with Nonpareil as the
standard, was made about 1824 by James Fergusson, whose scheme is quoted in
extenso by Hansard in his Typographia, p. 388.
744 The Printer’s Assistant, containing a Sketch of the History of Printing, etc. London,
1810. 12mo.
745 Typog., p. 382.
746 See ante, p. 253–4; also Johnson’s Typographia, ii, 652.
747 Mr. Branston was an engraver, and resided at Beaufort Buildings, Strand, in 1824.
He attempted a new system of printing music, by striking the punches deeper than
usual in the plate, so that when a stereo cast was taken from it, the notes appeared
sufficiently in relief to be printed at a type press.
. M. Didot’s invention had been previously tried by Henry Caslon,
but unsuccessfully.
749 This appears to be an anachronism. There was no association of Type Founders
between 1820 and 1830.
750 Hansard, Typog., p. 361.
751 Johnson, in 1824, gives a list of nine founders (including Pouchée), at that time
trading in London. (Typog., ii, 652.)

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Original spelling and grammar have generally been retained, with some
exceptions noted below. Original printed page numbers are shown like this:
{52}. The transcriber produced the cover image and hereby assigns it to the
public domain. Footnotes have been renumbered 1–751 and converted to
ENDNOTES.
Many images have been moved slightly from their original locations, so the
original page numbers shown in the List of Illustrations may be wrong. In
order to keep the total size of the epub and mobi files reasonably small,
almost all of the images are smaller than 601 by 801 pixels, and file sizes are
less than 100kb. Larger image files with better resolution are available for
many images. In the HTML edition only, these are linked with the symbol “Μ”
in the caption, for example in Figure 9. Alternatively, all of the images are
available from the Project Gutenberg download page for this book. The
scanned images of the original printed pages are available from archive.org
— search for
“historyofoldengl00reed”.
Ditto marks have often been eliminated, using text replication when
necessary. Large curly brackets “{ }” used as graphic devices to combine
information over two or more lines have been removed from the text
everywhere. For example, in the table on page 35, first column, 9th and 10th
rows, there was a two-row bracket suggesting that “9.” applies to both rows.
Herein, “9.” was simply duplicated to indicate that fact. The row headed by
“17. Pearl” contains in the second column, in the original printed book, two
rows containing “Parisienne or Sedan.” and “Perle.”, enclosed in two-row
brackets. Herein, table-cell borders have been drawn to suggest this
combination.
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page xi, CONTENTS. The chapter 3 page reference was changed to 83, from
13.
Page 32n. “fromer” to “former”.
Page 35. “Grobe” to “Große”, in two places in the table.

“Geeek” to “Greek”.
Page 49. The left double quotation mark in ‘observed in 1825, “have left’
has no closing mark. Several other puzzling usages of quotation marks
elsewhere have also been retained.
Page 156. The illustration has been changed from number 41 to 31, to
agree with the List of Illustrations.
Page 190n. The phrase or here (Mason’s was changed to or here”
(Mason’s, by inserting the missing right double quotation mark.
Page 205n. The phrase “P. VergiliI Maronis Codex” is retained as printed.
Page 221. The illustration is provided below in tabular transcription form.
(De Worde) (Day)
(Priv
i
leged prin
‐
ters)
The Poly
glot
Foun
ders 1637–
1667
Mox
on
1659–1683
(Wal
per
gen)
1673–1714
Jas. Gro
ver
1680–1700
R. An
drews
1683–1733
(Rolij) 1710 S. An
drews
1714–1733
Ilive
1730–
1740
Head 1685–
1700 (?)
Thos. Grover
1700–1758
Thos. James
1710–1736
Mitchell
1700–1739
John James 1736–1772
the last of the Old English Letter Founders.
Caslon
Page 274n. A matching right double quotation mark was inserted after ‘Η
Καινη Διαθηκη’.
Page 320. Changed “emploeyd” to “employed”.
Page 369 INDEX. The use of punctuation, particularly semicolons, colons,
and the 3-em dashes that function as ditto marks, seems often
inconsistent or strange. It is generally retained herein as printed. The
organization and structure of the original index is retained as well.

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