Module-1.docx
- 1. Module-1 Introduction to ethical philosophy: definition, nature, scope, branches. Definition- As used originally by the ancient Greeks, the term "philosophy" meant the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, and comprised ALL areas of speculative thought, including the arts, sciences and religion. Philosophy is a study of the most general and abstract features of the world and categories with which we think. This include: mind, matter, reason, proof, truth, and other related areas. Nature of Philosophy Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held uncritically. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which philosophers always have sought answers. Few important aspects of Philosophy Philosophical questions are usually foundational and abstract in nature. It also provides a good way of learning to think more clearly about a wide range of issues, and its methods of analyzing arguments can be useful in a variety of situations in other areas of life. Philosophy is such a huge subject that it is difficult to know how to break it down into manageable and logical sections. There are 4 common ways in which Philosophy can be usefully broken down or organized:- By Branch / Doctrine, By Historical Period, By Movement / School, By Individual Philosophers Branches of philosophy 1. Aesthetics- Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture and nature." 2. Ethics- Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil.
- 2. 3. Epistemology- Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. 4. Metaphysics- Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties. 5. Logic- Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. 6. Mind and language- Philosophy of language explores the nature, origins, and use of language. Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body, as typified by disputes between materialism and dualism. 7. Philosophy of science- The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Basic Theories (Deontology, Utilitarianism, Virtue Theory, Rights Theory, Casuist Theory) Deontology- The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma. This means that a person will follow his or her obligations to another individual or society because upholding one's duty is what is considered ethically correct. Utilitarianism- Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only moral framework that can be used to justify military force or war. Rights- In the rights ethical theory the rights set forth by a society are protected and given the highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically correct and valid since a large or ruling population endorses them. Individuals may also bestow rights upon others if they have the ability and resources to do so. Casuist- The casuist ethical theory is one that compares a current ethical dilemma with examples of similar ethical dilemmas and their outcomes. This allows one to determine the severity of the situation and to create the best possible solution according to others' experiences. Virtue- The virtue ethical theory judges a person by his character rather than by an action that may deviate from his normal behavior. It takes the person's morals, reputation and motivation into account when rating an unusual and irregular behavior that is considered unethical. For instance, if a person plagiarized a passage that was later detected by a peer, the peer who knows the person well will understand the person's character and will be able to judge the friend. Values- Values are “things that have an intrinsic worth in usefulness or importance to the “principles, standards, or qualities considered worthwhile or desirable.” However, it is important to note that, although we may tend to think of a value as something good, virtually all values are
- 3. morally relative – neutral, really – until they are qualified by asking, “How is it good?” or “Good to whom?” The “good” can sometimes be just a matter of opinion or taste, or driven by culture, religion, habit, circumstance, or environment, etc. Morals- Moral values are relative values that protect life and are respectful of the dual life value of self and others. The great moral values, such as truth, freedom, charity, etc., have one thing in common. When they are functioning correctly, they are life protecting or life enhancing for all. But they are still relative values. Ethics- A person who knows the difference between right and wrong and chooses right is moral. A person whose morality is reflected in his willingness to do the right thing – even if it is hard or dangerous – is ethical. Ethics are moral values in action. Being ethical id an imperative because morality protects life and is respectful of others – all others. MORAL DILEMMA :- A moral dilemma is an irresolvable moral conflict, i.e. no fully satisfactory resolution is possible since all possible options for action leave behind a remainder that does not cease to be morally binding.
- 4. Moral dilemmas are often used to help people think through the reasoning for their beliefs and actions, and are common in psychology and philosophy classes. Steps to Solve Dilemma :- 1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant moral values from among duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained. 2. Collection of all information, data, and facts relevant to the situation. 3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc. 4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. 5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on various alternatives. 6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed. MORAL AUTONOMY :- Moral Autonomy is the philosophy which is self-determining, i.e., acting independently without the influence of others. The moral autonomy relates to the individual ideas whether right or wrong conduct which is independent of ethical issues. The concept of moral autonomy helps in improving self-determination. Moral Autonomy – Skills Needed: Ability to relate the problems with the problems of law, economics and religious principles Skill to process, clarify and understand the arguments against the moral issues Must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all the viewpoints Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble MORAL ISSUES:- A moral issue can be understood as an issue to be resolved not only by considering the technical stuff but also by keeping moral values in mind. “Moral issue is a working issue of moral concern with the potential to help or harm anyone, including oneself.” Moral issues are those which involve a difference of belief and not a matter of preference. Moral issues are those, which involve the experience of a special kind of feeling. Moral issues are those actions which have the potential to help or harm others or ourselves. Basic Ethical Principles 1-Autonomy- The duty to respect and promote individuals´ choices for themselves in achieving what they believe to be in their best interests. It becomes limited if it infringes on the best interests of others. This duty also includes respect for confidentiality and privacy.
- 5. 2-Beneficence- The duty always to act in the best interests of the patient, client, or resident; it must be distinguished from paternalism. 3-Non-maleficence- The duty to do not harm, and to protect the others from harm. Included in this duty is to maintain one´s professional competence. 4-Distributive justice- All persons in society, being of equal moral worth, should be treated fairly. Contemporary philosophy: action, ethics, and responsibility Philosophy of Action- The action as a concept is one of the major sub-disciplines in contemporary philosophy. Philosophy of action is chiefly concerned with human action, intending to distinguish between activity and passivity. The understanding is further elaborated to action being voluntary, intentional, culpable, and involuntary actions. The theory of action is pertinent to legal and ethical questions concerning freedom, intention, belief, responsibility, and so on. It is related to the mind-body problem, the concept of causality, and the issue of determinism. Philosophy of Responsibility- People and groups are evaluated as responsible or not, depending on how seriously they take their responsibilities. Often this is done informally via moral judgment. On the other side, this also is done formally through legal judgement. The moral philosophy has tended to ask two simple questions about responsibility: “What is it to be responsible?” and “What is a person responsible for?” The first question is usually taken while enquiring about moral agency. The second as a question is used in case of holding people accountable for their actions. Linking Philosophy, Ethics & Its implications Ethics Philosophy Moral Principles a person can follow. Study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence as an academic discipline. Comprise of moral guidelines and advice a human can follow in his lifestyle. Contains theories and ideologies postulated by philosophers concerning specific subject matter in life. There is no specific origin; has a strong relation to religions and morality in human society. There are specific founders or several pioneering figures known as philosophers. Cannot be separated according to period, country and subject matter since they are universally considered moral principles. Has varied branches according to period school, movement, country, subject matter, etc.
- 6. Relationship between Ethics and Philosophy: Philosophy details the relation of man to the world. Ethics treats man as a self-conscious being, not a natural fact. Thus, for the discussion of the relation between man and God, world and society, ethics has to turn to philosophy. Philosophy systematizes both facts and values. Ethics being a science of values is related to philosophy because the latter systematizes both facts and values. Many philosophical problems come under ethics. Ethics has to explain many philosophical problems.