Motivating students’ learning using word association test and concept maps

Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy (BJSEP), Volume 4, Number 1, 2010

MOTIVATING STUDENTS’ LEARNING
USING WORD ASSOCIATION TEST AND
CONCEPT MAPS

Zdravka KOSTOVA
University of Sofia,
Blagovesta RADOYNOVSKA
New Bulgarian University

Abstract. The paper presents the effect of a free word association test,
content analysis and concept mapping on students’ achievements in human
biology. The free word association test was used for revealing the scientific
conceptual structures of 8th grade and 12th grade students, around a stimulus
word – human being – and for motivating them to study human biology. The
stimulus word retrieved a cluster of associations most of which were based on
science education and experience. Associations with the stimulus word were
analyzed and classified according to predetermined criteria and structured by
means of a concept map. The stimulus word ‘human being’ was quantitatively
assessed in order to find out the balance between the associations with its dif-
ferent aspects. On the basis of the results some connections between biology
and other sciences studying the human being, were worked out. Each new
topic in human biology was studied by using content analysis of the textbook
and concept mapping as study tools and thus maintaining students’ motiva-
tion. Achievements of students were assessed by means of tests, observation

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and concept maps evaluation. The obtained data was also valuable in clarify-
ing the complex nature of the human being, and confirming the statement that
biology cannot answer all questions, concerning human nature. Inferences
were made about the word association test combined with content analysis
and concept map construction as an educational strategy.
Keywords: motivation, word association test, human being, concept
maps, content analysis, human biology

Aims
The study was directed to finding the answer to the following ques-
tions: What are the differences between the associations of 12th grade students
and those of 8th grade students to the stimulus word human being? How do
concept maps of associations motivate students to learn? Does content analy-
sis and construction of concept maps, followed by discussion, support motiva-
tion and engage students in productive work?

Introduction
The number of students that lack motivation for learning has been
increasing of late (McInerney, 2000) and this problem is attracting more and
more researchers to study and attempt to solve it. One of the possible reasons
for this motivational problem is that they do not possess the skills to learn
successfully and find “learning of abstract and highly conceptual nature of
science very difficult” (BouJaoude & Attieh, 2008).
Motives are widely defined; at one end they can be incentives or
provocations to action, because they induce a person to act (Davidov, 1983).
At the other, they can be little more than “hypothetical constructs used to
explain why people are doing what they are doing” (Brophy, 2004). On the
other hand, the term motivation is a basic category in modern psychology and
ethology (Dessev, 1996). Biological motivation is regarded as a complex of

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compensatory reactions of animals to disturbances in their homeostasis, e.g.
thirst, hunger, breeding and parental behaviors, etc. (McFarland, 1985).
Psychological motivation is regarded as a “theoretical construct used to
explain the initiation, direction, intensity, persistence and quality of behavior,
especially goal directed behavior” (Brophy, 2004). It is caused by a number of
motives, such as needs, interests, desires, fears, emotions, attitudes, ideals and
values (Davidov, 1983). Each of these motives impels towards achieving
one’s desired or intended goals (Stamboliev, 1996). The boundaries between
affective (“feelings connoting emotional or visceral reactions”) and cognitive
(“thinking”) variables of motivation are considered to be “rather blurry”
(O’Neil & Drillings, 1994) though the two are very often contrasted. Certain
kinds of behavior are repeated if they remove stress and danger and are
assisted with positive feelings as “seeking pleasure is a reflex response built
into our genes for the preservation of the species” (Gilbert, 2002). Motivation
is a very complex phenomenon, playing a crucial role in learning, whose
different aspects are studied by many scholars. Some concentrate on
physiological basis of behavior (Maslow, 1943; Levine, 2000, pp. 41-94),
others look for the effects of educational motivation (Brophy, 2004); still
others study the mechanism of motivation (Gilbert, 2002; Graham, 1994).
Motivation is regarded as intrinsic or extrinsic (Schunk et al., 2008) affected
by goals, goal orientation and goal settings (Alderman, 2004), directed to
achievement and competence (Elliot & Dweck, 2005), essential for classroom
activities (Gilbert, 2002), dependant on attribution beliefs, social factors and
the social climate in the classroom (Alderman, 2004), etc.
The understanding of motivation is based on knowledge of motiva-
tional variables and task characteristics (O’Neil & Drillings, 1994), social
mediation of motivational variables (Rueda & Moll, 1994), cognitive control
of affective states (Schunk et al., 2008), praise versus blame and reflective
self-awareness (Graham, 1994), measures of motivation (McCombs, 1994),

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motivation of individuals in team teaching (Swezey et al., 1994) importance
of curiosity and exploration (Lehwald, 1991) and so on.
Snow & Jackson (1994) come to the conclusion that instructional
learning involves a mixture of cognition, conation and affection or of knowl-
edge, feelings and action. McCombs (1994) studies the role of volition in
motivation and proves the importance of persistence (the energy with which
an individual pursues a goal) and values (the significance of the goal that the
individual will pursue) as key constructs. Rueda &. Moll (1994) study the
interpersonal processes within which individual activity occurs. Pintrich
(1999) investigates the effect of motivation on self-regulated learning.
The importance of motivation in all aspects of human life and espe-
cially in education is the reason for such a great interest in it and for the many
theories proposed for its understanding. Based on clarification of motivation
from the studied literature, our search was directed to the effect of cognitive
motivation on students’ learning achievements in human biology by using a
word association test as the beginning followed by content analysis, concept
map construction and discussion.

Мethod
Often students are not internally motivated and need situated motiva-
tion, created by teachers through special environmental conditions in the
classroom. Such motivational conditions were created using word association
test. However, arousing motivation at the beginning of the studies is not suffi-
cient for successful learning; motivation should be sustained throughout the
whole course of the study. This problem was solved by succeeding word asso-
ciation test with the use of content analysis and concept map construction. The
three methods were used consecutively in the process of studying human biol-
ogy, followed by discussion.

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Participants
The sample of investigation involved 80 students in the 8th grade (the
end of middle school, 14-15 years old) and 40 students in the 12th grade (the
end of high school of secondary schools in Bulgaria). The investigation cov-
ered the 2006/2007 school year and was repeated during 2007/2008 school
year with students from two secondary schools in Sofia. The 12th grade stu-
dents participated in the word association test, not in the study of human biol-
ogy in which the content analysis and concept map construction methods were
used. They studied human biology when they were in the 8 th grade and
enlarged their knowledge of the human being in general biology courses and
in humanitarian and technological subjects in the 9th-12th grades. Through the
mental picture of a human being that was on top of their minds at the end of
secondary school later in life they would percept people they meet.
Comparing the mind maps of 12th grade and 8th grade students we wanted to
see the dimensions of development of the fundamental concept human being.
Variables: The 8th grade students were divided into three groups
(variables): B1 (20 students) – use of word associations for motivation; B2 (30
students) – use of word associations for motivation and demonstrations of
concept maps in teachers’ presentations; B3 (30 students) – use of word
associations, concept mapping by the students for homework, discussion and
concept maps improvement in the classroom (see procedure).

Instruments
Free word association test
This is a reliable technique used as a procedure for measuring number,
direction and strengths of connections (Novak & Govin, 1984; Mervis &
Rosh, 1981).
The ability of the brain to make associations and facilitate learning and
intellectual development has been studied and elucidated by many scientists.

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Some studied the nature of associations and the mechanisms of their building
by the brain (Bain, 1894; Pavlov, 1927). Others directed their investigations
to associative memory (Maki, 2007), associability (Suret & McLaren, 2005),
associative learning (Levine, 2000, pp. 41-94; Wills, 2005). Still others were
attracted by word association technique, cluster analysis and concept or mind
map construction in teaching (Smith & Heise, 1992; DiCarlo, 2006;
BouJaoude & Attieh, 2007), or by association of emotions and thinking (Field,
2005).
Free word association test requires responses that are not restricted to
any specific category or class of words. In tests of discrete word association,
each participant is asked to produce only a single associate to each word,
while in tests of continuous association, the stimulus word or the list of
stimulus words is presented to the respondents only once and they are asked to
give as many associations as they can in a pre-specified period of time.

Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a promising teaching and learning method that
enhances students’ achievements by helping them to acquire structured
knowledge. The human conceptual system is characterized by two main
concepts – category and schema (Smith & Heise, 1992; Mervis & Rosh,
1981). The visual representations of these concepts are concept maps (Novak
& Govin, 1984), mind maps (Buzan & Buzan, 1993), intellectual maps
(Kostova, 1998, 2000). Psychologists, like geneticists who map the genes,
map the connections among words which are learned as a result of everyday
experience (Nelson, 1996). Maps, especially concept maps, aid learning in all
subjects (BouJaoude & Attieh, 2008; DiCarlo, 2006; Smith & Heise, 1992;
Marzano, 1997; Suret & McLaren, 2005). In this activity several mental proc-
esses are involved: comparison, analysis, comprehension, model construction,
elaboration, retrieval, etc. (Bruner, 1960). Conceptual mapping organizes

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learning at the level of conceptualization in the sense of the theory of con-
structivism, the foundations of which were laid by Piaget (1951), (Pintrich,
1999; Rueda & Moll, 1994; Ducret, 2001).
Buzan & Buzan (1993) worked out the basic rules for successful con-
struction of mind maps, incorporating the use of the two hemispheres – logical
thinking and imagination. Marzano (1997) proposed different graphical organ-
izers for visual construction of concept maps. Zaller (1992) investigated the
dependence of word association test on information (knowledge) and predis-
position of the respondents. Word association test creates a stimulating envi-
ronment for concept mapping. Authors give different wording of a concept
map explanation: “a nonlinear diagrammatic representation of meaningful
relationships between concepts” (DiCarlo, 2006), “a mental model, a sche-
matic representation, which is a hierarchical structure from interconnected
words, ideas, problems, solutions, arranged around a key word in radial cir-
cles” (Buzan & Buzan, 1993). We stick to the definition of Buzan & Buzan
(1993) and use a concept map as a study tool.
The concept map can represent a structure of concepts, derived from a
textbook by means of content analysis or retrieved from the memory by means
of association test or brain storming (Novak & Govin, 1984). Concept maps
are used to enhance meaningful learning (DiCarlo, 2008) by providing “fix-
ture”, support, construction of interconnected scientific words (Suret &
McLaren, 2005; Bandura, 1997).

Procedure
First Step: Word association test with 12th grade students at the end of
school year 2005/2006 and concept map construction (all students).
Data collecting was done by requiring respondents to write associa-
tions with a given word. Each respondent was presented with a sheet of paper
and a pencil and was instructed to be ready to write his or her responses

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(words, phrases, ideas) that came to mind in the same succession as they ap-
peared when hearing a given word. That is, respondents wrote words coming
on top of their minds as driven by the stimulus. When told the words ‘human
being’, they began making their list for the duration of three minutes. The
papers were collected, analyzed (Table 1), concept maps were constructed
(Fig.1) using the students' associations with the key word according to chosen
criteria. Thus a picture of a ‘human being’ as seen by 12 th grade students was
constructed around chosen criteria.

Physiology Ethology
Genetics

Anatomy Ethics

Ontogeny Didactics

1. Origin Human being Civilization

14. Philosophy Sociology

Economy Psychology Culture

Fig 1. A simplified model of the concept map of 12th grade students’
associations

Second step: Word association test, concept mapping and discussion
(Groups B1, B2 and B3) at the beginning of school year 2006/2007.
The stimulus words, ‘human being’, were presented to the target group
(the three variables of 8th grade students: B1 – 20, B2 – 30 and B3 – 30) at the
beginning of the school year in the biology classrooms of three classes. This
was at the first school period of studying the course in human biology, mainly
concerned with human anatomy, physiology and hygiene. Students had stud-
ied some aspects of the human body in the previous seven grades. Papers were

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collected and a concept map for each class of 8th grade students was con-
structed and visualized. The concept maps of 8th grades were simpler, each not
more than 25-30 associations (Table 1).

Table 1. Classification of 12th grade (first figure) and 8th grade (second figure)
students’ associations with the stimulus word Human being. (No denotes the
number of words; figures in brackets denote the repetition number of the
word)

Criteria % No Examples
12th grade 8th grade
1. Origin and evolu- 11/ 8.8 34/8 Struggle for existence, living thing (5),
tion natural selection, animal kingdom,
living thing (4), mammals
adaptation, survival, biologi-
cal
species (5), living system,
animal kingdom,
mammals (2),
monkeys, apes, hominoids,
Homo sapiens (6),
paleontology, anthropology,
history, races,
superior creature (3), evolu-
tion
2. Individual devel- 4.5/ 9.9 14/9 Man, woman, fertilization, Man, woman,
opment pregnancy, child, growth,
birth, growth, pregnancy birth,
embryo, child, young, young, adult, death
youth, adolescent,
puberty, adult, death
3. Anatomy 8.7/ 16.4 27/15 Complex structure, cell, Cellular structure,
cellular structure, tissues, organs (4),
tissues, organs (4), systems, limbs,
systems, locomotion lungs, stomach (3),
system, kidneys, sex or-
limbs, skeleton, gans,
cranium, cardio-vascular nerves
system, respiratory system,
alimentary system,
excretory system,
reproductive system (2),
nervous system (3),
endocrine system,
sensory systems, high func-
tions
of the nervous system,
brain (2)
4. Physiology 10.6/ 33/16 Living processes, nutrition Nutrition (4),
17.5 (2), respiration, excre-
respiration (2), tion,
excretion (2), reproduction, reproduction,
growth, development, irrita- growth,

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bility, movement (3),
movement (3), memory (logi- health (5)
cal,
visual, short-term memory,
long-term memory), thinking,
sleeping, dreams, homeosta-
sis
(temperature, mineral salts,
osmotic pressure,
hormones, glucose), health (5)
5. Ethology 5.8/ 4.4 18/4 Values, behavior (in nature, Behavior, collabo-
in school, in nature), ration,
collaboration, tolerance, cruelty, smile
ethical behavior, respect,
care, relationships between
men and women, with
other people, maternity,
playing, cruelty,
killer, smile,
self-destruction
6. Genetics 3.8/ 0 12 Generation, up-bringing,
genetic engineering,
heredity, variation, gene,
dominance, dominant,
recessive, karyogram,
hereditary diseases, therapy
7. Ethics 14.5/ 12 45/11 Values, respect of adults, Beautiful, honest,
moral, open-minded, strong, good, bad,
caring, gentle, ugly, selfish, un-
good-natured, responsible, just,
beautiful, learned, optimistic, unpleasant, cow-
dedicated, honest, ard,
amiable, wise, creative, aggressive
experimenter,
ambitious, innovator,
strong, researcher,
hard working, good,
willful, ready to help,
bad, obstinate, lazy,
idiot, ugly, evil, egoist,
dishonest, cynical,
distrustful, selfish,
narrow-minded,
unjust, unpleasant,
coward, hypocrite, prudent,
pompous, irresponsible,
aggressive
8. Didactics, peda- 6.5/ 5.6 20/5 Upbringing, family, Family, text-book,
gogy parents, text-book, encyclopedia,
encyclopedia, human teachers,
rights, history, school
humanity, development,
culture, nursery, school,
university, teachers,
terrorism, genocide,
democracy, anarchy,
despotism, pressure
9. Civilization 8.4/ 6.6 26/6 Society, history (old, new), War (2), plants,

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ancient, contemporary, animals, food,
struggle for freedom, goods
war, state
(democratic, social),
government (2),
technology, independence,
equality, victim, information,
technique, modeling,
internet, destruction of
nature, plants, animals,
food, goods
10. Sociology 5.5/ 6.6 17/6 Humanity, society, people, People, home,
overpopulation, feeding, work,
feeding, dependence, unemployment,
home, family, work poverty
(job), social creature,
thinking being, rich,
poor, survival,
unemployment, poverty
11. Culture 5.2/ 5.6 16/5 Music, art, religion, Music, art,
God, reading, writing, studying (3)
language, alphabet,
experience, science,
writer, profession (3),
novelist, studying
12. Psychology 9.4/ 4.4 29/4 Psyche, sense, wisdom, Stupidity, wit,
soul, stupidity, Cleverness,
intellect, thinking (6), speech
cleverness,
consciousness,
anxiety, emotions,
feelings, mind, mistake,
wit, fear,
help, speech, communication,
stress, distress,
pleasure, enjoyment,
realization
13. Economy 1.6/ 1.1 5/1 Industry, agriculture, Money
budget, financial
policy, money
14. Philosophy, 4.5/ 1.1 14/1 Micro-cosmos, Environment
Aesthetics conscience, consciousness (3),
sensibility (5), world,
environment,
beautiful, ugly,
Total 100/ 100 310/91 Average = 7.75 Average = 1.14

For a comparison, the concept map of 12th grade students was pre-
sented and then discussed (Table 2). The discussion directed students towards
formulation of a hypothesis about the expected benefit from studying human
biology.

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Table 2. Discussion on the results from the word association test

Questions Shortened answers
1. How do the two mind maps of They differ in scope and range. 12th grade
12th grade and 8th grade students students show broader understanding
differ? and conceptualization
of a human being.
2. What are the reasons for the Knowledge and experience of 12th grade
difference? students are higher.
3. Can biology give all the No. Many branches of science study human
answers concerning human beings? beings (more than 48).
4. What major aspects of a About the origin, structures, functions, and
human being should be studied in hygiene of the human body and the healthy
a course of human biology? way of life as well as regulation,
integration and responsible behavior.
5. What one might gain Knowledge and competences to
from studying human biology? understand the human body,
be healthy and control behavior.

Third step: Studying the introductory lesson to Human biology with
the help of content analysis, concept mapping and discussion (Group B1, B2
and B3).
Students in B1 formed four groups of five persons each. The text of the
lesson was divided into four paragraphs, one for each group, and ten minutes
were given to read and five minutes to discuss and clarify the information
between them. They used content analysis but not concept structuring. One
member of each group had to explain the studied paragraph and the other
members listened carefully and corrected or added points they thought were
missing. At the end of the period the teacher then drew their attention to mis-
understandings and wrong interpretations.
Students in B2 were given a lecture by the teacher using a concept map
(Fig 2), stopping after each paragraph and directing them to the textbook.
They were asked to find the correspondence between map and paragraph and
write down the concepts, explained by the teacher. Guided in this way they
followed first the map, then the explanations and finally the textbook.

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Structure:
Food, cells, Functions: movement, transport,
shelter, clean Education, job, tissues, respiration, digestion, excretion,
air, water, culture, income, organs, reproduction, growth, development,
etc. etc. systems regulation

Basic human
Biological 3. Human anatomy
4. Human physiology
2. Needs
Natural
origin, place
1. Evolution Human being 5. Human hygiene
in the
Animal
kingdom 7. New sciences: knowl- 6. Intellectual Principles and life
edge and understanding, development: styles that keep
methods and technique for knowledge, healthy all systems
studying man skills, competen- and functions
cies

Fig 2. A generalized concept map on the introductory lesson to Human biol-
ogy, presented by the teacher in G2.

Students in B3 read quickly trough the text, determined the core con-
cept and then with help from the teacher, scanned each paragraph, clarified the
concepts, and structured them into a concept map. Then they compared it with
the teacher's concept map (Fig 2). A discussion followed to correct students'
maps and to enrich each concept with the information added by the teacher.
Students' attention was drawn to the associations for a comparison (Fig 1,
Table 1). The conclusion they reached from the comparison was that the stud-
ies to follow would intend to fill in the gap between the concept map of the
introductory lesson and that of 12th grade students' associations helping them
understand themselves and others better and keep a healthy life style. This
step acquainted students with concept mapping and structuring. It was fol-
lowed by discussion (Table 3).

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Table 3. Discussion on the concept map of the Introduction

Questions Shortened answers
1. What are the arguments for The similarities in the structure and functions of the bodies
the natural origin of man? of animals and human beings.
2. What are the arguments for Man can study nature and the whole surrounding world
the uniqueness of man? including him and can develop values and action plans.
3. What interrelated sciences Human biology (anatomy, physiology, hygiene, etc.), psy-
give knowledge of man? chology, cognitive sciences, technology, medicine, etc.
4. What relations between Between: biological and basic human needs, evolution and
concepts are missing? new sciences, etc.
5. What conclusions from the The human being is an interrelated entity of structures,
map can you draw? functions, behavior, emotions and ambitions. He is a unique
creature.

Fourth step: Analysis and concept mapping of the topic “The Cell” in
the textbook (Group B3).
Students in B3 worked in small groups of two, read the information in
the textbook; wrote the concepts in the workbooks and constructed maps (Fig.
3).

EPR, Golgy bodies, mitochon- Pores – transport, chro-
Cytoplasm

Information, dria, ribosomes, lysosomes, cell mosomes, genes –
transport, centre, inclusion bodies heredity, control of cell
protection functions

Cell membrane &
cell receptors 2. Structures and their functions 3. Nucleus

Shap, size 1. Morphology Cells 4. Cell division Mitosis and amito-
sis (as an exception)
6.Definition
5. Cell differentiation
The smallest structural and
functional unit of the organ- Cell functions Different types of tissues:
ism. in the body epithelial, connective, muscu-
lar and nervous

Fig 3. Concept map of the topic”The Cell”. There are 32 concepts in
the textbook

Following this, a discussion was initiated for clarifying the core con-
cept, the hierarchy of concepts and the connections between them. Each group

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participated in the discussion which consisted of presenting its results in ana-
lyzing/listing the cognitive structure, making the necessary corrections and
reaching more or less a consensus about the concept map structure. All con-
cepts in the map were explained and visualized. Groups B1 and B2 continued
to work as in the third step.
Fifth step: Analysis and concept mapping of the topic “The Human
skeleton and the bones” (Group B3).
Work was divided between home and classroom. Work at home: Each
student read the text in the textbook, underlined the concepts and constructed
a concept map. 2. Work in the classroom: A class discussion based upon pre-
pared questions and directed by the teacher, led to the construction of a con-
sensus concept map and clarification of concepts (Fig 4)

Connective ®
Long, short and Girdles (shoulder,
cartilaginous ® bone
Classification

Development

flat bones pelvic), free
extremities (upper
In length & skull, chest, and lower)
Bone lamellae, in girth backbone
compact and
spongy bone,
bone marrow, Axial Appendicular
Growth
periosteum
2. Parts of the
1. Bones The skeleton Immovable
Structure human
skeleton Semimovable
Tissues:
Composition: bone, 3. Compared Connections
mineral salts, to vertebrate between Movable:
fibrous, joints
organic cartilagi- skeleton bones
substance nous

Fig 4. A concept map of the topic ‘The Human Skeleton’

Some students illustrated their concept maps with drawings, using
Paint Brush or colored pencils of their choice. The concept map helped stu-
dents in making associations and remembering the structured information,
which was evident from their participation in the studies and discussions to
follow. Groups B1 and B2 continued to work as in the third step.

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Sixth step: Successive studies of the topics in the course “Human Biol-
ogy” using content analysis, concept map construction and discussion. In the
discussion on the bases of the concept maps, connections with other branches
of science were made (Table 4).

Table 4. Concept maps constructed throughout the course on Human biology,
elaborated by the students in B3 and demonstrated by the teacher to B2 (No –
number of concepts in each topic)

Concept maps on topics: No Connections with other sciences

1. Locomotive system 55 Evolution, history, taxonomy, technology,
chemistry, ethics
2. Cardio-vascular system 48 Medicine, evolution, environment,
healthy way of life, ethics
3. Respiratory system 21 Evolution, medicine, physics
(diffusion) , chemistry (gases)
4. Alimentary system 42 Evolution, medicine, food, technology,
trade, dentistry, diet, alcohol and
tobacco trade, etc.
5. Excretory system and 22 Evolution, medicine,
Homeostasis technology, cosmetics, fashion, homeostasis, physics,
(temperature regulation), etc.
6. Reproductive system and 45 Evolution, medicine, birth control, demography,
Development ontology, gerontology, ethology,
ethics, sexual abuse, culture, etc.
7. Nervous system 48 Evolution, medicine, drugs,
addiction, psychology, cognitive science,
ethology, etc.
8. Endocrine system 38 Evolution, medicine, individual development,
anabolic steroids, aggression, etc.
9. Sensory systems 60 Evolution, medicine, internet, information sciences,
visualization, ethology, ethics, etc.
10. Higher functions of the 16 Psychology, didactics, pedagogy, cognition, medi-
Nervous system cine,
ethics, philosophy, media, computer, physics
(sound and noise), etc.
Total: 395; Human anatomy: 210; Human physiology: 120; Human hygiene: 65

The concept map of each chapter integrated scientific concepts of all
topics in it, which helped the associative learning and long-term memory.
Groups B1 and B2 continued to work as in the third step.

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Evaluation instruments
Observation and assessment of students’ learning behavior
The learning behavior of students in the three learning conditions was
assessed and evaluated using predetermined five criteria included in a spe-
cially constructed checklist: responsibility, attention, activity, persistence and
valuing of tasks. Assessment of responsibility was based on positive attitude
to and in-time solution of learning tasks (Schunk et al., 2008) and personal
desire for success (Elliot & Dweck, 2005). Attention was assessed on the
grounds of: focus on tasks, desire for competence (Elliot & Dweck, 2005),
enjoyment and willingness to engage in learning activities (Deci & Ryan,
1995; Wright, 1987), intention of acquiring knowledge and self-satisfaction of
curiosity (Maslow, 1943). The characteristics of activity were: engagement in
productive work and supporting the motivational climate in the classroom
(Marzano, 1997), competence in concrete learning actions, collaboration and
effective communication (Brophy, 2004). Persistence was regarded as: need
in achieving goals (Maslow, 1943), seeking competence (Elliot & Dweck,
2005), perseverance and self-regulation in pursuing the task to the end
(Artino, 2008; Bandura, 1997), esteem needs and confidence in ones ability
(Maslow, 1943). Valuing of tasks was assessed on the grounds of learning
behaviors, such as: valuing outcomes (a grade on a product – test, map, effec-
tive participation in discussion), intended learning benefits (conscious compe-
tence) (Guilbert, 2002; Nelson, 1996), satisfying the competence need (Field,
2005), and creative self-expression (Maslow, 1943). Each criterion was as-
sessed, a personal quotient was estimated and the results were converted into
marks using a scale in order to be comparable with the results from tests and
concept maps evaluation. Marking was done using six-point scale from 1 – the
lowest to 6 – the highest (Table 5).

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Concept map scoring rubric
The concept map is radial, spatial, with increasing concentric circles
from groups of words, coming out from a central key word or words as a
structure by means of subordination (Buzan & Buzan, 1993).
The skills and competences of students in concept map construction
were assessed using six criteria included in a checklist and arranged in levels
according to successive actions and difficulty. 1) Core concept correctly cho-
sen: After reading and analyzing the text, the students identified the main con-
cept (clarified by all other concepts), and placed it at the centre of the map. In
some cases they used more than one core concept at the center of the map. For
example in the concept map on human excretory system they used two core
concepts – kidneys and skin, and made two clusters of concepts on the map. 2)
All concepts correctly chosen and included in the map: Students had to find
out the concepts, pertaining to core concept and the topic, explained in the text
and clarifying the main ideas. They retrieved the concepts from the studied
text but not from a given list of words (BouJaoude & Attieh, 2008) and ar-
ranged them in a map. This they did by reading, copying the concepts in the
workbooks and trying to understand the meaningful connections between
them. 3) Concept hierarchy correct: Around the core concept students ar-
ranged the auxiliary concepts directly connected with it, in the first circle.
They gave a sign of the beginning of the circle (for example, Fig 2, “1. Evolu-
tion”), which corresponded to the first paragraph of the text. Then they ar-
ranged the concepts usually clockwise, thus indicating how the map should be
read. Some students (very few) arranged the concepts in the opposite direc-
tion, which was also considered correct. After that they arranged the concepts
of the second circle, which clarified the concepts in the first circle and so on.
4) Connections correct: Using arrows, students showed connections between
concepts. The direction of the arrows indicated causal direction of influence
and logical structure of the concept map. This is the heuristic value of the

79

map. The map as a tool of visual construction helped them discover the links
of concepts in a unified conceptual structure. 5) Successive structure accord-
ing to text correct: this was accomplished by careful reading and comprehen-
sion of the information in the text by comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstrac-
tion, generalization. The development of the map corresponded to the logic of
the discussed main scientific problem. 6) Aesthetical visualization: the signs
by means of which the map attracted attention – letters, arrangement, graphic
organizers, illustrations, drawings, pictures, etc. Students were warned not to
overburden the maps, but to make them readable and useful in facilitating text
understanding and comprehension (A picture is worth thousand words). Each
criterion was assessed and an individual scoring was devised. According to a
scale, each student achieved a mark from one to six, thus individual concept
map mean scorings were obtained. On the bases of individual mean scorings
the total mean of each group was calculated (Table 6).

Biology achievement tests
Pretest (Appendix 1) and Posttest (Appendix 2) were used to measure
students’ achievements. Each test contained 30 items (5 items for each level
of Bloom (1969) Taxonomy of educational objectives. The characteristics of
the tests were assessed (Table 7) and the items having unreliable characteris-
tics discarded. The pretest was applied at the beginning of the course and the
posttest – at the end. The two tests were given to the three variables under the
same conditions. The results were assessed for each level of Bloom’s taxon-
omy (Table 8).

Results and interpretations
Associations with the words ‘human being’
The stimulus words ‘human being’ evoked lots of connections to other
words. The total number of them was 310 and the average number of associa-

80

tions per a 12th grade student was 7.75 (Table 1, Fig. 1). The total number of
associations for 8th grade students was 91 and the average number 1.14. All
students responded to the test according to their individual flexibility of re-
membering, knowledge and type of memory. Some students started to write at
once, others were delayed with the response. The reason probably was the
very complex meaning of the stimulus word, discussed in many school sub-
jects – biology, history, geography, psychology, philosophy, technology, etc.
The analysis of concept maps of 12th grade and 8th grade students
based on their associations is represented in Figs 5 - 7.

Associations to Human being

50
45
40
No of associations

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Criteria
Series1 Series2

Fig. 5. Number of associations to the stimulus words ‘human being’: series
1. 12th grade; series 2. 8th grade; Criterion 15 – average of the associations of
12th and 8th grade students

81

Percentage distribution of associations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Fig 6. Percentage distribution of associations of 12th grade students

1
Percentage distribution of associations
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Fig 7. Percentage distribution of associations of 8th grade students (There no
associations with genetics – No 6)

82

The word association test shows the different pictures of a human be-
ing of high school and middle school students. High school students value
personal characteristics, moral aspects of human behavior, relation to and
treatment of others. These characteristics of human beings are dominant in
their associations. Second place occupy associations with the natural origin,
dominated by living nature and sensibility of human beings, then follow asso-
ciations with physiology and civilization aspects.
Middle school students remember better the physiological and ana-
tomical aspects, followed by moral characteristics, individual development
and natural origin. Those aspects predominate in the textbooks. They did not
show any association with genetics. Comparison with high school students
showed them an attainable perspective, awakened their need of competence
and made learning goals personally relevant.

Content analysis, concept map construction and discussion
The concept map of the introductory lesson made by students in B3
and corrected by the teacher (Fig 2) and the discussion that followed (Table
3), directed them to the forthcoming studies, outlined the boundaries and limi-
tations of the course and stressed the necessity to relate biology studies with
those of other school subjects for better understanding of human beings.
The same was repeated with the second lesson, discussing the cell
structure (Fig 3). It is a basic lesson in human biology. The map was con-
structed around the main cell characteristics – external appearance under a
microscope, structure, cell division and cell differentiation. Definition was
formulated as a generalization based on discussion. Working in groups of two
was beneficial for developing students’ abilities to interact and to pursue team
goals (Swezey et al., 1994). Communication within the groups and in the class
discussion was beneficial for overcoming the difficulties in studying abstract
and complex science concepts. Integrating them into well structured cognitive

83

framework facilitated students’ learning and improved their self-confidence
(Schunk et al., 2008).
In the lesson “Human skeleton and the bones” 55 biological terms
were counted. Students did their best to make a map (Fig 4). After making the
first drafts some of them gathered and tried to overcome the difficulties and
distinguish between essential and non-essential terms in studies, between main
and subordinate knowledge. The preparatory work insured their competence
in the classroom discussion, in making decisions and in correcting misunder-
standings. They compared their concept maps and by reflection and self-
reflection learned not only from the textbook and the teacher, but also from
one another. Each concept on the map was explained by students’ presenta-
tions. Misunderstandings were corrected by the teacher (Suret & McLaren,
2005). Some students used additional resources besides the textbook: atlases
of the human body, internet images, models, etc. In the classroom discussion a
plastic model of the human skeleton was used to help students get better im-
pressions of the subject of study (Smith & Heise, 1992; DiCarlo, 2006).
Each student in B3 prepared a portfolio with the concept maps and
used them in making a quick revision at the end of a given chapter (Table 4)
and the school year. With each map they improved their skills for content
analysis and concept construction. This gave them satisfaction and developed
their self-esteem (Deci & Ryan, 1995; Novak & Govin, 1984). Students were
motivated to learn by their success in learning. There were about 395 scien-
tific concepts in the textbook, 5 new concepts per school learning period,
which were not evenly distributed because of time allocated to practical work,
revision, examination, project development, etc. Anatomical concepts pre-
dominated over those of physiology and hygiene. This ratio was not quite sat-
isfactory.
Concept maps, used as demonstrations by the teacher gave students
structured knowledge and a model of studying and memorizing (Suret &

84

McLaren, 2005). Some students in B2 decided to imitate the teacher and made
concept maps while studying the lessons at home. The teacher’s model maps
attracted their attention, increased their curiosity, engaged them in active
learning and stimulated their willful efforts in higher achievements (Graham,
1994). That explains the better results in B2 than in B1. In the latter students
were given only a hint for the benefit from concept mapping. Very few stu-
dents episodically tried concept mapping and seeing the difficulties easily
gave up. That helped them understand the reasons for lack of persistence. The
new method of learning in B3 challenged students, lifted the veil of monotony
and lack of action and opened new horizons for intellectual development.
Gradually the motivation from outside turned into motivation from inside as
competence, positive thinking, enjoyment and self-confidence increased.
The behavior of the students in the classroom was significantly modi-
fied by the teaching methods (Table 5). What students did in class was con-
sidered valuable by many of them. Students liked to finish the school period
with concrete visible products (Ormrod, 2003; Gilbert, 2002; Graham, 1994).

Table 5. Evaluation of students learning behavior in the classroom

Criteria B1 B2 B3
1. Responsibility to learning tasks 3 4 5
2. Attention concentration 4 4 5
3. Activity 2 3 6
4. Persistence 2 4 5
5. Valuing of tasks 3 4 5
Mean 2.8 3.8 5.2

Skills in concept mapping developed gradually (Suret & McLaren,
2005). The difference in competency between B1 and B2 is higher than that
between B2 and B3 (Table 6). Teacher’s concept maps did make a difference

85

and challenged the students to successful learning. They were not only listen-
ing but also looking, thinking, connecting, comparing, asking questions, mak-
ing notes and comprehending. The models set by the teacher were valuable
and stimulating (Fig 8). Concept mapping proved to be a difficult endeavor
and not accepted by everyone (McInerney, 2000). Most of the students were
eager to start and do it, to be active in their learning process. They improved
their reading and comprehension abilities and were fascinated preparing com-
puter models. Self perception of ability worked as a strong intrinsic motiva-
tional force. Few others were not so eager and preferred the old way of learn-
ing.

Table 6. Evaluation of concept mapping skills as shown by the mean value

Level Criteria /Mean value of each variable B1 B2 B3
I Core concept (concepts) correctly chosen 2.25 3.98 5.32
II All concepts correctly underlined and included 2.05 3.95 5.12
in the map
III Concept hierarchy correct (1st, 2nd, 3rd circle 1.85 3.86 4.45
around the core)
IV Connections correct (pointed by arrows) 1.60 3.79 4.40
V Successive structure according to text correct 1.20 3.40 4.85
(clockwise)
VI Aesthetically visualized with illustrations 3.10 3.39 4.35
Mean 2.01 3.73 4.74

86

Concept mapping evaluation

6

5

4
Mean

3

2

1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Criteria
Series1 Series2 Series3

Fig 8. Graphical presentation of students mapping achievements: series 1
(B1), series 2 (b2), series 3 (B3); criterion 7 – mean value for each variable.

Results from achievement tests confirmed the results from observation
and maps evaluation. First the psychometric characteristics of tests were as-
sessed and inappropriate items rejected (Table 7). The difficulty of each item
of the two tests was assessed. The range of difficulty is between 0.45 and
0.72, which means that the items of the pretest are with moderate difficulty,
nearer to the range of the easy items. The same is true for the items of the
posttest but they are less easy than those of the pretest (range between 0.50
and 0.62). Discrimination of pretest ranges between 0.35 and 0.50 (high dis-
crimination, and of the post test it ranges between 0.40 and 0.65 (high dis-
crimination). There are some items with moderate discriminative value. The
pretest has high reliability, but the reliability of the posttest is questionable,
near the high. The validity of both pretest and posttest is high which means
that the two tests measure what they are intended to measure.

87

Table 7. Assessment of psychometric characteristics of tests

Reliability (R) Validity (Vc) Difficulty (P) Discrimination (D)

Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest Pretest Post-
test
0.85 0. 78 0.85 0.79 0.61 0.52 0.42 0.53

Concept maps improved achievement at the level of analysis and syn-
thesis and at the level of evaluation, i.e. they stimulated the development of
higher order thinking skills. Students could memorize using other learning
skills, but discovering connections and cause and effect relationships was very
well helped by mapping and discussion (Table 8, Fig 9).
Group work and discussions stimulated reflective self-awareness of
each student and lifted performance at a higher level. Achieving educational
goals satisfied learning motives (Fig 10).

Table 8. Means of achievement tests of the variables

Levels Pretest Posttest
B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3
Knowledge 3.60 3.46 3.55 4.50 5.40 5.60
Understanding 3.45 3.35 3.48 4.35 5.10 5.35
Application 3.29 3.25 3.15 4.28 4.85 5.15
Analysis 3.18 3.10 2.93 3.50 4.65 4.95
Synthesis 2.95 2.85 2.82 3.30 3.90 4.65
Evaluation 2.65 2.30 2.16 3.25 3.60 4.28
Mean 3.18 3.05 3.02 3.86 4.58 4.99

88

Achievement of students

6

5
Mean value

4

3

2

1

0
1 2 3 4 5 6

Bloom''s levels Series1 Series2 Series3

Fig 9. Levels of students’ achievements: knowledge, understanding, applica-
tion, analysis, synthesis, evaluation.

The successive use of word association test, content analysis, concept
construction and discussion in the classroom ensured effective learning, moti-
vated and stimulated students to enrich their spare time at home with mean-
ingful work. Discussion and improvement of concept maps in the classroom
helped students to correct their misunderstandings before they have memo-
rized them as wrong (Table 9). Collaboration in team work was beneficial for
drawing a clear picture and incorporating new knowledge.

Table 9. Comparative results from tests, observation and map evaluation

Variables N Pretest Posttest Observation Map Evaluation Mean
B1 20 3.18 3.86 2.8 2.01 2.89
B2 30 3.05 4.58 3.8 3.73 4.04
B3 30 3.02 4.99 5.2 4.74 4.98

89

Achievement Test Results

6

5

4
Mean

3

2

1

0
1 2 3
Variables
Series1 Series2

Fig 10. Graphical presentation of students’ achievements: series 1 (Pretest),
series 2 (Posttest) Variables: B1, B2, B3

Conclusions
The continuous word association test, combined with concept map-
ping and discussion, as applied in this study was successful in revealing the
conceptual structures of 12th and 8th grade students to the stimulus words ‘hu-
man being’. The concept maps were discussed with students in order to draw
inferences about their knowledge and about the importance of the forthcoming
studies in the new course Human biology in the 8th grade. The discussion
awakened students’ desire to learn more about themselves and other human
beings. Such maps enhanced concept clarification and cognitive motivation.
Although the response terms given by the participants varied at some aspects,
areas of similarity emerged, and with little exceptions the criteria for the asso-
ciations were covered. The target groups showed good informational orienta-
tion, concerning the stimulus word and responsibility in answering the test.

90

The investigation revealed the difference in the disposition of the target
groups, the connection between concepts and feelings and the role of educa-
tion in concept and intellectual development. Associative processes took place
at different levels of learning. They were those processes that lead to the de-
velopment and maintenance of cognitive connections (associations) between
events, behaviors, feelings, thoughts, visual images, etc.
The word presented to the target people acted as a stimulus activating
the memory and extracting the associated with it words which were on the top
of their minds (Zaller, 1992). A dynamic associative structure was created in
memory that involved representations of the words themselves as well as con-
nections to other words. This structure of scientific terms played a crucial role
in any task involving familiar words. Students could not create and retrieve
representations involving familiar words, without relying on pre-existing as-
sociative structures created as a result of past experience. Thus the word asso-
ciation test was of benefit as a tool, used to reveal scientific conceptual struc-
tures.
Constructing concept (intellectual) maps systematically throughout the
whole course of study in Human biology was a useful teaching and learning
method for motivating, systematizing and organizing not only the concepts
under study, but also the already learned concepts. It created a context for
incorporation of new knowledge, for reconstruction of already acquired cogni-
tive knowledge and experience (Bruner, 1960), and for building a new system
of meanings of the studied object (Vigotsky, 1982-1984) as a conscious ten-
dency to achievement.
There was a difference between the ways and the duration concept
maps were used as study tools. Best achievement was accomplished in the
variable (B3) in which students constructed concept maps throughout the
school year. In doing that they acquired skills to study accurately, to think and
rethink the studied information and to conceptualize it on a higher level (Mar-

91

zano, 1997). In the process of studying their attitude to learning changed and
became more intellectually involving and satisfying (Field, 2005; Lehwald,
1991). The produced portfolio of concept maps of the studied topics on human
biology was of great help to students in making a revision of the different
chapters and the whole course. Thus the results of the word association test,
content analysis and the concept mapping were used for constructing scientific
knowledge and for learning associations in a conscious, intentional and effort-
ful way (Wills, 2005). Concept mapping in each topic of human biology
helped students brush up and organize their knowledge in a constructive
hierarchical way (Smith & Heise, 1992; Swezey et al., 1994). This activity,
done as homework, followed by discussion and elaboration in the classroom,
directed students’ behavior towards cognitive goals, increased effort and
persistence in learning and improved their performance (Ormrod, 2003).
Students not only learned the subject material, but they also learned how to
learn. Active learning combined ability and effort and increased their efficacy
(Bandura, 1986).
The good and structured representation of Human biology concepts in
the teacher’ concept maps in B2, attracted attention, directed students to cog-
nitive goals and facilitated their learning. With the aid of the concept maps,
associations were classified, structured, visualized and logical connections
between them determined. A compact, wholesome and generalized picture of
the key concepts was created, that facilitated learning, memorizing and re-
membering. The mind seeks clarity and completion and the map as a whole-
some picture stimulated the “discovery” of new links between concepts, the
generation of new ideas and enhanced its own improvement. Besides that, the
association maps stimulated reflection and self-reflection and enhanced stud-
ies of the key concepts, using other sources besides the textbook.
Word association test motivated students in B1 too, but their motiva-
tion was not sustained after that and gradually faded. That brought us to the

92

conclusion that motivation should be constantly cared for and sustained in the
classroom.
The methods – word association test, content analysis, concept map
construction and discussion could be used successfully together in teaching,
learning and evaluation in human biology education and in other school sub-
jects. Applying them in school practice made students think of human biology
as an interesting subject within their intellectual abilities.
This teaching strategy was very rewarding but it did consume much
time and effort which students were not always able to spare. Science concep-
tual structures depend both on science education and culture of the community
in which students grow and develop, including the climate and culture within
the schools themselves. They are not the result of studying only one subject
but integrate studies in all subjects with their everyday experience. Thus if
successful learning strategy is employed in more than one branch of studies,
achievements will greatly increase as well as self-regulation and self-control.

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APPENDIX A
Achievement Pretest (Examples)
1. Which cellular constituent is the carrier of heredity?
a) ribosome
b| cellular centre
c) nucleus
d) lysosome
For 2 and 3 correct can be one or more answers. Choose:
a) 1, 2 and 3;
b) 1 and 4
c) 2 and 4
d) All of the above are true
2. For ribosome is true:
1) They are compact oval bodies
2) They can be seen only with electron microscope
3) They contain RNA and ribosome proteins
4) They are organelles only of eukaryotic cells
3. For vitamin D is true:
1) It is synthesized in the colon from bacteria
2) It is synthesized in the skin in the presence of sunlight
3) Its absence leads to damage of calcium and iron metabolism
4) It is taken with food

4. Which connective tissue is characterized with deposition of calcium and
phosphorous salts of large quantity?
a) bone b) cartilaginous c) loose reticular d) compact reticular
5. Movable connection by means of joints is between the bones of:
a) pelvis b) humerus and scapula c) ribs and breastbone d) the skull
6. In the process of growth the long bones loose:
a) compact bone b) spongy bone c) yellow bone marrow d) red bone
marrow
Correct answers: 1c, 2a, 3c, 4a, 5b, 6d

APPENDIX B
Achievement Posttest (Examples)
1. What is the name of the organ, taking part in the airways of the respiratory
system and has three parts?
a) Larynx b) Trachea c) Pharynx d) Epiglottis

97

For 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 correct can be one or more answers. Choose:
a) 1, 2 and 3;
b) 1 and 3
c) 4
d) All of the above are true
2. Which is true for the chest?
1. It takes part in the ventilation of lungs
2. Its volume can increase and decrease
3. It protects the lungs and the other organs in the chest cavity
4. It is connected to nasal and mouth cavity and the larynx by means of
three parts
3. For the alveoli it is not true:
1) They are made up of one layer of epithelial cells
2. They are the end parts of the bronchial tree
3. They are constituents of the lungs
4) Their total surface is about 200 m2
4. Chemoreceptors taking part in breathing regulation are:
1) In close contact with blood
2) Sensitive to increased concentration of CO2 in the blood
3) Sensitive to increased concentration of O2 in the blood
4) Send impulses to the respiratory centre along nerves
5. The exchange of gases O2 and CO2 takes place in:
1. The tissues of the organism
2. The upper airways
3. Lungs
5. The lower airways
6. Direct and indirect effects of nicotine on the respiratory system are:
1. Accumulation of mucus and obstruction of bronchi
2. Inhibition of the movement of respiratory cilia
3. Repeated lung infections
4. Lung cancer
Correct answers: 1c, 2a, 3c, 4d, 5b, 6d

* Dr. Zdravka Kostova, DSc,
Department of Information and In-service Training,
University of Sofia,
224, Tzar Boris III Blvd., Sofia, BULGARIA
E-Mail: zdravkakostova@yahoo.com

* Blagovesta Radoynovska,
New Bulgarian University,
21, Montevideo Str., 1618 Sofia, BULGARIA
E-Mail: blagovesta_k@yahoo.com

98

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