![Quantum Blockchain Approach
for Security Enhancement in Cyberworld
Snigdha Kashyap, Bharat Bhushan, Avinash Kumar, and Parma Nand
Abstract Quantum technology is an asset for digitisation and the cyberrealm. It
aims at designing faster and more advanced solutions to present-day problem state-
ments. Blockchain is a decentralised structure and thus lacks a supervisory authority
to monitor it. Hence, it is important to imbibe security in blockchain when we are
specifically moving towards quantum development. While dealing with blockchain,
quantum technology enables faster transactions and quantum cryptosystems and
devices can safeguard security into the blockchain systems as well. Thus, the paper
focuses on discussing approaches to implement blockchain within quantum cryp-
tosystemsalongwithquantumcryptography.Thepaperdiscussestheattackscompro-
mising the classical or quantum security and mechanisms proposed to counter the
attacks. The prime focus of the paper is to discuss security implementations and
methods in the quantum domain and contribute to quantum cryptography in the
blockchain.
Keywords Quantum cryptography · Cybersecurity · Blockchain · Cryptosystem ·
Quantum key distribution · Man-in-the-middle · Side-channel attack · Photons
1 Introduction
Blockchain technology is the present and the future of the computer science domain.
The advent of digital currency and online transactions have led blockchain to rise
and develop at a rapid rate. Blockchain deals with transactions and highly sensitive
data or information processing and storage, as well as, it is based on a decentralised
network with the absence of a supervising authority [1]. Moreover, the emerging
quantum computing technology and development within it is also creating loop-
holes in the blockchain systems. The threats are posed to quantum computers as
well as transaction management systems in blockchain, since attackers also develop
S. Kashyap · B. Bhushan (B) · A. Kumar · P. Nand
School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
P. Nand
e-mail: parma.nand@sharda.ac.in
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
R. Kumar et al. (eds.), Multimedia Technologies in the Internet of Things Environment,
Volume 3, Studies in Big Data 108, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0924-5_1
1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-18-320.jpg)
![2 S. Kashyap et al.
the skill sets to break into the newer technologies. Thus, there is a strong need of
securing blockchain in the quantum computing environment and addressing cyberse-
curity in tandem. In addition, effective cybersecurity frameworks need to be designed
and implemented. The below subsections individually brief important terminologies
based on the security concerns in blockchain and quantum computing.
In order to brief cybersecurity, it can be referred to the processes, controls,
methods and mechanisms to safeguard cyberspace and contained information and
ensure security against vulnerabilities, threats and risks. The major threats include
malware, phishing, spoofing, zero-day attacks and other cyberattacks. Cybersecurity
also ensures the confidentiality–integrity–availability (CIA) triad; the information
should be accessible only to the authorised user and should stay confidential, the
information should not be modified while transmission, and the information should
be available to legitimate users as and when required. Prominent classification of
types of cybersecurity and its methods can be given as follows: network security,
database security, application security, Internet of Things (IoT) security, cloud secu-
rity and many more [2]. The need for cybersecurity increases as new technologies
develop, since the attackers and intruders develop more intelligence and are able to
find loopholes in existing security algorithms and methods. Thus, the research for
security implementation cannot find an end practically, and solutions are still being
proposed to counter prominent cyberattacks in classical as well as quantum networks.
Cryptography refers to the mechanism and approach to encrypt and decrypt the
data in a communication system or a network. The data can have any state: at rest, in-
transit or in-use. Encryption means converting the plain text to an unreadable format
called ciphertext at the sender side using a defined algorithm. Decryption is the vice-
versa process, i.e. converting ciphertext back to the plain text at receiver end using
a cryptographic algorithm. Cryptographic algorithms or methods can be classified
as symmetric and asymmetric. In symmetric key cryptography, the same secret key
is used mutually to encrypt as well as decrypt the data. Examples of symmetric
key cryptography include Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Rivest Cipher 4
(RC4), International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), etc. [3]. On the other hand,
asymmetrickeycryptographymakesuseofsender’spublickeytoencryptthedataand
private key of receiver to decrypt the data at his end. Some asymmetric cryptographic
algorithms are Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA) algorithm, digital signature standard
(DSS), elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) and Diffie–Hellman key exchange [4]. Due
to the use of two different keys rather than a single key, asymmetric cryptographic
algorithms are considered more secure.
Quantum computing is a step forward to cloud computing and existing
computation-related technologies. Quantum computing includes the use of quantum
devices or computers to solve most complex computational problems with high
efficiency and accuracy. A specialised hardware such as supercomputers is used to
perform complex calculations and derive output from an input assisted by quantum
mechanics. Quantum computing is derived from the concepts of quantum physics,
including superposition, quantum interference, photon entanglement, and electro-
magnetic emissions [5]. Superposition refers to overlapping of quantum states of
quantum particles over each other. Quantum interference is described as a behaviour](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-19-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 3
of a qubit through which it can affect the probability of collision of itself with another
qubit. Photon entanglement is a situation when photons are said to be entangled,
and they exhibit a single system, influencing each other. A quantum computer is
composed of the following: area with the qubits, ways to transmit signals to qubits
and a classical computer for executing a programme and sharing instructions. The
signals can be transmitted using microwaves, voltage or laser. Quantum computing
has its applications in the field of quantum simulation, cryptography, optimisation of
solutions to classical problems, machine learning and developing efficient searching
algorithms with reduced complexity [6].
Blockchain is a technology and an application of computer science and databases,
which is used to store sensitive information, mainly transactions in the form of blocks
which are connected in the form of a chain within a single system. It can be defined as
an immutable ledger which facilitates transactions’ storage and tracking the assets in
case of networks of a business. It is a decentralised and distributed system; i.e., there
is no supervisory authority to monitor or control blockchain systems. Blockchain
can be categorised into three types, based on the data stored and sensitivity of data:
private, public, consortium and hybrid blockchain [7]. Private blockchain is a kind of
permissioned system which allows transactions to be stored only in a closed network
and is used by enterprises. Public blockchain or permissionless blockchain allows any
user to be an authorised node in the blockchain network without certain restrictions.
Consortium blockchain can be termed as a semi-decentralised system where more
than one organisation manages and maintains the blockchain network. Lastly, hybrid
blockchain is a mix of public and private blockchain systems which allow users to
control access rights for blockchain networks and data stored in it. Blockchain has a
vast applicability in the field of cryptocurrency, such as Ethereum and Bitcoin. [8].
This paper tries to put in best efforts to address the approaches to implement secu-
rity in blockchain and introduces quantum-based approaches to handle blockchain
security. The major contributions in the paper can be summarised as follows:
• This paper addresses various types of cyberattacks in classical as well as quantum
cryptosystems.
• This paper discusses quantum cryptosystems and their advancements.
• This paper describes various types of cryptosystems and their respective features
with the need of security in them.
• This paper emphasises on the security concerns and security mechanisms which
are practically implementable.
Theremainderofthispaperisorganisedasperthefollowingscheme:Sect.2mentions
and describes prominent cyberattacks and security methods in classical and quantum
cryptosystems. Section 3 addresses quantum key distribution (QKD), security imple-
mentation in QKD as well as explains each type of QKD systems. Section 4 presents
a quantum blockchain approach to implement cybersecurity and briefs the types of
cryptosystems followed by detailing security measures to each of them. Section 4
summarises the literature survey representing the related works. Finally, Sect. 5
concludes the paper followed by stating the future research directions.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-20-320.jpg)
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2 Attacks in Cyber Security
Be it a classical network or a network including quantum devices and environment,
cyberattacks pose a threat and can compromise and affect the communication within
the network critically. Thus, it is important to have preventive measures implemented
against them and protect the networks with a strong security cover with an aim to
deal with introduction of an attack and its consequences. In order to research and
devisepreventivemechanisms,oneneedstobeawareoftheattacksandtheirattacking
mechanisms. Some prominent attacks in a classical or quantum network are described
in the below subsections.
2.1 Man-In-the-Middle Attack
As the name suggests, a man-in-the-middle attack (MitM) is an attack in cyberspace
when an adversary is able to intercept the communication between two legitimate
parties and may modify and forward the modified packets to the communicating
parties. It is a kind of an active eavesdropping action and bluffs the parties as if they
are directly communicating to each other. An intruder can directly invade an unen-
crypted Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) access point and can intercept the communication
by inserting himself as a man-in-the-middle. The attack can take place if somehow the
adversary is able to gain the public key of a party in the network. The original message
can then be modified or forged by him and is included with the adversary’s public
key [9]. The receiver then receives a forged message from the adversary and actually
receives what the adversary desires, thereby compromising the secure communica-
tion. Since an MitM attack can be a critical issue for any network, it needs to be
prevented with the help of stringent protocols. These protocols can provide authenti-
cation at endpoints within the network and include Transport Layer Security (TLS)
and similar protocols [10]. Some protocols also use a third party, generally a Certifi-
cate Authority (CA), for mutual authentication between the communicating devices
or parties.
2.2 Denial-of-Service Attack
A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack is a cyberattack which intends to disable access
to network or machine resources for the victim or target. The service or access to
a network or machine resource can be denied when the adversary floods the target
systems with several requests and pings until the target is overloaded and is not able to
handle the requests, which in return also prevents legitimate requests to be addressed
by the server [11]. An enhanced version of DoS attack is the distributed DoS (DDoS)
attack. Instead of using a single source for flooding the victim or target, the DDoS](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-21-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 5
attack aims to flood the target using multiple attacking sources. One can compare a
DDoS attack to a situation of several people entering through a single door, thereby
affecting the entry of people through the door. Generally, organisations including
banks as well as high-profile Websites and servers are targeted by DDoS attacks for
hacktivism, blackmailing, etc. A popular DDoS attack is yo-yo attack which mainly
targets cloud-hosted applications [12]. Countermeasures for DoS attacks include
use of network-based firewalls and load balancers. Moreover, the systems need to
be scanned on a periodic basis in order to check for attacks and apply security
mechanisms timely.
2.3 Photon Number-Splitting Attack
The Photon Number-Splitting (PNS) attack pertains to quantum set-up: a system with
quantum devices, communicating parties, photons and a quantum channel. As per the
attack, the adversary first counts the number of photons in the pulse or signal. If the
count is more than one, one photon is kept in the quantum memory and the rest are
forwarded by him on a lossless channel. As soon as the bases are exposed, the photon
in the memory is measured by the adversary to obtain all the necessary information.
Thus, the photons are split and are untouched and unaffected after being forwarded to
the receiver side [13]. This attack is considered quite dangerous because it equips the
adversary with powerful resources and factors: lossless channel, quantum memory,
ability to measure photons without affecting them. All the listed factors influence
the adversary positively. Hence, there are some important preventive mechanisms
against the PNS attack devised out of which quantum cryptography is the most
prominent one. Quantum cryptography encompasses QKD and protocols such as
Bennett-Brassard 1984 (BB84) protocol to counter such attacks effectively [14].
2.4 Malware Attack
The attack through which malware is spread on the victim’s system and the malware
starts executing the malicious application on the system with unauthorised and unau-
thenticatedaccessiscalledamalwareattack.Amalwareattackcanbecategorisedinto
multiple kinds based on the different types of malware available. Malware existing till
date includes ransomware, Command-and-Control (CNC), spyware, Trojan horse,
virus, worms, etc. These attacks can be executed either by an individual or by a group,
organisation, unit or businesses. A famous malware to mention was the ransomware
attack called Wannacry, which badly affected the computers which were running on
the Microsoft Windows system in May 2017 [15]. It was triggered with the help
of Wannacry ransomware crypto-worm which had then targeted the victim systems.
There are mechanisms to avoid, prevent or tackle malware attacks. Some of them
include antivirus scanning, updating the system with security patches, making use](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-22-320.jpg)
![6 S. Kashyap et al.
of firewalls and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) as well as installing applications
or files only from legitimate sources. One also needs to be cautious while surfing the
internet and not clicking any suspicious link while performing a task on the web.
2.5 Time-Shift Attack
The time-shift attack is a new kind of attack which poses a threat to QKD systems.
The situation in which the efficiency of two single-photon detectors mismatch is
exploited by the adversary to perform this attack. That is, this attack keeps an eye on
theimperfectionscontainedinthequantumchannelandenvironmentandaccordingly
uses them to break into a QKD system. One of the proposed strategies for time-shift
attacks is stated as follows: the adversary finds two shifts with large mismatches in
photon efficiencies. Followed by the first step, he randomly shifts each pulses’ arrival
time to either of the two communicating parties. However, he has to be careful while
selecting any of the shifts so as to allow the receiver to receive a similar number of
bits of 0 s and 1 s. A research has proven that this attack may not be sustained by a
single-photon source which is assumed to be perfect [16, 17]. This attack can even
create loopholes in the most reliable devices. Some counter mechanisms proposed
are four-state measurement as well as checking the time of incoming pulses at the
receiver end. If detectors in the quantum system have different efficiencies, then there
is a requirement of security proof to enable more privacy amplification [18].
2.6 Side-Channel Attack
Side-channel attack (SCA) is an attack with an objective to extract and fetch secret
information from a physical system, with the help of measuring and analysing phys-
ical factors such as current, execution time, electromagnetic emissions. SCAs are effi-
cient to exploit software, hardware and algorithms in cryptography. Cryptographic
systems and QKDs are the ones which are highly affected and can be threatened by
SCAs. As the technologies develop, the approaches to break cryptographic systems
develop at a rapid rate. SCAs can be categorised in two ways: invasive or non-
invasive SCAs and active or passive SCAs. Invasive SCAs refer to the attacks which
require the targeted device to be opened before attacking. Invasive attacks can also
be classified as semi-invasive or fully invasive. Non-invasive SCAs do not require an
initial set-up or preparation for the device to be attacked. On the other hand, active
SCAs affect targeted device’s operations, whereas passive SCAs only observe and
notice the behaviour of targeted devices within the system [19]. The attack can be
prevented by shielding the displays on the device so as to reduce the electromagnetic
emissions, thereby further making the device less susceptible to an SCA. Another
solution includes jamming the emitted channel with the help of noise or adding a
random delay for countering timing attacks as well [20].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-23-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 7
2.7 Eavesdropping Attack
An eavesdropping attack refers to the interception, modification or deletion of infor-
mation while it is being transmitted through the channel in a communication network
between two authentic devices. Alias names for eavesdropping are sniffing and
spoofing. When a user is connected to an unencrypted network which makes it
less secure and he transmits sensitive data to the other party, the data is said to be
exposed and transmitted through an open network. This provides the adversary to
avail himself of the opportunity to exploit the data and intercept it through different
possible mechanisms, one of them is using a concealed bug. A concealed bug refers
to a hidden device placed in an area. Generally being a passive attack, it poses a
major threat to private communication within a network. Eavesdropping attacks can
be countered with the help of encryption. Network segmentation is yet another coun-
termeasure which restricts network resources’ access only to the authorised users.
Periodically updating the applications as well as patching the devices with latest
security patches is important to prevent eavesdropping. In terms of physical spaces
such as office buildings, physical controls can be implemented to avoid such attacks.
2.8 Intercept-Resend Attack
It is a strong attack on the quantum cryptosystem and a QKD system. The adversary
has a replica of the receiver’s detection system. Using the replica, he is able to
intercept and then measure the qubits sent by the sender in the system. In the end,
he resends or retransmits a faked state to the receiver. Thus, the other name for this
attack is faked-state attack. According to the attack strategy, the adversary has to
determine the value of each bit in the message with a probability of 1/
√
2. As the
next step, around 1/4th of the intercepted pulses will be generating errors when the
message is received at the receiver end [21]. All the errors obtained are assumed
to be resulting from the process of intercept-resend. Some mechanisms to prevent
this attack include guard detection time dustbin (DTB) [22]. The BB84 protocol is
also useful in safeguarding the security in a communication system against intercept-
resend attacks. However, the BB84 protocol may also be compromised by this attack
taking into consideration the type of attacking strategies.
2.9 Brute-Force Attack
Brute-force attacks follow the trial-and-error method along with combinatorics to
gain access to login-related information such as usernames, passwords, security keys,
etc. The attack is based on assumptions and guesses and facilitates adversaries to
break an account or system. It benefits the attacker in multiple ways: profiting from](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-24-320.jpg)
![8 S. Kashyap et al.
datacollectedusingadvertisements,stealingandmisusingdata,spreadingmalwarein
the systems, taking revenge and many more. There are various types of brute-force
attacks, namely dictionary attack, hybrid brute-forcing, reverse brute-forcing and
credential stuffing. Although guessing secret information is a time-taking process,
the advent of newer technologies has helped the adversaries as well to devise faster
tools to carry out such attacks. Thus, measures and protocols to prevent brute-forcing
need to be implemented effectively. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) or Three-
Factor Authentication (3FA) compels the attacker to first prove the identity using
two or three factors based on something he knows, something he is and something
he has. Apart from 2 and 3FA, stronger encryption and salting the passwords and
personal information can help prevent brute-forcing to a large extent. Nowadays, a
popular method to prevent bots from acting is captcha, which verifies user identity
and adds to the security of an account or system.
3 Quantum Key Distribution for Securing Information
Quantum key distribution (QKD) is one of the security mechanisms for a two-party
communication. As per this mechanism, a mutual or common secret key is shared
between the communicating parties to encrypt the communication. Pertaining to
such security mechanism, there are existing algorithms and protocols to implement
encryption for two-party communication, known as QKD protocols. A QKD protocol
adds importance to the domain of quantum cryptography. In general, it works in the
following fashion: as soon as an adversary attempts to crack the shared secret key,
unaware, he leaves signs of his attempt. The attempt can then be immediately realised
with the help of basic laws of quantum mechanics [23]. To be precise, the protocol
acts according to the behaviour of the adversary. When the adversary stays inactive
or passive, the shared key length is kept increased by QKD. This robust nature of
QKD reduces the possibility of key theft to almost null, since QKD will stay active
and key generation will not halt as long as the adversary does not actively attack the
communication channel [24]. As soon as any compromise with the communication
channel is felt, the attack is easily detected on the basis of adversary’s traces. QKD is
still being enhanced experimentally and theoretically based on the given parameters:
distance between communicating parties in a channel, error rates, implementation
of network security and many more [23]. These parameters focus on the concepts
discussed in the subsections below.
3.1 Security of Quantum Key Distribution
QKD is known to serve security without adhering to a specific condition. Security
implementations for QKD protocols are still undergoing theoretical and experimental
researches. QKD protocols are capable of preventing several restricted attacks as](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-25-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 9
well such as man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, DoS attacks, etc. QKD is beneficial
in providing unconditional security and does not require quantum entanglement to
be implemented. One of the crucial QKD protocols is the BB84 protocol given
by Bennet and Brassard, which is the first ever QKD protocol and is practically
implementable as well [25]. BB84 protocol makes use of the concept of photon
polarisation and quantum mechanics to handle security. There are many proposed
security schemes which accompany BB84 protocol to strengthen security and make
it resistant to some restricted attacks. A security scheme used and accompanied
with BB84 includes two quantum cryptography and decoy-pulse method to mitigate
photon number-splitting attacks, wherein adversary replaces legitimate signals with
decoy pulses. Another security scheme is proposed which is able to counter attacks
compromising the quantum channels such as joint attacks and individual particle
attacks [26]. Moreover, one scheme works by splitting each input signal with the
help of beam splitter and passively acting to analyse security [27]. Some general
quantum attacks can be prevented, and security against them can be proven using
entropy uncertainty relation [28]. In addition, one of the proposed schemes also
emphasises on continuous variable QKD and performing security analysis with the
help of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and finite key analysis which is a
prominent concept to consider [29].
3.2 Device-Independent (DI), Measurement
Device-Independent (MDI) and Detector Device
Independent (DDI)
Device-independent QKD (DI QKD) is a method which does not take into consider-
ation any assumptions regarding devices present in the quantum environment. This
method is proven to strengthen the security in quantum devices, provided that it
violates Bell inequality between the sender and receiver of a message in the quantum
channel [30]. Due to reduced number of assumptions, the security provided by DI
QKD is improved compared to that in case of traditional security schemes, and it can
counter attacks like time-shift attacks [31]. It can be said that DI QKD is an abstract
model of security as it does not require detailed internal functionalities of a device to
be secured. Measurement device-independent QKD (MDI QKD) scheme measures
less reliable relays to establish the key followed by practically implementing infor-
mation security for remote users [32]. MDI QKD is proposed as an enhanced version
of DI QKD and is thus more powerful with given plus points: higher magnitude of
key rate, successful removal of detector-side channels, and abstraction of security
implementation, i.e., communicating parties do not require to conduct measurements
related to information exchange. Several schemes are proposed which strengthen and
add value to MDI QKD. One such scheme for continuous variables has the involve-
ment of a third party for detecting unusual behaviours in the quantum channel [33].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-26-320.jpg)
![10 S. Kashyap et al.
Another scheme uses photon subtraction technique to enhance MDI QKD for contin-
uous variables [34]. Post-MDI QKD, detector device-independent QKD (DDI QKD)
is more improvised and efficient security implementation scheme. Unlike MDI QKD,
it is proposed for making a quantum system free from detector-side channels [35].
DDI QKD successfully eliminates the shortcomings of MDI QKD such as require-
ment of photon interference with high visibility and larger data block sizes and lower
rate of secure key. However, it is found that it can be susceptible to some side-channel
attacks [36]. Many solutions to the same have been proposed, and some are still being
researched.
3.3 Semi-QKD (SQKD)
Semi-QKD (SQKD) is a QKD technique which emphasises on practical reduction
of cost as well as burden on the devices used in the quantum environment [37].
However out of the two communicating parties, only one of them is quantum in nature
having complete quantum capability, wherein the other one is classical, with limited
capabilities and quantum capacity. Thus, the quantum party can do the following: set
up Bell states, perform quantum measurements and store the states using quantum
memory. On the other hand, the classical party can set up, measure, arrange or order
and send the qubits in such a way that it does not affect quantum channels. Boyer
et al. proposed the first SQKD scheme which makes use of only single photon and
is highly robust [38]. This scheme is so robust that it withstands attacks on qubits
which are sent individually and affected collectively. Another SQKD protocol was
experimented which replaces qubits with four-level systems [39]. Some protocols
focus mainly on classical parties and allow them to encrypt the shared keys’ bits in
Z-basis [40]. In addition, a protocol proposed by Tang et al. allows communication
between two classical parties using a secret shared key and an unreliable quantum
server [41]. Similarly, one of the protocols is used to detect malicious activities
contributed by an unreliable quantum server in a two-party communication which are
classical, without using quantum measurements [42]. There are also SQKD protocols
which use four or less quantum states to implement SQKD. However, SQKD can
be compromised by two-way eavesdropping attacks and may be vulnerable to other
similar attacks. Thus, security in such systems is the matter of concern and a topic
of research in the current scenario.
3.4 Fibre-Based QKD
Optical fibre networks are popular in the current scenario due to their high flexibility,
strengthened security, improved and enhanced bandwidth and many other significant
benefits to mention. Thus, fibre optics is a major leap in the digitisation and system
of global communications. Quantum science and fibre optics together constitute a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-27-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 11
quantum communication system and tend to be the future in the upcoming years.
The communication infrastructure in the future is going to be dependent, namely
on optical fibres and quantum science. The use of optical fibres in QKD has led to
significant increase in the transmission rate of information, and the key generation is
realised to be faster as compared to QKD within traditional networks [43, 44]. Using
the combination of optical fibre networks and QKD, the communication system can
be made resistant to the following attacks: photon number-splitting, intercept-resend
and other individual attacks that may occur generally [45]. Also, this combination
can even be used to transmit a single entangled photon or a pair of entangled photons
through a quantum channel very effectively and conveniently. Fibre-based QKD was
experimented with a very large distance, nearly 250 km, and excessively high channel
loss [46]. The inference was that QKD based on optical fibres efficiently dealt with
high channel loss and larger distance and almost withstood general network attacks,
which makes it secure than the QKD implemented in traditional networks. QKD can
also be based on stable polarisation entanglement as stated and explained by Shi
et al. [47]. However, the secure link length between the communicating parties can
be limited because of the presence of detector-side channels. Yet, the fibre-based
QKD can be referred as a sophisticated and highly flexible implementation of QKD.
3.5 Free Space-Based QKD
The free-space-based QKD is used for setting up direct connections between remote
users through line-of-sight. Also, the quantum networks in various regions can be
connected globally using satellite links and free-space links [48]. Free-space-based
QKD proves to be an effective and innovative mechanism for information sharing
between two communicating parties which can lie on ground, in an aircraft or space-
craft. Similar to fibre-based QKD, these systems are also practically implementable
and are theoretically secure. Since they are also based on the basic physical laws,
they can be implemented and configured using both discrete and continuous vari-
ables [49]. There are various proposed free-space techniques to implement QKD.
One such technique was proposed which implemented BB84 QKD over a free-space
link with a distance of about 144 km, accompanied by weak laser pulses [50]. One
of the published works stated the benefits of QKD based on quantum entanglement
and experimenting it using different set-ups over a free-space link [51]. Recently,
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully implemented free-
space QKD over 300 m distance and demonstrated live video conferencing with the
help of quantum key-encrypted signals [52]. The system was demonstrated between
two line-of-sight buildings in the Space Applications Centre (SAC) Ahmedabad,
India, in the night time to avoid sunlight interference. There are some proposed
free-space-based QKD techniques which exhibit their characteristics in daytime as
well as in night. Liao et al. proposed and developed a single-mode fibre coupling
technique and made use of noise up-conversion single-photon detectors to resist
interference caused by the sunlight, thereby enabling smooth communication in the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-28-320.jpg)
![12 S. Kashyap et al.
free space even during the day [53]. The feasibility of QKD based on free space is
proven through experiments and researches. It is also exhibited that classical commu-
nication links’ performance can be enhanced using QKD by transmitting signals at
single-photon level [54].
3.6 QKD Network
Overcoming the limitations of a classical communication network, QKD network is
a solution to improve secure and strengthen communication systems on a larger scale
in the near future. They can increase the range of QKD systems and is constituted
by static nodes which act as secure access points. The network organisation and
QKD links in a QKD network are highly specific, unlike the traditional networks.
A blueprint for the implementation of a fibre-based QKD network is also designed,
taking wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) into consideration [55]. BB84 in
a bus topology can also be used for key transmission in a multi-user network [56].
WDM can be accompanied by star topology to implement a QKD scheme, in which
all the users within the network can share keys simultaneously and directly, with
insertion loss independent being independent on the strength of users [57, 58]. A star
topology-based QKD scheme guarantees zero trust delay and simultaneous distribu-
tion of the quantum keys over the network, which is facilitated by a quantum router
[24]. Researchers also stated a hierarchical topology-based QKD scheme which uses
decoy state method which is implemented in Wuhu, China, where different regions
of the city connect and form a highly secure network for communication [59]. In
addition, one of the proposed network topologies for implementing QKD emphasises
on saving wavelength and conducts field tests over the frequency of 20 MHz on a
commercial optical fibre [60]. A proposed QKD network architecture by Yang et al.
also helps in the implementation of a routing method which is secret key aware, for
searching an optimal relay path in the network [61].
4 Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security
The power of public key cryptosystems can be measured against the traditional
systems by estimating the effort put in by classical device to conduct a brute-force
attack. Abiding by this concept, it is found that the cost to break the security of
an 80-bit cryptosystem is approximately millions of dollars, thereby guaranteeing
security to classical devices for about 40 years or more. Blockchain is currently
developing at a rapid rate and is adopted in practice in recent years [62]. As per the
present scenario, blockchain has a robust security infrastructure. However, the future
may threaten security in blockchain as the world steps towards quantum technology
gradually, and current security schemes may not be enough to guarantee security](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-29-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 13
in the blockchain systems [63, 64]. The prominent quantum blockchain security
approaches have been described in the below subsections.
4.1 Code-Based Cryptosystem
Thecode-basedcryptosystemsfocusonthemechanismoferrordetectioncodes.They
implement public key cryptosystems which are resistant to attacks performed by an
adversary with a quantum device. The most popular example of a code-based cryp-
tosystem is the McEliece’s cryptosystem. The McEliece’s cryptosystem implements
security in a system by designing a solution to the syndrome-decoding problem [65,
66]. Moreover, it is able to serve faster encryption as well as decryption of a message
and is thus helpful for carrying out transactions rapidly in a blockchain. However, a
large memory is required by this system to store and utilise operations in matrices,
which are further used for generation of public and private keys. The consumption
of large space may compromise the devices in the system with resource constraints.
Several algorithms such as low-density parity check (LDPC) have been proposed
to resolve the issue of space [67]. As per an analysis, such algorithms can provide
classical security from 128 to 256 bits; however, they are yet not strong enough to
provide security in quantum domain [68]. Eltaib et al. proposed a system, which is
the Fiat-Shamir signature scheme; however, it does not strengthen quantum devices
completely [69]. Rank Quasi-Cyclic (RQC) proves to be the best post-quantum code-
based cryptosystem as of now, which is able to secure both classic and quantum
devices, using ideal and Gabidulin codes. However, the performance of RQC may
be compromised, but the effect on its performance is not significant.
4.2 Multivariate-Based Cryptosystem
As the system’s name suggests, the multivariate-based cryptosystem focuses on
finding and devising a solution to the multivariate equations which relate to NP-
hardness and NP-completeness concepts. Sun et al. proposed a scheme, where there
is an involvement of a function, known as the trapdoor function, which contributes
as the private key and also helps to generate the public key in the cryptosystem [70].
This scheme does not create very large signatures. One of the popular multivariate-
basedcryptosystemsusesMatsumoto-Imai’sproposedalgorithm,whichcangenerate
digital signatures within the cryptosystem with very less size as compared to that
of signatures generated in RSA and similar algorithms [71]. Some multivariate
schemes rely on quadratic equations which are multivariate as well as pseudo-
random. Rainbow-like signature methods such as the transitional resource mone-
tary system (TRMS) and trusted time server (TTS) are also a contribution to some
multivariate-based cryptosystems [72, 73]. The most reliable multivariate schemes
use matrices along with quadratic polynomials which are random as well as rely](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-30-320.jpg)
![14 S. Kashyap et al.
on hidden field equations (HFE) [74]. Although multivariate-based cryptosystems
strengthen and safeguard security for quantum devices and generate small-sized
digital signatures, there still lies a scope of improvement for these systems in various
parameters: key size, speed of decryption, cipher overhead etc. However, there is
a scheme which overcomes the limitation of larger key size and generates smaller
keys, but on the contrary, generates very large-sized digital signatures [75]. Also,
multivariate schemes involve a lot of guess work or assumptions which is also a
valid reason to research the improvements for this scheme.
4.3 Lattice-Based Cryptosystem
Lattice-based cryptosystems involve periodic lattice structures, which refer to a set
of some points in an n-dimensional space. The systems take into consideration the
solutions to problems such as the closest vector problem (CVP), shortest vector
problem (SVP) and other similar lattice-based problems. SVP can be briefed as a
problem, NP-hard in nature, which emphasises on finding the shortest vector within
the lattice, provided it is nonzero [76]. At present, the quantum devices are less
efficient in solving the above problems. The lattice-based cryptosystems are designed
with an aim to speed up the transactions in a blockchain. It is so because of the
reason that lattices are computationally simpler and thus can be executed quickly.
However, similar to the case of multivariate-based systems, lattice-based systems also
require large amount of space to generate and use keys with large size and possess
ciphertext overheads [77]. A similar lattice-based system is Nth Degree Polynomial
Truncated Units (NTRU) scheme which is open source and contains two portions:
NTRUEncrypt which is a method to encrypt the message and NTRUSign, which
is a method to sign digital signatures [78]. Some reliable lattice-based systems are
designed on the basis of learning-with-errors problem (LWE) [79]. The lattice-based
schemes are efficient enough to provide classical security in a range of 128 to 368 bits
[80]. There are existing blockchain platforms, namely Abelian, which recommend
the use of lattice-based cryptosystems. This cryptosystem is still undergoing research
for its improvement in terms of security.
4.4 Super-Singular-Based Cryptosystem
A super-singular-based cryptosystem can be specified as an elliptic curve isogeny
system, since a protocol called the isogeny protocol forms its basis. The isogeny
protocol is meant for classical elliptic curves, but it is able enough to resist quantum
attacks. There exist similar cryptosystems which have the keys with size in the order
of a thousand bits or more [81]. Super-singular isogeny key encapsulation (SIKE) is
an approach based on super-singular cryptosystems, which relates to pseudo-random](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-31-320.jpg)
![Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 15
walks within a super-singular isogeny graph [82]. SIKEp34 is an approach for clas-
sical security which uses a public key of 2640 bits and private key of 2992 bits [83]. A
super-singular-based cryptosystem can definitely be used for devising post-quantum
schemes for digital signatures’ generation. However, they reflect certain performance
issues and hence are not yet practically implemented to serve post-quantum digital
signature mechanisms and approaches. There are some digital signature schemes
based on Unruh transform as well as isogeny problems, which use keys with smaller
size are able to efficiently design signing and verification functions [84]. The Unruh
and isogeny-based schemes use lesser key sizes but result in generating digital signa-
tures with a very high order, which shows that there is a trade-off between the key
size and size of digital signatures generated [85]. Hence, it is important to address
this trade-off and implement a balanced and efficient mechanism in an isogeny-
based cryptosystem and Diffie–Hellman (DH) key exchange methods as well. Thus,
at present, super-singular-based cryptosystems as well as the related classical and
quantum security schemes are an active area of research in the field of post-quantum
cryptography.
4.5 Hash-Based Signature Schemes
The hash-based signature schemes do not rely on complete complex mathematical
problems and their hardness. Rather, they depend on the supportive hash functions
andareusedsincelongtimes.Lamporthadproposedaschemeforsignaturesofwhich
a one-way function formed the basis [86]. There exist some important hash-based
signature schemes including the extended Merkle signature scheme (XMSS), which
prove to be highly promising and can efficiently be implemented in post-quantum
cryptography set-up [87]. This scheme is derived from its parent Merkle tree mech-
anism. However, when it comes to blockchain technology, the XMSS and similar
schemes are not considered to be practically implementable pertaining to certain
performance gaps in the schemes. Thus, some improvements have been proposed in
many papers and some papers suggest the alternative approaches to XMSS, such as
using a single authentication path instead of a complete tree, along with one-time keys
so as to minimise user tracking and guarantee anonymity in the cryptosystem [88].
One of the papers suggest using extended Naor-Yung signature scheme (XNYSS)
instead of XMSS [89]. It combines a one-time signature, which is hash based, with
the chains referred to as Naor-Yung chains in order to allow generation of chains
of related digital signatures. A cryptocurrency and distributed ledger system called
IOTA, designed for the Internet of Things (IoT), is also based on the hash-based
one-time signatures, also known as Winternitz signatures [90]. Hash-based signa-
ture schemes also showcase the trade-off between the key size and the signature
length; hence, it generates keys of smaller size, but result in very lengthy digital
signatures. There are newer algorithms related to these systems and schemes being
proposed, which are faster as well as can practically be implemented in blockchain
networks.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-32-320.jpg)
![16 S. Kashyap et al.
Table 1 summarises the contributions of various works related to quantum
blockchain.
Table 1 Summary of various quantum blockchain approaches
References Year Technology used Major contribution
Persichetti et al. [65] 2017 Multivariate
cryptosystem
Designed a solution to
syndrome-decoding problem
Sendrier et al. [66] 2017 McEliece’s
cryptosystem
Implemented security in
quantum environment through
multivariate cryptosystem and
McEliece’s security
Roffe et el. [67] 2020 Quantum
cryptography
Introduced low-density parity
check (LDPC) scheme
Eltaib et al. [69] 2020 Quantum
cryptography
Proposed Fiat-Shamir signature
scheme to provide security in
quantum environment
Sun et al. [70] 2016 Asymmetric key
cryptography
Strengthened security using
trapdoor functions
Raviv et al. [71] 2021 Digital signature
schemes
Use of Matsumoto-Imai’s
algorithm to generate small-sized
digital signatures
Fernandez et al. [73] 2020 Multivariate
cryptosystems
Devised rainbow-like digital
signature schemes such as TTS
and TRMS
Ding et al. [74] 2020 Mathematics:
polynomials
Used hidden field equations
(HFEs) to design multivariate
schemes for cryptosystems
Micciancio et al. [76] 2016 Optimisation and
cryptography
Explained and proposed solution
to shortest vector problem (SVP)
using lattices
Singh et al. [78] 2017 Mathematics:
polynomials
Designed a lattice-based system
called NTRU, which is used in
digital signatures
Lauter et al. [82] 2019 Graph theory and
cryptography
Designed SIKE as a method to
implement security in
super-singular-based
cryptosystem
Martin et al. [84] 2017 Digital signature
schemes
Designed digital signature
scheme based on Unruh
transform and isogeny problems
Bansarkhani et al. [87] 2018 Digital signature
schemes
Proposed a hash-based signature
scheme called XMSS
Huelsing et al. [89] 2018 Digital signature
schemes
Proposed an improved
hash-based signature scheme
called XNYSS](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-33-320.jpg)
![Quantum Computing for Health Care:
A Review on Implementation Trends
and Recent Advances
Avinash Kumar, Bharat Bhushan, Sonal Shriti, and Parma Nand
Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT) has become the essential part of human
life with commencement smart technologies. The IoT-based applications are flour-
ishing in every sector form personal use to official use. The increase on devices is
also increasing the need of more efficient technology for executing the system in
smoother manner. The health care consists of sensitive and more personal data and
information, which make them more resultant to cyber-attacks. Also, the system
is heterogeneous in nature comprising huge number of devices having their own
operating system and protocols that make them vulnerable to attacks. Health care
has embedded IoT for making the system more proactive for monitoring a tacking
patients’ health. Moreover, the need for precise calculations has brought the need for
more concrete technologies. This paper suggests the use of quantum computing in
correlation with blockchain to make health care more secure system. The paper also
discusses algorithms that are vital for using quantum computing in health care.
Keywords Quantum computer · IoT · NIST · Elliptic-curve cryptography · The
European telecommunications standards institute
1 Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the most popular and emerging technologies
in this century. IoT essentially involves an interconnection of embedded devices,
communication, sensor and computing technologies to perform tasks like share,
analyze, collect and control data [1–3]. The main aim of IoT is to create and develop
seamless services that can solve and do an array of tasks. Technologies that make
use of IoT play an important role, thus making it the fourth revolution of innovative
technologies second to, only, the information and communication technology (ICT)
and undoubtedly the Internet. However, it has been repeatedly predicted that IoT
A. Kumar · B. Bhushan (B) · S. Shriti · P. Nand
School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
P. Nand
e-mail: parma.nand@sharda.ac.in
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
R. Kumar et al. (eds.), Multimedia Technologies in the Internet of Things Environment,
Volume 3, Studies in Big Data 108, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0924-5_2
23](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-40-320.jpg)
![24 A. Kumar et al.
will leave behind even ICT and the Internet at the rate at which it is being devel-
oped. It will greatly impact the well-being of numerous industries and, of course,
society [4]. It is important to look into the multiple features of the systems that are
currently in use such as their scalability, robustness, efficiency and interoperability.
It is also imperative to look into the security issues that some of these systems come
with. Information transmission is aided a lot by the Internet. However, technology
nowadays is extremely reliant on the data that is collected on a daily basis in large
amounts [5]. Activities like collecting data and accessing devices in different loca-
tions remotely via the Internet are also performed at a large scale. This alone has
given rise to IoT. This has led to large investments being made in the service indus-
tries, manufacturing industries and software industries to work in IoT technologies.
This has been an excellent incentive to research more and make substantial advance-
ments in the field of IoT. Forbes, a renowned media organization that enjoys a global
reputation, found that the implementation of IoT in a real-life scenario and not just
hypothetically started in 2015 [6]. There were approximately 75.44 billion devices
interconnected to each other in order to perform one dedicated task [7]. Moreover,
it has been estimated that these interconnected devices in IoT systems would nearly
reach a number between 3 and 6 trillion by the year 2025. IoT has touched upon a
lot of fields with its ever-growing benefits. For example, health care, smart farming,
Industrie 4.0, infrastructure monitoring, retail industry, smart water, factory automa-
tion, power grids, intelligent homes, intelligent transport systems, retail industry and
many more [8].
The Fourth Industrial Revolution, namely Industrie 4.0, has become the most
important topic to research and discuss. Industry and academia working in the engi-
neering field have been gravitating towards the topic with much enthusiasm [9, 10].
If the number of scientific papers being published under the name of Industrie 4.0 is
observed, it becomes very clear that the number of papers is only increasing and they
are growing at a fast rate. The first three industrial revolutions preceding Industrie
4.0 took almost 200 years to run their course. The first and foremost industrial revo-
lution was based on water forces, steam engines water mechanization. The Second
Industrial Revolution was based on production on a mass scale. It was introduced by
Henry Ford. The Third Industrial Revolution was based on the usage of computers.
These computers were used in the 1970s for the purpose of automating the process
of production [11]. The commencement of Fourth Industrial Revolution, namely
Industrie 4.0, was mainly focused on encouraging its high-tech capabilities by the
end of the year 2011 [12, 13]. The term Industrie 4.0 was first coined by the German
Federal Government. Industrie 4.0 being a relatively new topic has been the focus of
many researchers. Some researchers have made attempts to give it a proper definition.
Piccarozzi et al. [14] came up with a definition that was from a managerial point of
view, and it also revolved around business strategy. Some of the other researchers
came up with a definition that revolved around the implementation of Industrie 4.0
by making use of integrated technologies [11, 15]. Industrie 4.0 can be thought of as
a concept that has the main aim of interconnecting the manual parts involved in the
process of manufacturing, cyberparts and technologies under Industrie 4.0 that are
used for tasks like maintenance, control, prediction and integration [16–18]. These](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-41-320.jpg)
![Quantum Computing for Health care … 25
technologies comprise cyberphysical systems (CPS), cloud computing, augmented
and virtual reality, cybersecurity, additive manufacturing, semantic web technolo-
gies, fog and edge computing, IoT, robotics. Even though IoT is said to revolutionize
the industry of manufacturing, there is very little evidence to prove its implementa-
tion [19]. It can, of course, be said that the focus when working on Industrie 4.0 is
more on academic literature. The attention is more on defining the concept to its full
extent but not on the implementation. Additionally, it is important to keep in mind
that even if there are implementations being done, they are done on a small scale as
testing and do not have a lot of impact on the company as a whole.
By looking at the statistics of previous decades, it does not come across as a
surprise that the population of the world had increased tremendously. Currently,
more than half of the existing world population resides in urban areas and it has been
estimated that in the coming years it will only increase. A lot of technologies are
being implemented to manage such a large population. One of these technologies is
blockchain. Blockchain was initially invented for a cryptocurrency classed Bitcoin.
Blockchain is a method that is useful when it comes to transferring digital assets
from one peer to another directly without any intermediary playing any role [20,
21]. Bitcoin has seen considerable growth from when it was created by Santoshi
Nakamoto in the year 2009 [21]. Its growth can be seen clearly in the capital market.
Blockchain is a database that is decentralized, immutable and publicly available.
It revolutionized the way payments were automated, interactions were done, and
transactions were tracked and traced. This was done by removing the need for an
intermediary from the picture for watching over the transactions. If we take a look
at the conventional systems, the data that is accumulated by the smart city devices
is kept on a central server. It is stored for future use. However, it is vulnerable to a
lot of threats. Some of these threats include hacking and sensitive information being
leaked to a third party. This can very easily happen when the data that is stored
is not encrypted, and multiple managing authorities are required at the same point
in time [22]. This makes the need for a decentralized architecture very apparent
for storing and managing data in the amounts that it is collected nowadays [23].
Blockchain allows two separate devices to interact with each other and transfer
data and resources between them. The architecture used in this process is a peer-
to-peer network that is decentralized. Systems that make use of blockchain are also
known to require very little cost when it comes to monitoring of security. It performs
well in terms of providing security against stealing personal data and trying to gain
unauthorized access over another system. There have been several works published
on blockchain technology due to its widespread usage, and the number is estimated
to only increase. A lot of publications focus on the effectiveness of blockchain in
improving the performance and security of smart cities. This paper tries its best to
cover the vital aspects of quantum computing that would enhance the healthcare
system.
In summary, the major contributions of this paper are as follows.
• This work presents the deep critical analysis of the quantum computing in context
to health care.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-42-320.jpg)
![26 A. Kumar et al.
• This work presents the major implementations of quantum computing for that
makes health care more optimal system.
• This work deeply focuses on various frameworks that makes the healthcare system
sturdier to anomalies.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 represents the overview
of quantum computing. Section 3 describes quantum implementation in health care.
Finally, conclusion and future research directions have been covered in Sect. 4.
2 Overview of Quantum Computing
Physics is the study that primarily focuses on asking and answering questions about
the existence of nature and why some things are the way that they are. Newton
gave highly detailed and nuanced answers to some of these standing questions in
his Principia. He showed that a teapot and a planet could be described by the same
mathematical equations in terms of the mass and forces that are acting on them.
Taking concepts like energy and momentum are what physics allows us to do as they
always follow fixed equations. It is, however, imperative to keep in mind that there
are many different ways in which energy can be expressed. Information, also, can
be expressed in many different ways. For example, we can say the same thing in a
multitude of languages. Nowadays, computers are capable of powerful information
processing like translating languages and document preparation. Near the time when
quantum cryptography was being researched, there was also work being done on
quantum computing [24, 25]. The goal was to produce something that was a highly
improved version of a classical Turing machine. A number of efforts were put to
bring this into existence. One of these was the idea of devising a simulator that
could simulate the physical behavior of a quantum system. However, this was not
successful due to a large number of drawbacks. Currently, no quantum computer has
been built that can factorize large numbers, and it seems as if it will take an inordinate
time before that happens. However, it is possible to come up with a system that could
explore quantum information ideas in the near future.
2.1 Quantum Philosophy
One of the newest and interesting fields of computer science is quantum computers.
The technology used in quantum computers is influenced heavily by the laws of
quantum physics. Quantum computers make use of the ability to be in various states,
and the result is very high and fast processing which can be used to perform a large
number of permutations in a short amount of time. Even though, they do not properly
exist as of now, when they do come into existence our problem-solving time will
be reduced considerably which will be almost miraculous. Not only will it take less](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-43-320.jpg)
![Quantum Computing for Health care … 27
time, but the accuracy obtained will also be extremely high as well. These problems
will also involve chemical processes that are highly complex in nature. What follows
is a detailed section that explains, very clearly, all the important topics that come into
play whenever quantum philosophy is talked about. Some of these topics include the
concept of superposition and entanglement.
2.1.1 Quantum Theory
Theadvancementinsilicontransistorshaspavedthewayfortheunprecedenteddevel-
opment of PCs. There has been a significant expansion in PC control and a decline in
PC estimate at an equivalent rate. The quantum hypothesis is essentially associated
with the infinitesimal universe comprising particles and further their components.
The wave-like and molecule-like behavior of issue and radiation combined with
the expectation in circumstances’ probabilities where conventional physics predicts
sureness are two among its key standards. quantum physical science, in terms of the
number of particles, is given a modest guess from conventional material science.
Max Planck discovered that by speculating that vitality is present in singular units
much like issue does and in contrast to the once accepted, consistent electromag-
netic wave, it was possible to procure the answer to his question. In addition to
that it was also more quantifiable. This quantum hypothesis was introduced by him
to the German Physical Society in the year 1900 [26]. These units then took the
form of the predominant supposition of the quantum hypothesis. To interact with
these discrete units, Planck came up with a numerical condition comprising a figure,
namely Quanta. The wonder was successfully elucidated by this condition. It was
discovered by Planck that vitality from a body that reflected light at discrete values
of temperature will entail the shading range of distinguishing territories. However,
the disclosure of Quanta still had not cleared the way for a proper hypothesis to be
formed. Nevertheless, just their existence was enough to infer a reformed and essen-
tial understanding of the laws of nature. In the year 1918, Planck was venerated for
his hypothesis with the Nobel Prize in Physics.
• The expansion of quantum hypothesis can be summed up as follows:
• Planck speculated that vitality comprised discrete units, namely Quanta, in the
year 1900.
• In addition to the vitality, the radiation too was quantized in an exact manner. This
evaluation was put forth by Albert Einstein 5 years later in the year 1905.
• Then in 1924, a recommendation made by Louis de Broglie suggested that there
was no considerable dichotomy between the manner and cosmetics of vitality and
matter. Further, he suggested that both of these could continue as composed of
waves or particles on the nuclear and subatomic levels.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-44-320.jpg)
![28 A. Kumar et al.
2.1.2 Quantum Computing
Moving forward with the concept of quantum theory, quantum computing can be
understood as being the wide horizon that primarily deals with the study of making
computer technology efficiently more and more advanced. Additionally, it also deals
with describing how energy and matter behave when both atomic and subatomic
levels are taken into consideration. This makes the entirety of the concept immensely
helpful and extremely crucial in moving forward with further evolution. A huge and
substantial advancement has been made from the days of the abacus to the new age of
supercomputers. This can be thought of as an extremely large leap in development.
Following this path, if the same kind of practicality and evolution is exercised in the
field of quantum computers it will eventually result in a much-improved computing
capacity with a boosted and enhanced performance [27]. This will put computing
ahead of where it currently is by leaps and bounds. Alan Turing was an esteemed
English Computer Scientist, a mathematician, a theoretical biologist, a logician, a
cryptanalyst and a philosopher. One of his most venerated works came into existence
when he devised a programmable computer in the year 1936. The main aim of the
invented computer was to exhibit that there were certain mathematical problems that
just could not possibly be solved with the help of computing. The argument that
was made was based on the idea that given an appropriate algorithm, computers
that had adequate resources had the ability to understand and process any one of
those algorithms. For modern programmers, the quantum computer algorithm is a
probabilistic change. It involves thinking both analytically and critically at the same
time. This can be easily compared to making use of the state of the art technology
for the first time in some manner, for instance object-oriented programming and
multithreading.
2.1.3 Superposition
Nowadays, the modern state-of-the-art computer that is being used today basically
makes use of binary states in its working. A binary system comprises two states. This
means that the computer either works on state 0 or it works on state 1. This, however,
is not the case when it comes to quantum computing. In quantum computing, a qubit
plays an important role. A qubit in quantum computing, which is referred to as a
quantum bit is primarily defined as a single unit of quantum information instead of
just 0 or 1. According to the property of superposition, a qubit can concurrently have
zeroes and ones. So, unlike binary states, where there is only a possibility of being in
state 0 or state 1, in the quantum system a qubit does not need to be 0 or 1. Instead, it
can be in any ratio of 0 to 1. This, very clearly, exhibits the quantum system’s feature
of being able to be in multiple states at the same time. Figure 1 depicts the difference
between qubit and classical bit diagrammatically.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-45-320.jpg)
![32 A. Kumar et al.
3 Quantum Implementation in Healthcare
In this section, there are a number of important topics that have been discussed. These
involve analyzing the need for going towards post-quantum IoT systems and moving
away from pre-quantum systems. They have been compared to clearly depict the pros
and cons. There are a number of interesting projects that have been created in the
field of post-quantum cryptography. Some of the most relevant projects have been
enumerated and talked about in this section. Furthermore, the many outcomes of
these projects have also been listed out. A lot of universities and organizations have
taken the initiative to advance the standardization of post-quantum cryptography.
Some of their activities have been talked about. There also is a detailed description
of the numerous kinds of cryptosystems pertaining to post-quantum that are being
used nowadays. The names of these topics are public-key cryptography in quantum
computing, post-quantum cryptography projects, standardization initiatives and post-
quantum code-based cryptography.
3.1 Public-Key Cryptography in Quantum Computing
Nowadays, security heavily depends on cryptosystems that are symmetric and asym-
metric [28, 29]. The effectiveness of such systems has commonly been related to
their amount of security level. This is a measuring unit that is used to assess the
amount of computational strength that is required by classical computers to break
into a cryptosystem with brute force. For example, a 256-bit security cryptosystem
will require a similar amount of difficulty to break with a classical computer. Hash
functions and other symmetric algorithms are still valid in this era of post-quantum,
and it is speculated that coming up with efficient quantum algorithms for NP-hard
problems will be highly unlikely. Instead, hash functions and symmetric algorithms
only need to increase the size of their key or their output [30]. For example, if a 3
√
n
sized table is created, Grover’s algorithm can be used to seek collisions occurring
in the hash functions [31, 32]. Public-key cryptography uses pairs of keys. This pair
comprises a public key and a private key. The purpose of the public key is to encrypt
messages that are intended for a particular user, and the purpose of the private key
is to help that user to decrypt and access the message. The relation between a public
and a private key is purely mathematical. This means that the computational effort
needed to make a brute-force attack to look for a private key through its public
counterpart will determine the strength of the public-key cryptosystem. This makes
public-key cryptography heavily dependent on problems of mathematics. Some of
these problems are elliptic curves, discrete logarithms and integer factorization. The
solutions to these problems were only found recently. The most important advantage
that public-key cryptosystems have over insecure networks is that they are asym-
metric. This allows them to solve the key distribution problem, as the public key
only serves the purpose of encrypting and cannot be used for decrypting messages.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-49-320.jpg)
![Quantum Computing for Health care … 33
On the other hand, symmetric cryptography has the same key which is used for both
encryption and decryption. This makes it very important that the keys are stored in
a highly secure manner for the messages to be shared between the intended parties.
Public-key cryptosystem, however, also has its disadvantages. One of them is that
the generation of the two keys is very costly since they are required to have a specific
structure. Symmetric cryptosystems are relatively cheaper as they often make use of
k-bit strings as keys. These strings are randomly generated. Even the most popular
public-key encryption systems are threatened by quantum computing [33]. Algo-
rithms like the elliptic-curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA), Rivest-Shamir-
Adleman (RSA), digital signature algorithm (DSA) and many more are prone to
come under quantum attacks. These algorithms are based on problems like integer
factorization, discrete logarithm or elliptic-curve discrete logarithms. Shor’s algo-
rithm is very useful when it comes to solving these problems in the least possible
time with a quantum computer that is powerful enough. It has been approximated that
112-bit security systems are safe from classical computer attacks for at least 40 years
from now, while 80-bit security systems can be broken and incur costs of at most
millions of dollars [30]. Therefore, it is deemed urgent that we turn to post-quantum
cryptosystems that can endure attacks from classical computers. This will become
especially helpful in the field of health care as the field depends on more sensitive
data. This data must be encrypted and kept away from the reach of third parties as it
is private.
3.2 Post-quantum Cryptography Projects
Projects related to the field of post-quantum cryptosystems have been generously
funded by the European Union (EU) and the Japanese Science and Technology
Agency. A brief explanation of some of these projects is given below: PQCrypto
is a project that was funded by the EU with approximately e4 Million [34]. The
project was funded from March 2015 to February 2018 by a program called Horizon
2020. The main aim of this project was to explore post-quantum cryptography for
Internet communications, low-power, embedded devices and cloud computing. It led
to multiple implementations, 45 papers on conferences and 27 journal articles [34].
It had participants from Germany, Belgium, France, Denmark, Taiwan and Israel
and was correlated by Eindhoven University from the Netherlands. Another project
SAFEcrypto shares almost the same aim as PQCrypto [35]. The only difference is
that lattice problems were made to be the main focus as a root of computational
hardness. This project was financially provided for by the EU with e3.2 Million.
This project was performed from January 2015 to December 2018. The outcome from
this project led to 12 conference papers and 7 journal articles and a number of reports
[35]. It had participants from France, UK, Switzerland, Ireland and Germany and
was directed by the Queen’s University of Belfast in the UK. CryptoMathCREST is
a project that is being financially supported by the Japanese Science and Technology
Agency since the year 2015. The primary objective of the project is to study the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-50-320.jpg)
![Quantum Computing for Health care … 35
Quantum-Safe Cryptography [36–38]. This has been in motion since 2013. Addition-
ally, an Industry Specification Group (ISG) was held for the same till the year 2017
[38]. After that its affairs were passed on to the ETSI technical committee and the
Cyber Working Group committed to the topic [39]. The group has issued numerous
deliverables on the limitations of quantum computing when it comes to symmetric
cryptography and how attacks of quantum computing affect different fields [40].
3.3.2 NIST Initiatives
Reports on the quantum threat have been released by the US NIST. There have also
been workshops organized on post-quantum cryptography as well as standardization
[41]. In December 2016, NIST took the initiative to invite proposals on post-quantum
public-key cryptosystems [41]. They received 69 participants for the first round.
Twenty-six of them got promoted to the second round. Among this, 17 were proposals
related to key establishment algorithms and public-key encryption and the remaining
9 were related to digital signature schemes [41]. This standardization process is
intended to be continued with another round in the near future. The first drafts are
expected to be available between the years 2022 and 2024.
3.3.3 IETF Initiatives
The Crypto Forum Research Group (CFRG) and the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) are currently working alongside each other on numerous quantum cryptog-
raphy Internet drafts. These drafts focus on topics such as the transition made to
post-quantum cryptography from classical cryptography and certain implementa-
tions, namely the Leighton-Micali hash-based signatures or the extended Merkle
signature scheme (XMSS) [42–44].
3.3.4 Other Standardization Initiatives
There are many more ongoing initiatives that have proved to be very significant.
Some of these are encouraged by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) that has a group that is currently focused on security techniques around IT or
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) via the P1363 project.
It has led to standards like IEEE for public-key cryptography that is lattice based
to be released. Also, the Accredited Standards Committee (ASC) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) have issued a paper based on the possibilities
in terms of the security of quantum computing in the field of finance [45]. A lot of
ongoing post-quantum standardization initiatives are in motion, and there are also a
lot that have already been finished. Most of these initiatives have been reviewed by
the PQCrypto project [46].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-52-320.jpg)
![36 A. Kumar et al.
3.4 Post-quantum Code-Based Cryptography
The theory of error-correction code plays a major role when it comes to code-
based cryptosystems. They have provided digital communications with redundancy
for a prolonged period of time. A pertinent cryptosystem that is based on code is
McEliece’s. This kind of cryptosystem uses Goppa codes in its making. The security
of such a cryptosystem depends heavily on the syndrome decoding problem. This
cryptosystem is extremely quick when used to perform encryption. It is also reason-
ably quick in performing decryption. However, it does come with a major drawback
if it is implemented in IoT devices with resource constraints. It makes use of matrices
with large sizes for private and public keys. The size of these matrices typically lies
between 100 kB and a couple of megabytes. To combat this drawback, a number of
techniques of compression and decompression may be observed and then various
designs of McEliece’s cryptosystem may be proposed on the basis of other codes.
for instance moderate-density parity check codes (MDPC), low-density parity check
(LDPC) codes, quasi-cyclic low-rank parity check (QC-LRPC), quasi-cyclic codes
(e.g., QC-LDPC, QC-MDPC) codes. It can also be helpful if coding techniques like
puncturing are used [47]. There is also an availability of signing algorithms that
are based on code. For example, the advancement of Niederreiter variants and CFS
cryptosystems is quite intriguing [48]. They have a striking similarity to McEliece’s
schemes. When it comes to variants of CFS, the signatures are short in length and
can still be verified quickly. This has to be kept in mind while focusing on IoT
developments. The size of the key that is required is fairly large and the generation
of signature is highly inefficient. It should also be kept in mind that advancements
in schemes regarding IoT signatures are derived from practical applications of the
Fiat–Shamir transformation on protocols pertaining to the identification [49]. It has
successfully been proved helpful in coming up with schemes that are improved and
more efficient [50]. This can reflect how classified information is stored, especially
in the healthcare field.
3.5 Post-quantum Multivariate-Based Cryptosystems
Solving questions based on multivariate equations heavily influence multivariate-
based ecosystems. These have been proved to be NP-complete or NP-hard. As of now,
it is imperative to examine and apply multivariate encryption along with signature
schemes that combat some of the biggest drawbacks when it comes to IoT-based
applications. Some of these drawbacks are the inefficiency that is faced when it
comes to decryption, the devices with constrained resources, the huge-sized key
that is attained very frequently, the increased energy consumption and the huge
cipher text overheads that exist. There are a number of intriguing multivariate-based
cryptosystems that cater to IoT applications. Some of these are influenced by square
matrices along with random quadratic polynomials. There are also some that use](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-53-320.jpg)
![Quantum Computing for Health care … 37
Matsumoto–Imai algorithm as their basis and some that use hidden field equations
[51–54]. Keeping in mind the multivariate digital signature schemes, it is important
to note that there are even variants that use the hidden field equations, Matsumoto–
Imai algorithm and polynomials’ isomorphism as their basis. These variants are
capable of generating signatures that are secure and have sizes that are similar to
the sizes generated by RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC). Additionally,
when working on advancements in the field of IoT applications, it will be helpful
to look into other cryptosystems. For instance, cryptosystems using pseudo-random
multivariate quadratic equations as their basis and cryptosystems that are based on
Rainbow digital signature schemes. The latter involves using previous variables to
procure central variables’ successive sets. This is done by solving equations that are
linear in nature and have been known to result in schemes that are highly efficient and
perform satisfactorily on systems that have resource constraints. Some examples of
such schemes are Tractable Rational Map Signature (TRMS), Tame Transformation
Signature (TTS) and Rainbow [55]. Such schemes have room for improvement which
can be done through size optimizations and compression techniques. This is because
the keys used in these schemes are large in size when compared to cryptosystems like
RSA and ECC. Information stored in medical records is not limited by any means.
There can be hundreds of parameters to keep track of when it comes to a single
patient. Post-quantum multivariate-based cryptosystems can be very useful to store
such confidential and extensive information.
4 Conclusion and Future Research Directions
Healthcare system has been one of the prime areas of research form past years. The
introduction of new technologies has always been embedded in the existing health-
care system to enhance normal functionality, security of the system as well making
it more adaptable to recent technologies. This makes the system more user friendly
and accessing its services with versatile devices such as mobile, tablets, workstation.
The data and processing in health care need to be more precise and secure as its
failure could lead to fatal of human health. Quantum computing has emerged as one
the vital solutions for the healthcare sector. The paper tries to deeply analyze various
aspects of quantum computing that could befits the existing healthcare system. The
paper also covers the important application that are vital for healthcare system. The
paper also uses blockchain together with blockchain for implementation in health-
care system. The including of testbeds could be one of the future researches that
could be carried out taking this work as platform.
References
1. Liu, H., Han, D., Li, D. (2020). Fabric-iot: A blockchain-based access control system in IoT.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-54-320.jpg)
![father, Harvey B. Spelman, was born in a log cabin in Rootstown,
Ohio. Her mother's family came also from Massachusetts, from the
town of Blanford; and her father and mother met and were married
in Ohio.
Laura Spelman was a member of the first graduating class of the
Cleveland High School, and has always retained the deepest interest
in her classmates. After graduating, and spending some time in a
boarding-school at the East, she taught very successfully for five
years in the Cleveland public schools, being assistant in one of the
large grammar schools.
At the age of twenty-five Mr. Rockefeller married Miss Spelman,
Sept. 8, 1864. Disliking display or extravagance, fond of books, a
wise adviser in her home, a leader for many years of the infant
department in the Sunday-school, like her father a worker for
temperance and in all philanthropic movements, Mrs. Rockefeller has
been an example to the rich, and a friend and helper to the poor.
Comparatively few men and women can be intrusted with millions,
and make the best use of the money. With Mr. Rockefeller's married
life thus happily and wisely begun, business activities went on as
before, perchance with less wear of body and mind. It was, of
course, impossible to organize and carry forward a great business
without anxiety and care.
In Cleave's Biographical Cyclopædia of Cuyahoga County, it is
stated that, in 1872, two years after the organization of the
Standard Oil Company, nearly the entire refining interest of
Cleveland, and other interests in New York and the oil-regions, were
combined in this company [the Standard Oil], the capital stock of
which was raised to two and a half millions, and its business reached
in one year over twenty-five million dollars,—the largest company of
the kind in the world. The New York establishment was enlarged in
its refining departments; large tracts of land were purchased, and
fine warehouses erected for the storage of petroleum; a
considerable number of iron cars were procured, and the business of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/23586648-250512223743-3c6ea887/85/Multimedia-Technologies-In-The-Internet-Of-Things-Environment-Volume-3-Raghvendra-Kumar-56-320.jpg)
Multimedia Technologies In The Internet Of Things Environment Volume 3 Raghvendra Kumar
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- 5. Studies in Big Data 108 Raghvendra Kumar Rohit Sharma Prasant Kumar Pattnaik Editors Multimedia Technologies in the Internet ofThings Environment,Volume 3
- 6. Studies in Big Data Volume 108 Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- 7. The series “Studies in Big Data” (SBD) publishes new developments and advances in the various areas of Big Data- quickly and with a high quality. The intent is to cover the theory, research, development, and applications of Big Data, as embedded in the fields of engineering, computer science, physics, economics and life sciences. The books of the series refer to the analysis and understanding of large, complex, and/or distributed data sets generated from recent digital sources coming from sensors or other physical instruments as well as simulations, crowd sourcing, social networks or other internet transactions, such as emails or video click streams and other. The series contains monographs, lecture notes and edited volumes in Big Data spanning the areas of computational intelligence including neural networks, evolutionary computation, soft computing, fuzzy systems, as well as artificial intelligence, data mining, modern statistics and Operations research, as well as self-organizing systems. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution, which enable both wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The books of this series are reviewed in a single blind peer review process. Indexed by SCOPUS, EI Compendex, SCIMAGO and zbMATH. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/11970
- 8. Raghvendra Kumar · Rohit Sharma · Prasant Kumar Pattnaik Editors Multimedia Technologies in the Internet of Things Environment, Volume 3
- 9. Editors Raghvendra Kumar Department of Computer Science and Engineering GIET University Gunupur, Odisha, India Prasant Kumar Pattnaik School of Computer Engineering KIIT University Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Rohit Sharma Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering SRM Institute of Science and Technology Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India ISSN 2197-6503 ISSN 2197-6511 (electronic) Studies in Big Data ISBN 978-981-19-0923-8 ISBN 978-981-19-0924-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0924-5 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
- 10. Preface The main objective of this book publication is to explore the concepts of Internet of Things, biomedical and cyberphysical systems along with the recent research and development. It also includes various real-time applications and case studies in the field of engineering and technologies used. As populations grow and resources become scarcer, the efficient usage of these limited goods becomes more important. Chapter “Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement in Cyber- world” discusses the attacks compromising the classical or quantum security and mechanisms proposed to counter the attacks. The prime focus of the paper is to discuss security implementations and methods in the quantum domain and contribute to quantum cryptography in the blockchain. Chapter “Quantum Computing for Health Care: A Review on Implementation Trends and Recent Advances” suggests the use of quantum computing in correlation with blockchain to make health care more secure system. The paper also discusses algorithms that are vital for using quantum computing in health care. Chapter “Toward Task Scheduling Approaches to Reduce Energy Consump- tion in Cloud Computing Environment” reviews the concept of task scheduling approachesandfocusesonthestrategiestoimproveenergyefficiencythatismeantfor cloud computing data centers. Extensive experiments were conducted by researchers to compare the earlier scheduling approaches such as earlier deadline first (EDF), round robin (RR) and greedy with the enhanced algorithms that are equipped with strategies to customize resources based on workload and total utility. Chapter “An Efficient Data Transferring Through Li-Fi Technology: A Smart Home Appliance” proposes a novel approach of data communication for secured data transmission using the visible light. Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) is a wireless communication technology that uses light to interchange data among the devices. Chapter “Modeling of Fuzzy Logic-Based Classification System Using the Grav- itational Search Algorithm” proposes a gravitational search algorithm, in which the identifier parameters are a compilation of masses which relate with other parameters depending on the Newton’s gravitational law and the laws of acceleration. Chapter “Big Data-Based Image Handling—A Review of Implementation Using Amazon Web Services” looks at the implementation of image data handling using v
- 11. vi Preface AWS-based cloud computing. Services of AWS relevant to image processing will be examined for its viability. Chapter “Real-Time System for Forecasting Natural Disasters Using the Social Network” uses semantic exam over a tweet to decide the notion of the published tweets to unequivocally urge tweets at the goal occasion. This tweet facts are likewise used to forecast a particular occasion the usage of statistical equipment carried out to the extracted facts version. Chapter “Call-Based Smart Transportation Using Artificial Intelligence” imple- ments a framework using artificial intelligence methodologies, which is acting as a network through which customers can book a cab with just a call. This will be helpful for offline smartphone users and feature phone users to avail the services available only for online customers. Chapter “Design Issues for Developing Routing Protocols for Flying Ad Hoc Network” gives an overview of some routing protocols and discusses the major challenges in designing a new routing protocol while utilized in UAV. Chapter “Online Stream Processing and Multimedia-Oriented IoT: Tools for Sustainable Development of Smart Cities” addresses the elements that are simply the primary factors that can be improved with the usage of IoT when transforming a city into a smart city. A city’s infrastructure may be upgraded in a variety of ways using the Internet of Things. Chapter “Big Data Analytics and Data Mining for Healthcare Informatics (HCI)” provides in-depth reviews of big data analytics in healthcare domain and high- lights the associated privacy and security challenges. The work aims to discuss the healthcare informatics highlighting the major concerns over its security, tools and technology for handling big data and its application in healthcare institution Chapter “Integration of Quantum Computing and Blockchain Technology: A Cryptographic Perspective” gives a detailed overview on the blockchain tech- nology such as its background, architecture and properties. Further, it describes the quantum-level vulnerabilities of different popular blockchains in use and the different cryptographic concepts that are used in blockchain; then, it highlights the concept of quantum computing along with blockchain technology. The aim of this book is to support the computational studies at the research and postgraduation level with open problem-solving technique, we are confident that it will bridge the gap for them by supporting novel solution to support in their problem solving. At the end, editors have taken utmost care while finalizing the chapter to the book, but we are open to receive your constructive feedback, which will enable us to carry out necessary points in our forthcoming books. Gunupur, India Ghaziabad, India Bhubaneswar, India Raghvendra Kumar Rohit Sharma Prasant Kumar Pattnaik
- 12. Contents Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement in Cyberworld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Snigdha Kashyap, Bharat Bhushan, Avinash Kumar, and Parma Nand Quantum Computing for Health Care: A Review on Implementation Trends and Recent Advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Avinash Kumar, Bharat Bhushan, Sonal Shriti, and Parma Nand Toward Task Scheduling Approaches to Reduce Energy Consumption in Cloud Computing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Deshinta Arrova Dewi, Teddy Mantoro, Umar Aditiawarman, and Jelita Asian An Efficient Data Transferring Through Li-Fi Technology: A Smart Home Appliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Saptarshi Gupta, Manash Sarkar, Harpreet Kaur, Maroi Agrebi, and Arup Roy Modeling of Fuzzy Logic-Based Classification System Using the Gravitational Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 L. Jubair Ahmed, B. Anish Fathima, S. Dhanasekar, and K. Martin Sagayam Big Data-Based Image Handling—A Review of Implementation Using Amazon Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Fakhrul Hazman Yusoff, Siti Nur Kamaliah Kamarudin, and Nurzalina Harun Real-Time System for Forecasting Natural Disasters Using the Social Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 M. Mohammed Mustafa and Korhan Cengiz Call-Based Smart Transportation Using Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . 119 M. Mohammed Mustafa and Korhan Cengiz vii
- 13. viii Contents Design Issues for Developing Routing Protocols for Flying Ad Hoc Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Vinti Gupta and Dambarudhar Seth Online Stream Processing and Multimedia-Oriented IoT: Tools for Sustainable Development of Smart Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Jay Sanghavi, Devshree Jadeja, Veerangi Mehta, Abhi Vakil, Jahnavi Lalwani, and Manan Shah Big Data Analytics and Data Mining for Healthcare Informatics (HCI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Manasvi Varshney, Bharat Bhushan, and A. K. M. Bhalul Haque Integration of Quantum Computing and Blockchain Technology: A Cryptographic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Tanya Srivastava, Bharat Bhushan, Saurabh Bhatt, and A. K. M. Bhalul Haque
- 14. Editors and Contributors About the Editors Dr. Raghvendra Kumar is working as Associate Professor in Computer Science and Engineering Department at GIET University, India. He received B.Tech., M.Tech. and Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering, India, and Postdoc Fellow from Institute of Information Technology, Virtual Reality and Multimedia, Vietnam. He serves as Series Editor Internet of Everything (IOE): Security and Privacy Paradigm, Green Engineering and Technology: Concepts and Applications, publishes by CRC press, Taylor & Francis Group, USA, and Bio-Medical Engineering: Techniques and Applications, Publishes by Apple Academic Press, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, USA. He also serves as acquisition editor for Computer Science by Apple AcademicPress,CRCPress,Taylor&FrancisGroup,USA.Hehaspublishednumber of research papers in international journal (SCI/SCIE/ESCI/Scopus) and confer- ences including IEEE and Springer as well as serve as organizing chair (RICE- 2019, 2020), volume Editor (RICE-2018), Keynote speaker, session chair, Co-chair, publicity chair, publication chair, advisory board, Technical program Committee members in many international and national conferences and serve as guest editors in many special issues from reputed journals (Indexed By: Scopus, ESCI, SCI). He also published 13 chapters in edited book published by IGI Global, Springer and Else- vier. His researches areas are Computer Networks, Data Mining, cloud computing and Secure Multiparty Computations, Theory of Computer Science and Design of Algorithms. He authored and Edited 23 computer science books in field of Internet of Things, Data Mining, Biomedical Engineering, Big Data, Robotics, and IGI Global Publication, USA, IOS Press Netherland, Springer, Elsevier, CRC Press, USA. Dr. Rohit Sharma is currently working as an Associate Professor in the Depart- ment of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi NCR Campus Ghaziabad, India. He is an active member of ISTE, IEEE, ICS, IAENG, and IACSIT and Senior member of IEEE. He is an editorial board member and reviewer of more than 12 international journals ix
- 15. x Editors and Contributors and conferences, including the topmost journal IEEE Access and IEEE Internet of Things Journal. He serves as a Book Editor for 7 different titles to be published by CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, USA and Apple Academic Press, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, USA, Springer, etc. He has received the Young Researcher Award in “2nd Global Outreach Research and Education Summit and Awards 2019” hosted by Global Outreach Research and Education Association (GOREA). He is serving as Guest Editor in SCI journal of Elsevier, CEE. He has actively been an organizing end of various reputed International conferences. He is serving as an Editor and Organizing Chair to 3rd Springer International Conference on Microelec- tronics and Telecommunication (2019), and have served as the Editor and Organizing Chair to 2nd IEEE International Conference on Microelectronics and Telecommu- nication (2018), Editor and Organizing Chair to IEEE International Conference on Microelectronics and Telecommunication (ICMETE-2016) held in India, Technical Committee member in “CSMA2017, Wuhan, Hubei, China”, “EEWC 2017, Tianjin, China” IWMSE2017 “Guangzhou, Guangdong, China”, “ICG2016, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China” “ICCEIS2016 Dalian Liaoning Province, China”. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik Ph.D. (Computer Science), Fellow IETE, Senior Member IEEE is a Professor at the School of Computer Engineering, KIIT Deemed University, Bhubaneswar. He has more than a decade of teaching and research experience. Dr. Pattnaik has published numbers of Research Papers in peer-reviewed International Journals and Conferences. He also published many edited book volumes in Springer and IGI Global Publication. His areas of interest include Mobile Computing, Cloud Computing, Cyber Security, Intelligent Systems and Brain Computer Interface. He is one of the Associate Editor of Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, IOS Press and Intelligent Systems Book Series Editor of CRC Press, Taylor Francis Group. Contributors Umar Aditiawarman School of Computer Science, Nusa Putra University, Sukabumi, West Java, Indonesia Maroi Agrebi LAMIH UMR CNRS 8201, Université Polytechnique Hauts-de- France, Valenciennes, France B. Anish Fathima Department of Electronics and Communication, Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India Jelita Asian School of Computer Science, Nusa Putra University, Sukabumi, West Java, Indonesia Saurabh Bhatt Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India
- 16. Editors and Contributors xi Bharat Bhushan Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India Korhan Cengiz Department of Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Trakya Univer- sity, Edirne, Turkey; College of Information Technology, University of Fujairah, Fujairah, UAE Deshinta Arrova Dewi School of Computer Science, Nusa Putra University, Sukabumi, West Java, Indonesia S. Dhanasekar DepartmentofElectronicsandCommunication,SriEshwarCollege of Engineering, Coimbatore, India Saptarshi Gupta Electronics and Communication Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, U.P, India Vinti Gupta Computer Science and Engineering, SRM IST Ghaziabad, Ghaziabad, India A. K. M. Bhalul Haque Software Engineering, LENS, LUT University, Lappeen- ranta, Finland Nurzalina Harun Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia Devshree Jadeja Department of Computer Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India L. Jubair Ahmed Department of Electronics and Communication, Sri Eshwar College of Engineering, Coimbatore, India Siti Nur Kamaliah Kamarudin Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia Snigdha Kashyap School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda Univer- sity, Greater Noida, India Harpreet Kaur Capgemini Invent, Gurgaon, India Avinash Kumar School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India Jahnavi Lalwani Department of Computer Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Teddy Mantoro Media Tech Lab., Department of Computer Science, Sampoerna University, Jakarta, Indonesia K. Martin Sagayam Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, India Veerangi Mehta Department of Computer Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
- 17. xii Editors and Contributors M. Mohammed Mustafa Department of Information Technology, Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India Parma Nand School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India Arup Roy Manipal University, Jaipur, India Jay Sanghavi Department of Computer Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Manash Sarkar Atria Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Dambarudhar Seth Computer Science and Engineering, SRM IST Ghaziabad, Ghaziabad, India Manan Shah Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Sonal Shriti School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India Tanya Srivastava Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India Abhi Vakil Department of Computer Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Manasvi Varshney Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India Fakhrul Hazman Yusoff Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia
- 18. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement in Cyberworld Snigdha Kashyap, Bharat Bhushan, Avinash Kumar, and Parma Nand Abstract Quantum technology is an asset for digitisation and the cyberrealm. It aims at designing faster and more advanced solutions to present-day problem state- ments. Blockchain is a decentralised structure and thus lacks a supervisory authority to monitor it. Hence, it is important to imbibe security in blockchain when we are specifically moving towards quantum development. While dealing with blockchain, quantum technology enables faster transactions and quantum cryptosystems and devices can safeguard security into the blockchain systems as well. Thus, the paper focuses on discussing approaches to implement blockchain within quantum cryp- tosystemsalongwithquantumcryptography.Thepaperdiscussestheattackscompro- mising the classical or quantum security and mechanisms proposed to counter the attacks. The prime focus of the paper is to discuss security implementations and methods in the quantum domain and contribute to quantum cryptography in the blockchain. Keywords Quantum cryptography · Cybersecurity · Blockchain · Cryptosystem · Quantum key distribution · Man-in-the-middle · Side-channel attack · Photons 1 Introduction Blockchain technology is the present and the future of the computer science domain. The advent of digital currency and online transactions have led blockchain to rise and develop at a rapid rate. Blockchain deals with transactions and highly sensitive data or information processing and storage, as well as, it is based on a decentralised network with the absence of a supervising authority [1]. Moreover, the emerging quantum computing technology and development within it is also creating loop- holes in the blockchain systems. The threats are posed to quantum computers as well as transaction management systems in blockchain, since attackers also develop S. Kashyap · B. Bhushan (B) · A. Kumar · P. Nand School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India P. Nand e-mail: parma.nand@sharda.ac.in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. Kumar et al. (eds.), Multimedia Technologies in the Internet of Things Environment, Volume 3, Studies in Big Data 108, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0924-5_1 1
- 19. 2 S. Kashyap et al. the skill sets to break into the newer technologies. Thus, there is a strong need of securing blockchain in the quantum computing environment and addressing cyberse- curity in tandem. In addition, effective cybersecurity frameworks need to be designed and implemented. The below subsections individually brief important terminologies based on the security concerns in blockchain and quantum computing. In order to brief cybersecurity, it can be referred to the processes, controls, methods and mechanisms to safeguard cyberspace and contained information and ensure security against vulnerabilities, threats and risks. The major threats include malware, phishing, spoofing, zero-day attacks and other cyberattacks. Cybersecurity also ensures the confidentiality–integrity–availability (CIA) triad; the information should be accessible only to the authorised user and should stay confidential, the information should not be modified while transmission, and the information should be available to legitimate users as and when required. Prominent classification of types of cybersecurity and its methods can be given as follows: network security, database security, application security, Internet of Things (IoT) security, cloud secu- rity and many more [2]. The need for cybersecurity increases as new technologies develop, since the attackers and intruders develop more intelligence and are able to find loopholes in existing security algorithms and methods. Thus, the research for security implementation cannot find an end practically, and solutions are still being proposed to counter prominent cyberattacks in classical as well as quantum networks. Cryptography refers to the mechanism and approach to encrypt and decrypt the data in a communication system or a network. The data can have any state: at rest, in- transit or in-use. Encryption means converting the plain text to an unreadable format called ciphertext at the sender side using a defined algorithm. Decryption is the vice- versa process, i.e. converting ciphertext back to the plain text at receiver end using a cryptographic algorithm. Cryptographic algorithms or methods can be classified as symmetric and asymmetric. In symmetric key cryptography, the same secret key is used mutually to encrypt as well as decrypt the data. Examples of symmetric key cryptography include Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Rivest Cipher 4 (RC4), International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA), etc. [3]. On the other hand, asymmetrickeycryptographymakesuseofsender’spublickeytoencryptthedataand private key of receiver to decrypt the data at his end. Some asymmetric cryptographic algorithms are Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA) algorithm, digital signature standard (DSS), elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) and Diffie–Hellman key exchange [4]. Due to the use of two different keys rather than a single key, asymmetric cryptographic algorithms are considered more secure. Quantum computing is a step forward to cloud computing and existing computation-related technologies. Quantum computing includes the use of quantum devices or computers to solve most complex computational problems with high efficiency and accuracy. A specialised hardware such as supercomputers is used to perform complex calculations and derive output from an input assisted by quantum mechanics. Quantum computing is derived from the concepts of quantum physics, including superposition, quantum interference, photon entanglement, and electro- magnetic emissions [5]. Superposition refers to overlapping of quantum states of quantum particles over each other. Quantum interference is described as a behaviour
- 20. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 3 of a qubit through which it can affect the probability of collision of itself with another qubit. Photon entanglement is a situation when photons are said to be entangled, and they exhibit a single system, influencing each other. A quantum computer is composed of the following: area with the qubits, ways to transmit signals to qubits and a classical computer for executing a programme and sharing instructions. The signals can be transmitted using microwaves, voltage or laser. Quantum computing has its applications in the field of quantum simulation, cryptography, optimisation of solutions to classical problems, machine learning and developing efficient searching algorithms with reduced complexity [6]. Blockchain is a technology and an application of computer science and databases, which is used to store sensitive information, mainly transactions in the form of blocks which are connected in the form of a chain within a single system. It can be defined as an immutable ledger which facilitates transactions’ storage and tracking the assets in case of networks of a business. It is a decentralised and distributed system; i.e., there is no supervisory authority to monitor or control blockchain systems. Blockchain can be categorised into three types, based on the data stored and sensitivity of data: private, public, consortium and hybrid blockchain [7]. Private blockchain is a kind of permissioned system which allows transactions to be stored only in a closed network and is used by enterprises. Public blockchain or permissionless blockchain allows any user to be an authorised node in the blockchain network without certain restrictions. Consortium blockchain can be termed as a semi-decentralised system where more than one organisation manages and maintains the blockchain network. Lastly, hybrid blockchain is a mix of public and private blockchain systems which allow users to control access rights for blockchain networks and data stored in it. Blockchain has a vast applicability in the field of cryptocurrency, such as Ethereum and Bitcoin. [8]. This paper tries to put in best efforts to address the approaches to implement secu- rity in blockchain and introduces quantum-based approaches to handle blockchain security. The major contributions in the paper can be summarised as follows: • This paper addresses various types of cyberattacks in classical as well as quantum cryptosystems. • This paper discusses quantum cryptosystems and their advancements. • This paper describes various types of cryptosystems and their respective features with the need of security in them. • This paper emphasises on the security concerns and security mechanisms which are practically implementable. Theremainderofthispaperisorganisedasperthefollowingscheme:Sect.2mentions and describes prominent cyberattacks and security methods in classical and quantum cryptosystems. Section 3 addresses quantum key distribution (QKD), security imple- mentation in QKD as well as explains each type of QKD systems. Section 4 presents a quantum blockchain approach to implement cybersecurity and briefs the types of cryptosystems followed by detailing security measures to each of them. Section 4 summarises the literature survey representing the related works. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes the paper followed by stating the future research directions.
- 21. 4 S. Kashyap et al. 2 Attacks in Cyber Security Be it a classical network or a network including quantum devices and environment, cyberattacks pose a threat and can compromise and affect the communication within the network critically. Thus, it is important to have preventive measures implemented against them and protect the networks with a strong security cover with an aim to deal with introduction of an attack and its consequences. In order to research and devisepreventivemechanisms,oneneedstobeawareoftheattacksandtheirattacking mechanisms. Some prominent attacks in a classical or quantum network are described in the below subsections. 2.1 Man-In-the-Middle Attack As the name suggests, a man-in-the-middle attack (MitM) is an attack in cyberspace when an adversary is able to intercept the communication between two legitimate parties and may modify and forward the modified packets to the communicating parties. It is a kind of an active eavesdropping action and bluffs the parties as if they are directly communicating to each other. An intruder can directly invade an unen- crypted Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) access point and can intercept the communication by inserting himself as a man-in-the-middle. The attack can take place if somehow the adversary is able to gain the public key of a party in the network. The original message can then be modified or forged by him and is included with the adversary’s public key [9]. The receiver then receives a forged message from the adversary and actually receives what the adversary desires, thereby compromising the secure communica- tion. Since an MitM attack can be a critical issue for any network, it needs to be prevented with the help of stringent protocols. These protocols can provide authenti- cation at endpoints within the network and include Transport Layer Security (TLS) and similar protocols [10]. Some protocols also use a third party, generally a Certifi- cate Authority (CA), for mutual authentication between the communicating devices or parties. 2.2 Denial-of-Service Attack A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack is a cyberattack which intends to disable access to network or machine resources for the victim or target. The service or access to a network or machine resource can be denied when the adversary floods the target systems with several requests and pings until the target is overloaded and is not able to handle the requests, which in return also prevents legitimate requests to be addressed by the server [11]. An enhanced version of DoS attack is the distributed DoS (DDoS) attack. Instead of using a single source for flooding the victim or target, the DDoS
- 22. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 5 attack aims to flood the target using multiple attacking sources. One can compare a DDoS attack to a situation of several people entering through a single door, thereby affecting the entry of people through the door. Generally, organisations including banks as well as high-profile Websites and servers are targeted by DDoS attacks for hacktivism, blackmailing, etc. A popular DDoS attack is yo-yo attack which mainly targets cloud-hosted applications [12]. Countermeasures for DoS attacks include use of network-based firewalls and load balancers. Moreover, the systems need to be scanned on a periodic basis in order to check for attacks and apply security mechanisms timely. 2.3 Photon Number-Splitting Attack The Photon Number-Splitting (PNS) attack pertains to quantum set-up: a system with quantum devices, communicating parties, photons and a quantum channel. As per the attack, the adversary first counts the number of photons in the pulse or signal. If the count is more than one, one photon is kept in the quantum memory and the rest are forwarded by him on a lossless channel. As soon as the bases are exposed, the photon in the memory is measured by the adversary to obtain all the necessary information. Thus, the photons are split and are untouched and unaffected after being forwarded to the receiver side [13]. This attack is considered quite dangerous because it equips the adversary with powerful resources and factors: lossless channel, quantum memory, ability to measure photons without affecting them. All the listed factors influence the adversary positively. Hence, there are some important preventive mechanisms against the PNS attack devised out of which quantum cryptography is the most prominent one. Quantum cryptography encompasses QKD and protocols such as Bennett-Brassard 1984 (BB84) protocol to counter such attacks effectively [14]. 2.4 Malware Attack The attack through which malware is spread on the victim’s system and the malware starts executing the malicious application on the system with unauthorised and unau- thenticatedaccessiscalledamalwareattack.Amalwareattackcanbecategorisedinto multiple kinds based on the different types of malware available. Malware existing till date includes ransomware, Command-and-Control (CNC), spyware, Trojan horse, virus, worms, etc. These attacks can be executed either by an individual or by a group, organisation, unit or businesses. A famous malware to mention was the ransomware attack called Wannacry, which badly affected the computers which were running on the Microsoft Windows system in May 2017 [15]. It was triggered with the help of Wannacry ransomware crypto-worm which had then targeted the victim systems. There are mechanisms to avoid, prevent or tackle malware attacks. Some of them include antivirus scanning, updating the system with security patches, making use
- 23. 6 S. Kashyap et al. of firewalls and intrusion prevention systems (IPS) as well as installing applications or files only from legitimate sources. One also needs to be cautious while surfing the internet and not clicking any suspicious link while performing a task on the web. 2.5 Time-Shift Attack The time-shift attack is a new kind of attack which poses a threat to QKD systems. The situation in which the efficiency of two single-photon detectors mismatch is exploited by the adversary to perform this attack. That is, this attack keeps an eye on theimperfectionscontainedinthequantumchannelandenvironmentandaccordingly uses them to break into a QKD system. One of the proposed strategies for time-shift attacks is stated as follows: the adversary finds two shifts with large mismatches in photon efficiencies. Followed by the first step, he randomly shifts each pulses’ arrival time to either of the two communicating parties. However, he has to be careful while selecting any of the shifts so as to allow the receiver to receive a similar number of bits of 0 s and 1 s. A research has proven that this attack may not be sustained by a single-photon source which is assumed to be perfect [16, 17]. This attack can even create loopholes in the most reliable devices. Some counter mechanisms proposed are four-state measurement as well as checking the time of incoming pulses at the receiver end. If detectors in the quantum system have different efficiencies, then there is a requirement of security proof to enable more privacy amplification [18]. 2.6 Side-Channel Attack Side-channel attack (SCA) is an attack with an objective to extract and fetch secret information from a physical system, with the help of measuring and analysing phys- ical factors such as current, execution time, electromagnetic emissions. SCAs are effi- cient to exploit software, hardware and algorithms in cryptography. Cryptographic systems and QKDs are the ones which are highly affected and can be threatened by SCAs. As the technologies develop, the approaches to break cryptographic systems develop at a rapid rate. SCAs can be categorised in two ways: invasive or non- invasive SCAs and active or passive SCAs. Invasive SCAs refer to the attacks which require the targeted device to be opened before attacking. Invasive attacks can also be classified as semi-invasive or fully invasive. Non-invasive SCAs do not require an initial set-up or preparation for the device to be attacked. On the other hand, active SCAs affect targeted device’s operations, whereas passive SCAs only observe and notice the behaviour of targeted devices within the system [19]. The attack can be prevented by shielding the displays on the device so as to reduce the electromagnetic emissions, thereby further making the device less susceptible to an SCA. Another solution includes jamming the emitted channel with the help of noise or adding a random delay for countering timing attacks as well [20].
- 24. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 7 2.7 Eavesdropping Attack An eavesdropping attack refers to the interception, modification or deletion of infor- mation while it is being transmitted through the channel in a communication network between two authentic devices. Alias names for eavesdropping are sniffing and spoofing. When a user is connected to an unencrypted network which makes it less secure and he transmits sensitive data to the other party, the data is said to be exposed and transmitted through an open network. This provides the adversary to avail himself of the opportunity to exploit the data and intercept it through different possible mechanisms, one of them is using a concealed bug. A concealed bug refers to a hidden device placed in an area. Generally being a passive attack, it poses a major threat to private communication within a network. Eavesdropping attacks can be countered with the help of encryption. Network segmentation is yet another coun- termeasure which restricts network resources’ access only to the authorised users. Periodically updating the applications as well as patching the devices with latest security patches is important to prevent eavesdropping. In terms of physical spaces such as office buildings, physical controls can be implemented to avoid such attacks. 2.8 Intercept-Resend Attack It is a strong attack on the quantum cryptosystem and a QKD system. The adversary has a replica of the receiver’s detection system. Using the replica, he is able to intercept and then measure the qubits sent by the sender in the system. In the end, he resends or retransmits a faked state to the receiver. Thus, the other name for this attack is faked-state attack. According to the attack strategy, the adversary has to determine the value of each bit in the message with a probability of 1/ √ 2. As the next step, around 1/4th of the intercepted pulses will be generating errors when the message is received at the receiver end [21]. All the errors obtained are assumed to be resulting from the process of intercept-resend. Some mechanisms to prevent this attack include guard detection time dustbin (DTB) [22]. The BB84 protocol is also useful in safeguarding the security in a communication system against intercept- resend attacks. However, the BB84 protocol may also be compromised by this attack taking into consideration the type of attacking strategies. 2.9 Brute-Force Attack Brute-force attacks follow the trial-and-error method along with combinatorics to gain access to login-related information such as usernames, passwords, security keys, etc. The attack is based on assumptions and guesses and facilitates adversaries to break an account or system. It benefits the attacker in multiple ways: profiting from
- 25. 8 S. Kashyap et al. datacollectedusingadvertisements,stealingandmisusingdata,spreadingmalwarein the systems, taking revenge and many more. There are various types of brute-force attacks, namely dictionary attack, hybrid brute-forcing, reverse brute-forcing and credential stuffing. Although guessing secret information is a time-taking process, the advent of newer technologies has helped the adversaries as well to devise faster tools to carry out such attacks. Thus, measures and protocols to prevent brute-forcing need to be implemented effectively. Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) or Three- Factor Authentication (3FA) compels the attacker to first prove the identity using two or three factors based on something he knows, something he is and something he has. Apart from 2 and 3FA, stronger encryption and salting the passwords and personal information can help prevent brute-forcing to a large extent. Nowadays, a popular method to prevent bots from acting is captcha, which verifies user identity and adds to the security of an account or system. 3 Quantum Key Distribution for Securing Information Quantum key distribution (QKD) is one of the security mechanisms for a two-party communication. As per this mechanism, a mutual or common secret key is shared between the communicating parties to encrypt the communication. Pertaining to such security mechanism, there are existing algorithms and protocols to implement encryption for two-party communication, known as QKD protocols. A QKD protocol adds importance to the domain of quantum cryptography. In general, it works in the following fashion: as soon as an adversary attempts to crack the shared secret key, unaware, he leaves signs of his attempt. The attempt can then be immediately realised with the help of basic laws of quantum mechanics [23]. To be precise, the protocol acts according to the behaviour of the adversary. When the adversary stays inactive or passive, the shared key length is kept increased by QKD. This robust nature of QKD reduces the possibility of key theft to almost null, since QKD will stay active and key generation will not halt as long as the adversary does not actively attack the communication channel [24]. As soon as any compromise with the communication channel is felt, the attack is easily detected on the basis of adversary’s traces. QKD is still being enhanced experimentally and theoretically based on the given parameters: distance between communicating parties in a channel, error rates, implementation of network security and many more [23]. These parameters focus on the concepts discussed in the subsections below. 3.1 Security of Quantum Key Distribution QKD is known to serve security without adhering to a specific condition. Security implementations for QKD protocols are still undergoing theoretical and experimental researches. QKD protocols are capable of preventing several restricted attacks as
- 26. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 9 well such as man-in-the-middle (MitM) attacks, DoS attacks, etc. QKD is beneficial in providing unconditional security and does not require quantum entanglement to be implemented. One of the crucial QKD protocols is the BB84 protocol given by Bennet and Brassard, which is the first ever QKD protocol and is practically implementable as well [25]. BB84 protocol makes use of the concept of photon polarisation and quantum mechanics to handle security. There are many proposed security schemes which accompany BB84 protocol to strengthen security and make it resistant to some restricted attacks. A security scheme used and accompanied with BB84 includes two quantum cryptography and decoy-pulse method to mitigate photon number-splitting attacks, wherein adversary replaces legitimate signals with decoy pulses. Another security scheme is proposed which is able to counter attacks compromising the quantum channels such as joint attacks and individual particle attacks [26]. Moreover, one scheme works by splitting each input signal with the help of beam splitter and passively acting to analyse security [27]. Some general quantum attacks can be prevented, and security against them can be proven using entropy uncertainty relation [28]. In addition, one of the proposed schemes also emphasises on continuous variable QKD and performing security analysis with the help of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and finite key analysis which is a prominent concept to consider [29]. 3.2 Device-Independent (DI), Measurement Device-Independent (MDI) and Detector Device Independent (DDI) Device-independent QKD (DI QKD) is a method which does not take into consider- ation any assumptions regarding devices present in the quantum environment. This method is proven to strengthen the security in quantum devices, provided that it violates Bell inequality between the sender and receiver of a message in the quantum channel [30]. Due to reduced number of assumptions, the security provided by DI QKD is improved compared to that in case of traditional security schemes, and it can counter attacks like time-shift attacks [31]. It can be said that DI QKD is an abstract model of security as it does not require detailed internal functionalities of a device to be secured. Measurement device-independent QKD (MDI QKD) scheme measures less reliable relays to establish the key followed by practically implementing infor- mation security for remote users [32]. MDI QKD is proposed as an enhanced version of DI QKD and is thus more powerful with given plus points: higher magnitude of key rate, successful removal of detector-side channels, and abstraction of security implementation, i.e., communicating parties do not require to conduct measurements related to information exchange. Several schemes are proposed which strengthen and add value to MDI QKD. One such scheme for continuous variables has the involve- ment of a third party for detecting unusual behaviours in the quantum channel [33].
- 27. 10 S. Kashyap et al. Another scheme uses photon subtraction technique to enhance MDI QKD for contin- uous variables [34]. Post-MDI QKD, detector device-independent QKD (DDI QKD) is more improvised and efficient security implementation scheme. Unlike MDI QKD, it is proposed for making a quantum system free from detector-side channels [35]. DDI QKD successfully eliminates the shortcomings of MDI QKD such as require- ment of photon interference with high visibility and larger data block sizes and lower rate of secure key. However, it is found that it can be susceptible to some side-channel attacks [36]. Many solutions to the same have been proposed, and some are still being researched. 3.3 Semi-QKD (SQKD) Semi-QKD (SQKD) is a QKD technique which emphasises on practical reduction of cost as well as burden on the devices used in the quantum environment [37]. However out of the two communicating parties, only one of them is quantum in nature having complete quantum capability, wherein the other one is classical, with limited capabilities and quantum capacity. Thus, the quantum party can do the following: set up Bell states, perform quantum measurements and store the states using quantum memory. On the other hand, the classical party can set up, measure, arrange or order and send the qubits in such a way that it does not affect quantum channels. Boyer et al. proposed the first SQKD scheme which makes use of only single photon and is highly robust [38]. This scheme is so robust that it withstands attacks on qubits which are sent individually and affected collectively. Another SQKD protocol was experimented which replaces qubits with four-level systems [39]. Some protocols focus mainly on classical parties and allow them to encrypt the shared keys’ bits in Z-basis [40]. In addition, a protocol proposed by Tang et al. allows communication between two classical parties using a secret shared key and an unreliable quantum server [41]. Similarly, one of the protocols is used to detect malicious activities contributed by an unreliable quantum server in a two-party communication which are classical, without using quantum measurements [42]. There are also SQKD protocols which use four or less quantum states to implement SQKD. However, SQKD can be compromised by two-way eavesdropping attacks and may be vulnerable to other similar attacks. Thus, security in such systems is the matter of concern and a topic of research in the current scenario. 3.4 Fibre-Based QKD Optical fibre networks are popular in the current scenario due to their high flexibility, strengthened security, improved and enhanced bandwidth and many other significant benefits to mention. Thus, fibre optics is a major leap in the digitisation and system of global communications. Quantum science and fibre optics together constitute a
- 28. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 11 quantum communication system and tend to be the future in the upcoming years. The communication infrastructure in the future is going to be dependent, namely on optical fibres and quantum science. The use of optical fibres in QKD has led to significant increase in the transmission rate of information, and the key generation is realised to be faster as compared to QKD within traditional networks [43, 44]. Using the combination of optical fibre networks and QKD, the communication system can be made resistant to the following attacks: photon number-splitting, intercept-resend and other individual attacks that may occur generally [45]. Also, this combination can even be used to transmit a single entangled photon or a pair of entangled photons through a quantum channel very effectively and conveniently. Fibre-based QKD was experimented with a very large distance, nearly 250 km, and excessively high channel loss [46]. The inference was that QKD based on optical fibres efficiently dealt with high channel loss and larger distance and almost withstood general network attacks, which makes it secure than the QKD implemented in traditional networks. QKD can also be based on stable polarisation entanglement as stated and explained by Shi et al. [47]. However, the secure link length between the communicating parties can be limited because of the presence of detector-side channels. Yet, the fibre-based QKD can be referred as a sophisticated and highly flexible implementation of QKD. 3.5 Free Space-Based QKD The free-space-based QKD is used for setting up direct connections between remote users through line-of-sight. Also, the quantum networks in various regions can be connected globally using satellite links and free-space links [48]. Free-space-based QKD proves to be an effective and innovative mechanism for information sharing between two communicating parties which can lie on ground, in an aircraft or space- craft. Similar to fibre-based QKD, these systems are also practically implementable and are theoretically secure. Since they are also based on the basic physical laws, they can be implemented and configured using both discrete and continuous vari- ables [49]. There are various proposed free-space techniques to implement QKD. One such technique was proposed which implemented BB84 QKD over a free-space link with a distance of about 144 km, accompanied by weak laser pulses [50]. One of the published works stated the benefits of QKD based on quantum entanglement and experimenting it using different set-ups over a free-space link [51]. Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully implemented free- space QKD over 300 m distance and demonstrated live video conferencing with the help of quantum key-encrypted signals [52]. The system was demonstrated between two line-of-sight buildings in the Space Applications Centre (SAC) Ahmedabad, India, in the night time to avoid sunlight interference. There are some proposed free-space-based QKD techniques which exhibit their characteristics in daytime as well as in night. Liao et al. proposed and developed a single-mode fibre coupling technique and made use of noise up-conversion single-photon detectors to resist interference caused by the sunlight, thereby enabling smooth communication in the
- 29. 12 S. Kashyap et al. free space even during the day [53]. The feasibility of QKD based on free space is proven through experiments and researches. It is also exhibited that classical commu- nication links’ performance can be enhanced using QKD by transmitting signals at single-photon level [54]. 3.6 QKD Network Overcoming the limitations of a classical communication network, QKD network is a solution to improve secure and strengthen communication systems on a larger scale in the near future. They can increase the range of QKD systems and is constituted by static nodes which act as secure access points. The network organisation and QKD links in a QKD network are highly specific, unlike the traditional networks. A blueprint for the implementation of a fibre-based QKD network is also designed, taking wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) into consideration [55]. BB84 in a bus topology can also be used for key transmission in a multi-user network [56]. WDM can be accompanied by star topology to implement a QKD scheme, in which all the users within the network can share keys simultaneously and directly, with insertion loss independent being independent on the strength of users [57, 58]. A star topology-based QKD scheme guarantees zero trust delay and simultaneous distribu- tion of the quantum keys over the network, which is facilitated by a quantum router [24]. Researchers also stated a hierarchical topology-based QKD scheme which uses decoy state method which is implemented in Wuhu, China, where different regions of the city connect and form a highly secure network for communication [59]. In addition, one of the proposed network topologies for implementing QKD emphasises on saving wavelength and conducts field tests over the frequency of 20 MHz on a commercial optical fibre [60]. A proposed QKD network architecture by Yang et al. also helps in the implementation of a routing method which is secret key aware, for searching an optimal relay path in the network [61]. 4 Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security The power of public key cryptosystems can be measured against the traditional systems by estimating the effort put in by classical device to conduct a brute-force attack. Abiding by this concept, it is found that the cost to break the security of an 80-bit cryptosystem is approximately millions of dollars, thereby guaranteeing security to classical devices for about 40 years or more. Blockchain is currently developing at a rapid rate and is adopted in practice in recent years [62]. As per the present scenario, blockchain has a robust security infrastructure. However, the future may threaten security in blockchain as the world steps towards quantum technology gradually, and current security schemes may not be enough to guarantee security
- 30. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 13 in the blockchain systems [63, 64]. The prominent quantum blockchain security approaches have been described in the below subsections. 4.1 Code-Based Cryptosystem Thecode-basedcryptosystemsfocusonthemechanismoferrordetectioncodes.They implement public key cryptosystems which are resistant to attacks performed by an adversary with a quantum device. The most popular example of a code-based cryp- tosystem is the McEliece’s cryptosystem. The McEliece’s cryptosystem implements security in a system by designing a solution to the syndrome-decoding problem [65, 66]. Moreover, it is able to serve faster encryption as well as decryption of a message and is thus helpful for carrying out transactions rapidly in a blockchain. However, a large memory is required by this system to store and utilise operations in matrices, which are further used for generation of public and private keys. The consumption of large space may compromise the devices in the system with resource constraints. Several algorithms such as low-density parity check (LDPC) have been proposed to resolve the issue of space [67]. As per an analysis, such algorithms can provide classical security from 128 to 256 bits; however, they are yet not strong enough to provide security in quantum domain [68]. Eltaib et al. proposed a system, which is the Fiat-Shamir signature scheme; however, it does not strengthen quantum devices completely [69]. Rank Quasi-Cyclic (RQC) proves to be the best post-quantum code- based cryptosystem as of now, which is able to secure both classic and quantum devices, using ideal and Gabidulin codes. However, the performance of RQC may be compromised, but the effect on its performance is not significant. 4.2 Multivariate-Based Cryptosystem As the system’s name suggests, the multivariate-based cryptosystem focuses on finding and devising a solution to the multivariate equations which relate to NP- hardness and NP-completeness concepts. Sun et al. proposed a scheme, where there is an involvement of a function, known as the trapdoor function, which contributes as the private key and also helps to generate the public key in the cryptosystem [70]. This scheme does not create very large signatures. One of the popular multivariate- basedcryptosystemsusesMatsumoto-Imai’sproposedalgorithm,whichcangenerate digital signatures within the cryptosystem with very less size as compared to that of signatures generated in RSA and similar algorithms [71]. Some multivariate schemes rely on quadratic equations which are multivariate as well as pseudo- random. Rainbow-like signature methods such as the transitional resource mone- tary system (TRMS) and trusted time server (TTS) are also a contribution to some multivariate-based cryptosystems [72, 73]. The most reliable multivariate schemes use matrices along with quadratic polynomials which are random as well as rely
- 31. 14 S. Kashyap et al. on hidden field equations (HFE) [74]. Although multivariate-based cryptosystems strengthen and safeguard security for quantum devices and generate small-sized digital signatures, there still lies a scope of improvement for these systems in various parameters: key size, speed of decryption, cipher overhead etc. However, there is a scheme which overcomes the limitation of larger key size and generates smaller keys, but on the contrary, generates very large-sized digital signatures [75]. Also, multivariate schemes involve a lot of guess work or assumptions which is also a valid reason to research the improvements for this scheme. 4.3 Lattice-Based Cryptosystem Lattice-based cryptosystems involve periodic lattice structures, which refer to a set of some points in an n-dimensional space. The systems take into consideration the solutions to problems such as the closest vector problem (CVP), shortest vector problem (SVP) and other similar lattice-based problems. SVP can be briefed as a problem, NP-hard in nature, which emphasises on finding the shortest vector within the lattice, provided it is nonzero [76]. At present, the quantum devices are less efficient in solving the above problems. The lattice-based cryptosystems are designed with an aim to speed up the transactions in a blockchain. It is so because of the reason that lattices are computationally simpler and thus can be executed quickly. However, similar to the case of multivariate-based systems, lattice-based systems also require large amount of space to generate and use keys with large size and possess ciphertext overheads [77]. A similar lattice-based system is Nth Degree Polynomial Truncated Units (NTRU) scheme which is open source and contains two portions: NTRUEncrypt which is a method to encrypt the message and NTRUSign, which is a method to sign digital signatures [78]. Some reliable lattice-based systems are designed on the basis of learning-with-errors problem (LWE) [79]. The lattice-based schemes are efficient enough to provide classical security in a range of 128 to 368 bits [80]. There are existing blockchain platforms, namely Abelian, which recommend the use of lattice-based cryptosystems. This cryptosystem is still undergoing research for its improvement in terms of security. 4.4 Super-Singular-Based Cryptosystem A super-singular-based cryptosystem can be specified as an elliptic curve isogeny system, since a protocol called the isogeny protocol forms its basis. The isogeny protocol is meant for classical elliptic curves, but it is able enough to resist quantum attacks. There exist similar cryptosystems which have the keys with size in the order of a thousand bits or more [81]. Super-singular isogeny key encapsulation (SIKE) is an approach based on super-singular cryptosystems, which relates to pseudo-random
- 32. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 15 walks within a super-singular isogeny graph [82]. SIKEp34 is an approach for clas- sical security which uses a public key of 2640 bits and private key of 2992 bits [83]. A super-singular-based cryptosystem can definitely be used for devising post-quantum schemes for digital signatures’ generation. However, they reflect certain performance issues and hence are not yet practically implemented to serve post-quantum digital signature mechanisms and approaches. There are some digital signature schemes based on Unruh transform as well as isogeny problems, which use keys with smaller size are able to efficiently design signing and verification functions [84]. The Unruh and isogeny-based schemes use lesser key sizes but result in generating digital signa- tures with a very high order, which shows that there is a trade-off between the key size and size of digital signatures generated [85]. Hence, it is important to address this trade-off and implement a balanced and efficient mechanism in an isogeny- based cryptosystem and Diffie–Hellman (DH) key exchange methods as well. Thus, at present, super-singular-based cryptosystems as well as the related classical and quantum security schemes are an active area of research in the field of post-quantum cryptography. 4.5 Hash-Based Signature Schemes The hash-based signature schemes do not rely on complete complex mathematical problems and their hardness. Rather, they depend on the supportive hash functions andareusedsincelongtimes.Lamporthadproposedaschemeforsignaturesofwhich a one-way function formed the basis [86]. There exist some important hash-based signature schemes including the extended Merkle signature scheme (XMSS), which prove to be highly promising and can efficiently be implemented in post-quantum cryptography set-up [87]. This scheme is derived from its parent Merkle tree mech- anism. However, when it comes to blockchain technology, the XMSS and similar schemes are not considered to be practically implementable pertaining to certain performance gaps in the schemes. Thus, some improvements have been proposed in many papers and some papers suggest the alternative approaches to XMSS, such as using a single authentication path instead of a complete tree, along with one-time keys so as to minimise user tracking and guarantee anonymity in the cryptosystem [88]. One of the papers suggest using extended Naor-Yung signature scheme (XNYSS) instead of XMSS [89]. It combines a one-time signature, which is hash based, with the chains referred to as Naor-Yung chains in order to allow generation of chains of related digital signatures. A cryptocurrency and distributed ledger system called IOTA, designed for the Internet of Things (IoT), is also based on the hash-based one-time signatures, also known as Winternitz signatures [90]. Hash-based signa- ture schemes also showcase the trade-off between the key size and the signature length; hence, it generates keys of smaller size, but result in very lengthy digital signatures. There are newer algorithms related to these systems and schemes being proposed, which are faster as well as can practically be implemented in blockchain networks.
- 33. 16 S. Kashyap et al. Table 1 summarises the contributions of various works related to quantum blockchain. Table 1 Summary of various quantum blockchain approaches References Year Technology used Major contribution Persichetti et al. [65] 2017 Multivariate cryptosystem Designed a solution to syndrome-decoding problem Sendrier et al. [66] 2017 McEliece’s cryptosystem Implemented security in quantum environment through multivariate cryptosystem and McEliece’s security Roffe et el. [67] 2020 Quantum cryptography Introduced low-density parity check (LDPC) scheme Eltaib et al. [69] 2020 Quantum cryptography Proposed Fiat-Shamir signature scheme to provide security in quantum environment Sun et al. [70] 2016 Asymmetric key cryptography Strengthened security using trapdoor functions Raviv et al. [71] 2021 Digital signature schemes Use of Matsumoto-Imai’s algorithm to generate small-sized digital signatures Fernandez et al. [73] 2020 Multivariate cryptosystems Devised rainbow-like digital signature schemes such as TTS and TRMS Ding et al. [74] 2020 Mathematics: polynomials Used hidden field equations (HFEs) to design multivariate schemes for cryptosystems Micciancio et al. [76] 2016 Optimisation and cryptography Explained and proposed solution to shortest vector problem (SVP) using lattices Singh et al. [78] 2017 Mathematics: polynomials Designed a lattice-based system called NTRU, which is used in digital signatures Lauter et al. [82] 2019 Graph theory and cryptography Designed SIKE as a method to implement security in super-singular-based cryptosystem Martin et al. [84] 2017 Digital signature schemes Designed digital signature scheme based on Unruh transform and isogeny problems Bansarkhani et al. [87] 2018 Digital signature schemes Proposed a hash-based signature scheme called XMSS Huelsing et al. [89] 2018 Digital signature schemes Proposed an improved hash-based signature scheme called XNYSS
- 34. Quantum Blockchain Approach for Security Enhancement … 17 5 Conclusion and Future Research Directions Blockchain technology and quantum computing, both, are leading the digital world towards the future with numerous developments and benefits in carrying out trans- actions and dealing with data. Due to the sensitivity of data and need of accessing it with least complexity and in a faster manner, quantum computing plays a prominent role. However, with the development in the above technologies and their applications, cyberthreats and attacks do not lag behind. Various cyberattacks present the need for stronger and guaranteed security in a classical as well as a quantum network. The cryptosystems along with QKD systems help to render security and quality assurance in the best way possible. The paper thus dives deep into the important cryptosystems and their types, as well as addresses important QKD systems and security mecha- nisms that can be implemented within them to safeguard security. This paper also focuses on quantum cryptography and quantum computing and its involvement in blockchain in the near future. The QKD systems discussed in the paper can be referred for future research works to be carried out, since it effectively states the importance of security in quantum cryptosystems and blockchain networks. Moreover, the algorithms discussed in the paper for security implementation which are theoretically implementable can be referred, stated and studied deeply to derive output so as to make them practically implementable in future research. The paper can help in discussing security within newer technologies such as ML, IoT, edge computing to expand the domain of security and widen the platform for future researches. References 1. Annabel, L. S., & Sekaran, K. (2020). Blockchain-based security for IOT in cloud—a review. Internet of Things, 53–70. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003032441-4. 2. Bhushan, B., Sahoo, C., Sinha, P., & Khamparia, A. (2020). Unification of Blockchain and Internet of Things (BIoT): Requirements, working model, challenges and future directions. Wireless Networks. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11276-020-02445-6. 3. Nielson, S. J., & Monson, C. K. (2019). Symmetric encryption: Two sides, one key. Practical Cryptography in Python, 53–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4900-0_3. 4. Haunts, S. (2019). Asymmetric encryption. Applied Cryptography in .NET and Azure Key Vault, 85–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4375-6_7. 5. Zubairy, M. S. (2020). Quantum superposition and entanglement. Quantum Mechanics for Beginners, 154–171. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198854227.003.0010. 6. Babu, H. M. (2020). Applications of quantum computing technology. Quantum Computing. https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-2747-3ch16. 7. Bhushan, B., Khamparia, A., Sagayam, K. M., Sharma, S. K., Ahad, M. A., & Debnath, N. C. (2020). Blockchain for smart cities: A review of architectures, integration trends and future research directions. Sustainable Cities and Society, 61, 102360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs. 2020.102360. 8. Bhushan, B., Sinha, P., Sagayam, K. M., & Onesimu, J. A. (2021). Untangling blockchain technology: A survey on state of the art, security threats, privacy services, applications and
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- 40. Quantum Computing for Health Care: A Review on Implementation Trends and Recent Advances Avinash Kumar, Bharat Bhushan, Sonal Shriti, and Parma Nand Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT) has become the essential part of human life with commencement smart technologies. The IoT-based applications are flour- ishing in every sector form personal use to official use. The increase on devices is also increasing the need of more efficient technology for executing the system in smoother manner. The health care consists of sensitive and more personal data and information, which make them more resultant to cyber-attacks. Also, the system is heterogeneous in nature comprising huge number of devices having their own operating system and protocols that make them vulnerable to attacks. Health care has embedded IoT for making the system more proactive for monitoring a tacking patients’ health. Moreover, the need for precise calculations has brought the need for more concrete technologies. This paper suggests the use of quantum computing in correlation with blockchain to make health care more secure system. The paper also discusses algorithms that are vital for using quantum computing in health care. Keywords Quantum computer · IoT · NIST · Elliptic-curve cryptography · The European telecommunications standards institute 1 Introduction The Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the most popular and emerging technologies in this century. IoT essentially involves an interconnection of embedded devices, communication, sensor and computing technologies to perform tasks like share, analyze, collect and control data [1–3]. The main aim of IoT is to create and develop seamless services that can solve and do an array of tasks. Technologies that make use of IoT play an important role, thus making it the fourth revolution of innovative technologies second to, only, the information and communication technology (ICT) and undoubtedly the Internet. However, it has been repeatedly predicted that IoT A. Kumar · B. Bhushan (B) · S. Shriti · P. Nand School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida, India P. Nand e-mail: parma.nand@sharda.ac.in © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 R. Kumar et al. (eds.), Multimedia Technologies in the Internet of Things Environment, Volume 3, Studies in Big Data 108, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0924-5_2 23
- 41. 24 A. Kumar et al. will leave behind even ICT and the Internet at the rate at which it is being devel- oped. It will greatly impact the well-being of numerous industries and, of course, society [4]. It is important to look into the multiple features of the systems that are currently in use such as their scalability, robustness, efficiency and interoperability. It is also imperative to look into the security issues that some of these systems come with. Information transmission is aided a lot by the Internet. However, technology nowadays is extremely reliant on the data that is collected on a daily basis in large amounts [5]. Activities like collecting data and accessing devices in different loca- tions remotely via the Internet are also performed at a large scale. This alone has given rise to IoT. This has led to large investments being made in the service indus- tries, manufacturing industries and software industries to work in IoT technologies. This has been an excellent incentive to research more and make substantial advance- ments in the field of IoT. Forbes, a renowned media organization that enjoys a global reputation, found that the implementation of IoT in a real-life scenario and not just hypothetically started in 2015 [6]. There were approximately 75.44 billion devices interconnected to each other in order to perform one dedicated task [7]. Moreover, it has been estimated that these interconnected devices in IoT systems would nearly reach a number between 3 and 6 trillion by the year 2025. IoT has touched upon a lot of fields with its ever-growing benefits. For example, health care, smart farming, Industrie 4.0, infrastructure monitoring, retail industry, smart water, factory automa- tion, power grids, intelligent homes, intelligent transport systems, retail industry and many more [8]. The Fourth Industrial Revolution, namely Industrie 4.0, has become the most important topic to research and discuss. Industry and academia working in the engi- neering field have been gravitating towards the topic with much enthusiasm [9, 10]. If the number of scientific papers being published under the name of Industrie 4.0 is observed, it becomes very clear that the number of papers is only increasing and they are growing at a fast rate. The first three industrial revolutions preceding Industrie 4.0 took almost 200 years to run their course. The first and foremost industrial revo- lution was based on water forces, steam engines water mechanization. The Second Industrial Revolution was based on production on a mass scale. It was introduced by Henry Ford. The Third Industrial Revolution was based on the usage of computers. These computers were used in the 1970s for the purpose of automating the process of production [11]. The commencement of Fourth Industrial Revolution, namely Industrie 4.0, was mainly focused on encouraging its high-tech capabilities by the end of the year 2011 [12, 13]. The term Industrie 4.0 was first coined by the German Federal Government. Industrie 4.0 being a relatively new topic has been the focus of many researchers. Some researchers have made attempts to give it a proper definition. Piccarozzi et al. [14] came up with a definition that was from a managerial point of view, and it also revolved around business strategy. Some of the other researchers came up with a definition that revolved around the implementation of Industrie 4.0 by making use of integrated technologies [11, 15]. Industrie 4.0 can be thought of as a concept that has the main aim of interconnecting the manual parts involved in the process of manufacturing, cyberparts and technologies under Industrie 4.0 that are used for tasks like maintenance, control, prediction and integration [16–18]. These
- 42. Quantum Computing for Health care … 25 technologies comprise cyberphysical systems (CPS), cloud computing, augmented and virtual reality, cybersecurity, additive manufacturing, semantic web technolo- gies, fog and edge computing, IoT, robotics. Even though IoT is said to revolutionize the industry of manufacturing, there is very little evidence to prove its implementa- tion [19]. It can, of course, be said that the focus when working on Industrie 4.0 is more on academic literature. The attention is more on defining the concept to its full extent but not on the implementation. Additionally, it is important to keep in mind that even if there are implementations being done, they are done on a small scale as testing and do not have a lot of impact on the company as a whole. By looking at the statistics of previous decades, it does not come across as a surprise that the population of the world had increased tremendously. Currently, more than half of the existing world population resides in urban areas and it has been estimated that in the coming years it will only increase. A lot of technologies are being implemented to manage such a large population. One of these technologies is blockchain. Blockchain was initially invented for a cryptocurrency classed Bitcoin. Blockchain is a method that is useful when it comes to transferring digital assets from one peer to another directly without any intermediary playing any role [20, 21]. Bitcoin has seen considerable growth from when it was created by Santoshi Nakamoto in the year 2009 [21]. Its growth can be seen clearly in the capital market. Blockchain is a database that is decentralized, immutable and publicly available. It revolutionized the way payments were automated, interactions were done, and transactions were tracked and traced. This was done by removing the need for an intermediary from the picture for watching over the transactions. If we take a look at the conventional systems, the data that is accumulated by the smart city devices is kept on a central server. It is stored for future use. However, it is vulnerable to a lot of threats. Some of these threats include hacking and sensitive information being leaked to a third party. This can very easily happen when the data that is stored is not encrypted, and multiple managing authorities are required at the same point in time [22]. This makes the need for a decentralized architecture very apparent for storing and managing data in the amounts that it is collected nowadays [23]. Blockchain allows two separate devices to interact with each other and transfer data and resources between them. The architecture used in this process is a peer- to-peer network that is decentralized. Systems that make use of blockchain are also known to require very little cost when it comes to monitoring of security. It performs well in terms of providing security against stealing personal data and trying to gain unauthorized access over another system. There have been several works published on blockchain technology due to its widespread usage, and the number is estimated to only increase. A lot of publications focus on the effectiveness of blockchain in improving the performance and security of smart cities. This paper tries its best to cover the vital aspects of quantum computing that would enhance the healthcare system. In summary, the major contributions of this paper are as follows. • This work presents the deep critical analysis of the quantum computing in context to health care.
- 43. 26 A. Kumar et al. • This work presents the major implementations of quantum computing for that makes health care more optimal system. • This work deeply focuses on various frameworks that makes the healthcare system sturdier to anomalies. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 represents the overview of quantum computing. Section 3 describes quantum implementation in health care. Finally, conclusion and future research directions have been covered in Sect. 4. 2 Overview of Quantum Computing Physics is the study that primarily focuses on asking and answering questions about the existence of nature and why some things are the way that they are. Newton gave highly detailed and nuanced answers to some of these standing questions in his Principia. He showed that a teapot and a planet could be described by the same mathematical equations in terms of the mass and forces that are acting on them. Taking concepts like energy and momentum are what physics allows us to do as they always follow fixed equations. It is, however, imperative to keep in mind that there are many different ways in which energy can be expressed. Information, also, can be expressed in many different ways. For example, we can say the same thing in a multitude of languages. Nowadays, computers are capable of powerful information processing like translating languages and document preparation. Near the time when quantum cryptography was being researched, there was also work being done on quantum computing [24, 25]. The goal was to produce something that was a highly improved version of a classical Turing machine. A number of efforts were put to bring this into existence. One of these was the idea of devising a simulator that could simulate the physical behavior of a quantum system. However, this was not successful due to a large number of drawbacks. Currently, no quantum computer has been built that can factorize large numbers, and it seems as if it will take an inordinate time before that happens. However, it is possible to come up with a system that could explore quantum information ideas in the near future. 2.1 Quantum Philosophy One of the newest and interesting fields of computer science is quantum computers. The technology used in quantum computers is influenced heavily by the laws of quantum physics. Quantum computers make use of the ability to be in various states, and the result is very high and fast processing which can be used to perform a large number of permutations in a short amount of time. Even though, they do not properly exist as of now, when they do come into existence our problem-solving time will be reduced considerably which will be almost miraculous. Not only will it take less
- 44. Quantum Computing for Health care … 27 time, but the accuracy obtained will also be extremely high as well. These problems will also involve chemical processes that are highly complex in nature. What follows is a detailed section that explains, very clearly, all the important topics that come into play whenever quantum philosophy is talked about. Some of these topics include the concept of superposition and entanglement. 2.1.1 Quantum Theory Theadvancementinsilicontransistorshaspavedthewayfortheunprecedenteddevel- opment of PCs. There has been a significant expansion in PC control and a decline in PC estimate at an equivalent rate. The quantum hypothesis is essentially associated with the infinitesimal universe comprising particles and further their components. The wave-like and molecule-like behavior of issue and radiation combined with the expectation in circumstances’ probabilities where conventional physics predicts sureness are two among its key standards. quantum physical science, in terms of the number of particles, is given a modest guess from conventional material science. Max Planck discovered that by speculating that vitality is present in singular units much like issue does and in contrast to the once accepted, consistent electromag- netic wave, it was possible to procure the answer to his question. In addition to that it was also more quantifiable. This quantum hypothesis was introduced by him to the German Physical Society in the year 1900 [26]. These units then took the form of the predominant supposition of the quantum hypothesis. To interact with these discrete units, Planck came up with a numerical condition comprising a figure, namely Quanta. The wonder was successfully elucidated by this condition. It was discovered by Planck that vitality from a body that reflected light at discrete values of temperature will entail the shading range of distinguishing territories. However, the disclosure of Quanta still had not cleared the way for a proper hypothesis to be formed. Nevertheless, just their existence was enough to infer a reformed and essen- tial understanding of the laws of nature. In the year 1918, Planck was venerated for his hypothesis with the Nobel Prize in Physics. • The expansion of quantum hypothesis can be summed up as follows: • Planck speculated that vitality comprised discrete units, namely Quanta, in the year 1900. • In addition to the vitality, the radiation too was quantized in an exact manner. This evaluation was put forth by Albert Einstein 5 years later in the year 1905. • Then in 1924, a recommendation made by Louis de Broglie suggested that there was no considerable dichotomy between the manner and cosmetics of vitality and matter. Further, he suggested that both of these could continue as composed of waves or particles on the nuclear and subatomic levels.
- 45. 28 A. Kumar et al. 2.1.2 Quantum Computing Moving forward with the concept of quantum theory, quantum computing can be understood as being the wide horizon that primarily deals with the study of making computer technology efficiently more and more advanced. Additionally, it also deals with describing how energy and matter behave when both atomic and subatomic levels are taken into consideration. This makes the entirety of the concept immensely helpful and extremely crucial in moving forward with further evolution. A huge and substantial advancement has been made from the days of the abacus to the new age of supercomputers. This can be thought of as an extremely large leap in development. Following this path, if the same kind of practicality and evolution is exercised in the field of quantum computers it will eventually result in a much-improved computing capacity with a boosted and enhanced performance [27]. This will put computing ahead of where it currently is by leaps and bounds. Alan Turing was an esteemed English Computer Scientist, a mathematician, a theoretical biologist, a logician, a cryptanalyst and a philosopher. One of his most venerated works came into existence when he devised a programmable computer in the year 1936. The main aim of the invented computer was to exhibit that there were certain mathematical problems that just could not possibly be solved with the help of computing. The argument that was made was based on the idea that given an appropriate algorithm, computers that had adequate resources had the ability to understand and process any one of those algorithms. For modern programmers, the quantum computer algorithm is a probabilistic change. It involves thinking both analytically and critically at the same time. This can be easily compared to making use of the state of the art technology for the first time in some manner, for instance object-oriented programming and multithreading. 2.1.3 Superposition Nowadays, the modern state-of-the-art computer that is being used today basically makes use of binary states in its working. A binary system comprises two states. This means that the computer either works on state 0 or it works on state 1. This, however, is not the case when it comes to quantum computing. In quantum computing, a qubit plays an important role. A qubit in quantum computing, which is referred to as a quantum bit is primarily defined as a single unit of quantum information instead of just 0 or 1. According to the property of superposition, a qubit can concurrently have zeroes and ones. So, unlike binary states, where there is only a possibility of being in state 0 or state 1, in the quantum system a qubit does not need to be 0 or 1. Instead, it can be in any ratio of 0 to 1. This, very clearly, exhibits the quantum system’s feature of being able to be in multiple states at the same time. Figure 1 depicts the difference between qubit and classical bit diagrammatically.
- 46. Quantum Computing for Health care … 29 Fig. 1 Classical bit versus quantum bit (qubit) 2.1.4 Entanglement Entanglement can be defined as the potent bonding quantum particles have between each other. Even when the quantum particles are separated by a huge distance, they will still be unaffected and linked to each other, such is the power of this bond or correlation. When there are two or a collection of particles, they can sometimes act in a way that makes it extremely difficult to point out what their separate properties are. It also makes it difficult to discern their quantum states. These particles seem to be a part of a certain route. This leads to determining the characteristics of one molecule by watching another molecule associated with the same route. There is no change dependent on the distance between these particles. It does not matter if they are trillions of miles apart or present alongside each other. 2.2 Three Major Applications of Quantum Computing Concepts of superposition, entanglement and qubit prove to be extremely useful in givingabetterandimprovedunderstandingbehindtheworkingofquantumcomputer. This is because how the quantum computer works is heavily dependent on quantum mechanics. Hence, the concepts of quantum mechanics, namely superposition, entan- glement and qubit, are, in turn, also rendered incredibly helpful in the process. An example to show how a problem is solved through by a quantum computer and depict its working goes as follows: For instance, there exists a well-designed maze. The primary focus of this problem is to find a path that goes from one opening of the maze to another. The focus should also be on finding the best possible path.
- 47. 30 A. Kumar et al. In other words, a way out needs to be found starting from the entrance. If a tradi- tional computer is being used, the first solution will be to start walking from the entrance and navigate in one direction until going further becomes impossible due to reaching a dead end. Then, a turn-around will be made, and starting from the entrance again, another path will be followed. This will be continued until a way out is found. The second solution will be to assign two individuals. One will be present near the entrance, and the other will be present near the exit. Gases having dissimilar and contrasting colors will be released in all different directions. The different colors of the gases will help to easily differentiate between each path. The job of the individual positioned near the exit will be to determine which colored gas reaches them first, which in turn will give the shortest and the optimal path from the entrance to the exit of the maze. The above example depicts how a quantum computer works and solves given problems in different possible ways. 2.2.1 Shor’s Algorithm Shor’s calculation was found by Peter Shor in the year 1994. Since then, it was recog- nized as the standard case when it comes to quantum calculation as well as a standout among the most critical. The calculation focused on the problem of finding the two prime variables of a whole number by deriving use from the concept of quantum figuring. Most existing security frameworks depend heavily on RSA encryption which in turn depends on two expansive prime numbers resulting in another number. This is what makes this issue into something that has extraordinary significance. Though a conventional PC does not have any known calculation that has the ability to factor extensive numbers, Shor’s calculation makes it possible to successfully figure out a sizeable number in polynomial time. It is a difficult task to procure a quantum PC that has enough qubits. If somehow, a person does manage to obtain it, it would make it very easy for them to make use of Shor’s calculation to access other peoples’ messages and get hold of a multitude of private information by breaking into online banks. The government and security administrations were very intrigued by the possibility of such a security breach. This led them to finance the research in the field of quantum processing. 2.2.2 Simulation of Physical System One of the applications of a quantum computer, that comes across as obvious, is its role in the simulation of a different quantum system. When a state vector is stimulated in a 2n-dimensional Hilbert space, a classical computer and quantum computer behave very differently. A classical computer will have to alter vectors that contain complex numbers of order 2n. However, in the case of a quantum computer will only require n qubits. This makes the usage of storage space much more efficient. However, it is important to understand that the quantum computer is not always the best and correct way to successfully simulate every physical system. For instance, if
- 48. Quantum Computing for Health care … 31 we need to simulate evolution, neither a classical computer nor a quantum computer will prove to be efficient. This is because a quantum computer will have to create unitary operations in a 2n-dimensional Hilbert space. This would require quantum logic gates that will have to be exponentially large in number. On the other hand, a classical computer will have to manipulate large matrices that contain elements of order 2n. This would require an inordinate amount of operations such as addition and multiplication. Nevertheless, it still stands true that a quantum computer can, very efficiently, simulate a huge class of quantum systems. This also includes many systems that do not have a classical algorithm that is efficient. For instance, many- body systems that have local interactions come in this category. 2.2.3 Grover’s Search Algorithm The amount of quantum algorithms that have been discovered to be useful is small in spite of the multiple efforts that have been made by the quantum computing community. These are mostly variations of the period-finding algorithm and the task of traversing through an unstructured list. An unstructured list comprising items {xi} is given, the task is to search for a specific item xj = t. This is similar to looking through a telephone directory for a specific telephone number that belongs to someone whose name is not known. Performing this task will not be done any better by classical algorithms than it would be by just searching through the list. It would definitely require N/2 steps if the list contains n items. Grover came up with a solution for this problem in the form of a quantum algorithm. This algorithm requires an order of √ n steps. Even though, this problem is still tough to do computationally, just the fact that the time taken can be somehow reduced is extremely miraculous. The ‘quantum speed-up’ ~ √ N/2 is higher than what has been attained using Shor’s algorithm of factorization (~exp(2(ln N)ˆ1/3 ). This makes quantum speed-up effective and very important when it comes to large sets (N 10ˆ16 ) that can sometimes arise. For instance, in problems concerning code-breaking. Bennet et al. further proved an important point. He proved that no quantum algorithm has the capability to do better than O( √ N), hence making Grover’s algorithm optimal. What follows is a brief explanation of what Grover’s algorithm entails. For each item i, we must check, separately, whether the item is the one we are searching for. This can be further explained by saying that there has to be a unitary operator, namely S such that S|i) = |i) if i = j and S|j) = −|j). Here, j represents the label for the item that is being searched for. The test, for instance, might be helpful to determine if i is the solution to a corresponding hard computational problem. The process is played out by putting up a single quantum register in such a way that it is in a superposition of collectively all the computational states.
- 49. 32 A. Kumar et al. 3 Quantum Implementation in Healthcare In this section, there are a number of important topics that have been discussed. These involve analyzing the need for going towards post-quantum IoT systems and moving away from pre-quantum systems. They have been compared to clearly depict the pros and cons. There are a number of interesting projects that have been created in the field of post-quantum cryptography. Some of the most relevant projects have been enumerated and talked about in this section. Furthermore, the many outcomes of these projects have also been listed out. A lot of universities and organizations have taken the initiative to advance the standardization of post-quantum cryptography. Some of their activities have been talked about. There also is a detailed description of the numerous kinds of cryptosystems pertaining to post-quantum that are being used nowadays. The names of these topics are public-key cryptography in quantum computing, post-quantum cryptography projects, standardization initiatives and post- quantum code-based cryptography. 3.1 Public-Key Cryptography in Quantum Computing Nowadays, security heavily depends on cryptosystems that are symmetric and asym- metric [28, 29]. The effectiveness of such systems has commonly been related to their amount of security level. This is a measuring unit that is used to assess the amount of computational strength that is required by classical computers to break into a cryptosystem with brute force. For example, a 256-bit security cryptosystem will require a similar amount of difficulty to break with a classical computer. Hash functions and other symmetric algorithms are still valid in this era of post-quantum, and it is speculated that coming up with efficient quantum algorithms for NP-hard problems will be highly unlikely. Instead, hash functions and symmetric algorithms only need to increase the size of their key or their output [30]. For example, if a 3 √ n sized table is created, Grover’s algorithm can be used to seek collisions occurring in the hash functions [31, 32]. Public-key cryptography uses pairs of keys. This pair comprises a public key and a private key. The purpose of the public key is to encrypt messages that are intended for a particular user, and the purpose of the private key is to help that user to decrypt and access the message. The relation between a public and a private key is purely mathematical. This means that the computational effort needed to make a brute-force attack to look for a private key through its public counterpart will determine the strength of the public-key cryptosystem. This makes public-key cryptography heavily dependent on problems of mathematics. Some of these problems are elliptic curves, discrete logarithms and integer factorization. The solutions to these problems were only found recently. The most important advantage that public-key cryptosystems have over insecure networks is that they are asym- metric. This allows them to solve the key distribution problem, as the public key only serves the purpose of encrypting and cannot be used for decrypting messages.
- 50. Quantum Computing for Health care … 33 On the other hand, symmetric cryptography has the same key which is used for both encryption and decryption. This makes it very important that the keys are stored in a highly secure manner for the messages to be shared between the intended parties. Public-key cryptosystem, however, also has its disadvantages. One of them is that the generation of the two keys is very costly since they are required to have a specific structure. Symmetric cryptosystems are relatively cheaper as they often make use of k-bit strings as keys. These strings are randomly generated. Even the most popular public-key encryption systems are threatened by quantum computing [33]. Algo- rithms like the elliptic-curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA), Rivest-Shamir- Adleman (RSA), digital signature algorithm (DSA) and many more are prone to come under quantum attacks. These algorithms are based on problems like integer factorization, discrete logarithm or elliptic-curve discrete logarithms. Shor’s algo- rithm is very useful when it comes to solving these problems in the least possible time with a quantum computer that is powerful enough. It has been approximated that 112-bit security systems are safe from classical computer attacks for at least 40 years from now, while 80-bit security systems can be broken and incur costs of at most millions of dollars [30]. Therefore, it is deemed urgent that we turn to post-quantum cryptosystems that can endure attacks from classical computers. This will become especially helpful in the field of health care as the field depends on more sensitive data. This data must be encrypted and kept away from the reach of third parties as it is private. 3.2 Post-quantum Cryptography Projects Projects related to the field of post-quantum cryptosystems have been generously funded by the European Union (EU) and the Japanese Science and Technology Agency. A brief explanation of some of these projects is given below: PQCrypto is a project that was funded by the EU with approximately e4 Million [34]. The project was funded from March 2015 to February 2018 by a program called Horizon 2020. The main aim of this project was to explore post-quantum cryptography for Internet communications, low-power, embedded devices and cloud computing. It led to multiple implementations, 45 papers on conferences and 27 journal articles [34]. It had participants from Germany, Belgium, France, Denmark, Taiwan and Israel and was correlated by Eindhoven University from the Netherlands. Another project SAFEcrypto shares almost the same aim as PQCrypto [35]. The only difference is that lattice problems were made to be the main focus as a root of computational hardness. This project was financially provided for by the EU with e3.2 Million. This project was performed from January 2015 to December 2018. The outcome from this project led to 12 conference papers and 7 journal articles and a number of reports [35]. It had participants from France, UK, Switzerland, Ireland and Germany and was directed by the Queen’s University of Belfast in the UK. CryptoMathCREST is a project that is being financially supported by the Japanese Science and Technology Agency since the year 2015. The primary objective of the project is to study the
- 51. 34 A. Kumar et al. mathematical problems that are a part of the modeling of the security of the up-and- coming cryptographic systems. These also include post-quantum cryptosystems. The project has four parts to it. Each part individually focuses on security mathematical modeling, cryptographic applications, security evaluation and security modeling. The project has been garnering attention in terms of post-quantum security through a number of workshops and conferences. Quite a few papers in Japanese have been published about this project. It has participants from the University of Tokyo, Tokyo Institute of Technology and Kyushu University. PROMETHEUS is another recent and ongoing project that is worth talking about. It started in January in the year 2018 and is intended to continue till December 2021. The project is financially provided for by the EU with approximately e5.5 Million. Despite the project being so recent, it has already succeeded in publishing a substantial amount of papers. It is directed by the École Normale Supérieure de Lyon, which works closely alongside renowned figures and organizations working from the UK, the Netherlands, Israel, France, Germany or Spain. There are certain challenges that emerge when post-quantum schemes are put to use on resource-constrained devices. So, even though all the above projects have made substantial advances, the focus on these challenges has been little. This is because more attention has been given to computational resource consumption but challenges like energy consumption have been left behind. When sufficient advancements are made, post-quantum cryptography will find its use in the healthcare field almost extensively. This is because medical records of an individual contain information like the patient’s weight, height and more sensitive information likeailmentsandhistoryofillness.So,itisimperativethatonlyauthorizedindividuals have access to this information and it is not susceptible to manipulation. 3.3 Standardization Initiatives A need for standardization is important for all kinds of systems. Standardization entails determining a set of protocols that are to be followed and make a system conform to those protocols for the best possible performance. These protocols also help in safeguarding the system against threats that it might come across. This section contains a number of initiatives that have been taken for the standardization process. It will clearly depict that there is a need for standard initiatives to take quantum computing as one of its important parameters. This is especially true in the field of health care. As it will help to attain security and privacy in a more efficient manner by keeping medical records of numerous patients safe. 3.3.1 ETSI Initiatives Papers related to quantum security were released by The European Telecommunica- tions Standards Institute (ETSI), and along with the Institute for quantum computing (IQC), they have been organizing numerous editions of workshops revolving around
- 52. Quantum Computing for Health care … 35 Quantum-Safe Cryptography [36–38]. This has been in motion since 2013. Addition- ally, an Industry Specification Group (ISG) was held for the same till the year 2017 [38]. After that its affairs were passed on to the ETSI technical committee and the Cyber Working Group committed to the topic [39]. The group has issued numerous deliverables on the limitations of quantum computing when it comes to symmetric cryptography and how attacks of quantum computing affect different fields [40]. 3.3.2 NIST Initiatives Reports on the quantum threat have been released by the US NIST. There have also been workshops organized on post-quantum cryptography as well as standardization [41]. In December 2016, NIST took the initiative to invite proposals on post-quantum public-key cryptosystems [41]. They received 69 participants for the first round. Twenty-six of them got promoted to the second round. Among this, 17 were proposals related to key establishment algorithms and public-key encryption and the remaining 9 were related to digital signature schemes [41]. This standardization process is intended to be continued with another round in the near future. The first drafts are expected to be available between the years 2022 and 2024. 3.3.3 IETF Initiatives The Crypto Forum Research Group (CFRG) and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) are currently working alongside each other on numerous quantum cryptog- raphy Internet drafts. These drafts focus on topics such as the transition made to post-quantum cryptography from classical cryptography and certain implementa- tions, namely the Leighton-Micali hash-based signatures or the extended Merkle signature scheme (XMSS) [42–44]. 3.3.4 Other Standardization Initiatives There are many more ongoing initiatives that have proved to be very significant. Some of these are encouraged by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that has a group that is currently focused on security techniques around IT or by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) via the P1363 project. It has led to standards like IEEE for public-key cryptography that is lattice based to be released. Also, the Accredited Standards Committee (ASC) and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) have issued a paper based on the possibilities in terms of the security of quantum computing in the field of finance [45]. A lot of ongoing post-quantum standardization initiatives are in motion, and there are also a lot that have already been finished. Most of these initiatives have been reviewed by the PQCrypto project [46].
- 53. 36 A. Kumar et al. 3.4 Post-quantum Code-Based Cryptography The theory of error-correction code plays a major role when it comes to code- based cryptosystems. They have provided digital communications with redundancy for a prolonged period of time. A pertinent cryptosystem that is based on code is McEliece’s. This kind of cryptosystem uses Goppa codes in its making. The security of such a cryptosystem depends heavily on the syndrome decoding problem. This cryptosystem is extremely quick when used to perform encryption. It is also reason- ably quick in performing decryption. However, it does come with a major drawback if it is implemented in IoT devices with resource constraints. It makes use of matrices with large sizes for private and public keys. The size of these matrices typically lies between 100 kB and a couple of megabytes. To combat this drawback, a number of techniques of compression and decompression may be observed and then various designs of McEliece’s cryptosystem may be proposed on the basis of other codes. for instance moderate-density parity check codes (MDPC), low-density parity check (LDPC) codes, quasi-cyclic low-rank parity check (QC-LRPC), quasi-cyclic codes (e.g., QC-LDPC, QC-MDPC) codes. It can also be helpful if coding techniques like puncturing are used [47]. There is also an availability of signing algorithms that are based on code. For example, the advancement of Niederreiter variants and CFS cryptosystems is quite intriguing [48]. They have a striking similarity to McEliece’s schemes. When it comes to variants of CFS, the signatures are short in length and can still be verified quickly. This has to be kept in mind while focusing on IoT developments. The size of the key that is required is fairly large and the generation of signature is highly inefficient. It should also be kept in mind that advancements in schemes regarding IoT signatures are derived from practical applications of the Fiat–Shamir transformation on protocols pertaining to the identification [49]. It has successfully been proved helpful in coming up with schemes that are improved and more efficient [50]. This can reflect how classified information is stored, especially in the healthcare field. 3.5 Post-quantum Multivariate-Based Cryptosystems Solving questions based on multivariate equations heavily influence multivariate- based ecosystems. These have been proved to be NP-complete or NP-hard. As of now, it is imperative to examine and apply multivariate encryption along with signature schemes that combat some of the biggest drawbacks when it comes to IoT-based applications. Some of these drawbacks are the inefficiency that is faced when it comes to decryption, the devices with constrained resources, the huge-sized key that is attained very frequently, the increased energy consumption and the huge cipher text overheads that exist. There are a number of intriguing multivariate-based cryptosystems that cater to IoT applications. Some of these are influenced by square matrices along with random quadratic polynomials. There are also some that use
- 54. Quantum Computing for Health care … 37 Matsumoto–Imai algorithm as their basis and some that use hidden field equations [51–54]. Keeping in mind the multivariate digital signature schemes, it is important to note that there are even variants that use the hidden field equations, Matsumoto– Imai algorithm and polynomials’ isomorphism as their basis. These variants are capable of generating signatures that are secure and have sizes that are similar to the sizes generated by RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC). Additionally, when working on advancements in the field of IoT applications, it will be helpful to look into other cryptosystems. For instance, cryptosystems using pseudo-random multivariate quadratic equations as their basis and cryptosystems that are based on Rainbow digital signature schemes. The latter involves using previous variables to procure central variables’ successive sets. This is done by solving equations that are linear in nature and have been known to result in schemes that are highly efficient and perform satisfactorily on systems that have resource constraints. Some examples of such schemes are Tractable Rational Map Signature (TRMS), Tame Transformation Signature (TTS) and Rainbow [55]. Such schemes have room for improvement which can be done through size optimizations and compression techniques. This is because the keys used in these schemes are large in size when compared to cryptosystems like RSA and ECC. Information stored in medical records is not limited by any means. There can be hundreds of parameters to keep track of when it comes to a single patient. Post-quantum multivariate-based cryptosystems can be very useful to store such confidential and extensive information. 4 Conclusion and Future Research Directions Healthcare system has been one of the prime areas of research form past years. The introduction of new technologies has always been embedded in the existing health- care system to enhance normal functionality, security of the system as well making it more adaptable to recent technologies. This makes the system more user friendly and accessing its services with versatile devices such as mobile, tablets, workstation. The data and processing in health care need to be more precise and secure as its failure could lead to fatal of human health. Quantum computing has emerged as one the vital solutions for the healthcare sector. The paper tries to deeply analyze various aspects of quantum computing that could befits the existing healthcare system. The paper also covers the important application that are vital for healthcare system. The paper also uses blockchain together with blockchain for implementation in health- care system. The including of testbeds could be one of the future researches that could be carried out taking this work as platform. References 1. Liu, H., Han, D., Li, D. (2020). Fabric-iot: A blockchain-based access control system in IoT.
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- 56. father, Harvey B. Spelman, was born in a log cabin in Rootstown, Ohio. Her mother's family came also from Massachusetts, from the town of Blanford; and her father and mother met and were married in Ohio. Laura Spelman was a member of the first graduating class of the Cleveland High School, and has always retained the deepest interest in her classmates. After graduating, and spending some time in a boarding-school at the East, she taught very successfully for five years in the Cleveland public schools, being assistant in one of the large grammar schools. At the age of twenty-five Mr. Rockefeller married Miss Spelman, Sept. 8, 1864. Disliking display or extravagance, fond of books, a wise adviser in her home, a leader for many years of the infant department in the Sunday-school, like her father a worker for temperance and in all philanthropic movements, Mrs. Rockefeller has been an example to the rich, and a friend and helper to the poor. Comparatively few men and women can be intrusted with millions, and make the best use of the money. With Mr. Rockefeller's married life thus happily and wisely begun, business activities went on as before, perchance with less wear of body and mind. It was, of course, impossible to organize and carry forward a great business without anxiety and care. In Cleave's Biographical Cyclopædia of Cuyahoga County, it is stated that, in 1872, two years after the organization of the Standard Oil Company, nearly the entire refining interest of Cleveland, and other interests in New York and the oil-regions, were combined in this company [the Standard Oil], the capital stock of which was raised to two and a half millions, and its business reached in one year over twenty-five million dollars,—the largest company of the kind in the world. The New York establishment was enlarged in its refining departments; large tracts of land were purchased, and fine warehouses erected for the storage of petroleum; a considerable number of iron cars were procured, and the business of
- 57. transporting oil entered upon; interests were purchased in oil-pipes in the producing regions. Works were erected for the manufacture of barrels, paints, and glue, and everything used in the manufacture or shipment of oil. The works had a capacity of distilling twenty-nine thousand barrels of crude oil per day, and from thirty-five hundred to four thousand men were employed in the various departments. The cooperage factory, the largest in the world, turned out nine thousand barrels a day, which consumed over two hundred thousand staves and headings, the product of from fifteen to twenty acres of selected oak. Ten years after this time, in 1882, the Standard Oil Trust was formed, with a capital of $70,000,000, afterwards increased to $95,000,000, which in a few years became possessed of large oil- producing interests, and of the stock of the companies controlling the greater part of the refining of petroleum in this country. Ten years later, in 1892, the Supreme Court of Ohio having declared the Trust to be illegal, it was dissolved, and the business is now conducted by separate companies. In each of these Mr. Rockefeller is a shareholder. Mr. Rockefeller has proved himself a remarkable organizer. His associates have been able men; and his vast business has been so systematized, and the leaders of departments held responsible, that it is managed with comparative ease. The Standard Oil Companies own hundreds of thousands of acres of oil-lands, and wells, refineries, and many thousand miles of pipe- lines throughout the United States. They have business houses in the principal cities of the Old World as well as the New, and carry their oil in their own great oil-steamships abroad as easily as in their pipe-lines to the American seaboard. They control the greater part of the petroleum business of this country, and export much of the oil used abroad. They employ from forty to fifty thousand men in this great industry, many of whom have remained with the companies for
- 58. twenty or thirty years. It is said that strikes are unknown among them. When it is stated, as in the last United States Census reports, that the production of crude petroleum in this country is about thirty-five million barrels a year, the capital invested in the production $114,000,000, and the value of the exports of petroleum in various forms amounts to nearly $50,000,000 a year, the vastness of the business is apparent. With such power in their hands, instead of selling their product at high rates, they have kept oil at such low prices that the poorest all over the world have been enabled to buy and use it. Mr. Rockefeller has not confined his business interests to the Standard Oil Company. He owns iron-mines and land in various States; he owns a dozen or more immense vessels on the lakes, besides being largely interested in other steamship lines on both the ocean and the great lakes; he has investments in several railroads, and is connected with many other industrial enterprises. With all these different lines of business, and being necessarily a very busy man, he never seems hurried or worried. His manner is always kindly and considerate. He is a good talker, an equally good listener, and gathers knowledge from every source. Meeting the best educators of the country, coming in contact with leading business and professional men as well, and having travelled abroad and in his own country, Mr. Rockefeller has become a man of wide and varied intelligence. In physique he is of medium height, light hair turning gray, blue eyes, and pleasant face. He is a lover of trees, never allowing one to be cut down on his grounds unless necessity demands it, fond of flowers, knows the birds by their song or plumage, and never tires of the beauties of nature. He is as courteous to a servant as to a millionnaire, is social and genial, and enjoys the pleasantry of bright conversation. He has
- 59. great power of concentration, is very systematic in business and also in his every-day life, allotting certain hours to work, and other hours to exercise, the bicycle being one of his chief out-door pleasures. He is fond of animals, and owns several valuable horses. A great Saint Bernard dog, white and yellow, called Laddie, was for years the pet of the household and the admiration of friends. When recently killed accidentally by an electric wire, the dog was carefully buried, and the grave covered with myrtle. A pretty stone, a foot and a half high, cut in imitation of the trunk of an oak-tree, at whose base fern- leaves cluster, marks the spot, with the words Our dog Laddie; died, 1895, carved upon a tiny slab. It may be comparatively easy to do great deeds, but the little deeds of thoughtfulness and love for the dumb creatures who have loved us show the real beauty and refinement of character. Mr. Rockefeller belongs to few social organizations, his church work and his home-life sufficing. He is a member of the New England Society, the Union League Club of New York, and of the Empire State Sons of the Revolution, as his ancestors, both on his father's and mother's side, were in the Revolutionary War. His home is a very happy one. Into it have been born five children,— Bessie, Alice, who died early, Alta, Edith, and John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Bessie is married to Charles A. Strong, Associate Professor of Psychology in Chicago University, a graduate of both the University of Rochester and Harvard, and has been a student at the Universities of Berlin and Paris. He is a son of the Rev. Dr. Augustus H. Strong, President of Rochester Theological Seminary. Edith is married to Harold F. McCormick of Chicago, a graduate of Princeton, and son of the late Cyrus H. McCormick, whose invention of the reaper has been a great blessing to the world. Mr. McCormick gave generously of his millions after he had acquired wealth. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., is at Brown University, and will probably be associated with his father in business, for which he has shown much
- 60. aptitude. The children have all been reared with the good sense and Christian teaching that are the foundations of the best homes. They have dressed simply, lived without display, been active in hospital, Sunday-school, and other good works, and found their pleasures in music, in which all the family are especially skilled, and in reading. They enjoy out-door life, skating in winter, and rowing, walking, and riding in the summer; but there is no lavish use of money for their pleasures. The daughters know how to sew, and have made many garments for poor children. They have been taught the useful things of home-life, and often cook delicacies for the sick. They have found out in their youth that the highest living is not for self. A recent gift from Miss Alta Rockefeller is $1,200 annually to sustain an Italian day-nursery in the eastern part of Cleveland. This summer, 1896, about fifty little people, two years old and upwards, enjoyed a picnic in the grounds of their benefactor. Mrs. Rockefeller's mother and sister, Miss Lucy M. Spelman, a cultivated and philanthropic woman, are the other members of the Rockefeller family. Besides Mr. Rockefeller's summer home in Cleveland, he has another with about one thousand acres of land at Pocantico Hills, near Tarrytown on the Hudson. The place is picturesque and historic, made doubly interesting through the legends of Washington Irving. From the summit of Kaakoote Mountain the views are of rare beauty. Sleepy Hollow and the grave of Irving are not far distant. The winter home in New York City is a large brick house, with brown-stone front, near Fifth Avenue, furnished richly but not showily, containing some choice paintings and a fine library. Mr. Rockefeller will be long remembered as a remarkable financier and the founder of a great organization, but he will be remembered longest and honored most as a remarkable giver. We have many rich men in America, but not all are great givers; not all have learned that it is really more blessed to give than to receive; not all
- 61. remember that we go through life but once, with its opportunities to brighten the lives about us, and to help to bear the burdens of others. Mr. Rockefeller began to give very early in life, and for the last forty years has steadily increased his giving as his wealth has increased. Always reticent about his gifts, it is impossible to learn how much he has given or for what purposes. Of necessity some gifts become public, such as his latest to Vassar College of $100,000, a like amount to Rochester University and Theological Seminary, and the same, it is believed, to Spelman Seminary, at Atlanta, Ga., named as a memorial to his father-in-law. This is a school for colored women and girls, with preparatory, normal, musical, and industrial departments. The institute opened with eleven pupils in 1881, and now has 744, with nine buildings on fourteen acres of land. Dr. J. L. M. Curry said in his report for 1893, In process of erection is the finest school building for normal purposes in the South, planned and constructed expressly with reference to the work of training teachers, which will cost over $50,000. In the industrial department, dress-cutting, sewing, cooking, and laundry work are taught. There is also a training-school for nurses. In a list of gifts for 1892, in the New York Tribune, Mr. Rockefeller's name appears in connection with Des Moines College, Ia., $25,000; Bucknell College, $10,000; Shurtleff College $10,000; the Memorial Baptist Church in New York, erected through the efforts of Dr. Edward Judson in memory of his father, Dr. Adoniram Judson, $40,000; besides large amounts to Chicago University. It is probable that, aside from Chicago University, these were only a small proportion of his gifts during that year. An article in the press states that the recent anonymous gift of $25,000 to help purchase the land for the site of Barnard College of Columbia University was from Mr. Rockefeller. He has also pledged $100,000 towards a million dollars, which are to be used for the
- 62. construction of model tenement houses for the poor in New York City. He has given largely to the Cleveland Young Men's Christian Association, and to Young Men's and Women's Christian Associations both in this country and abroad. He has built churches, given yearly large sums to foreign and home missions, charity organization societies, Indian associations, hospital work, fresh-air funds, libraries, kindergartens, Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, for the education of the colored people at the South, and to the Woman's Christian Temperance Unions and to the National Temperance Society. He is a total abstainer, and no wine is ever upon his table. He does not use tobacco in any form. Mr. Rockefeller's private charities have been almost numberless. He has aided young men and women through college, sometimes by gift and sometimes by loan. He has provided the means for persons who were ill to go abroad or elsewhere for rest. He does not forget, when his apples are gathered at Pocantico Hills, to send hundreds of barrels to the various charitable institutions in and near New York, or, when one of his workingmen dies, to continue the support to his family while it is needed. Some of us become too busy to think of the little ways of doing good. It is said by those who know him best, that he gives more time to his benevolences and to their consideration than to his business affairs. He employs secretaries, whose time is given to the investigation of requests for aid, and attending to such cases as are favorably decided upon. Mr. Rockefeller's usual plan of giving is to pledge a certain sum on condition that others give, thus making them share in the blessings of benevolence. At one time he gave conditionally about $300,000, and it resulted in $1,700,000 being secured for some twenty or thirty institutions of learning in all parts of the country. It is said by a friend, that on his pledge-book are hundreds of charities to which he gives regularly many thousand dollars each month.
- 63. His greatest gift has been that of $7,425,000 to the University of Chicago. The first University of Chicago existed from 1858 to 1886, a period of twenty-eight years, and was discontinued from lack of funds. When the American Baptist Education Society, formed at Washington, D.C., in May, 1888, held its first anniversary in Tremont Temple, Boston, it was resolved to take immediate steps toward the founding of a well-equipped college in the city of Chicago. Mr. Rockefeller had already become interested in founding such an institution, and made a subscription of $600,000 toward an endowment fund, conditioned on the pledging by others of $400,000 before June 1, 1890. The Rev. T. W. Goodspeed, and the Rev. E. T. Gates, Secretary of the Education Society, succeeded in raising this amount, and in addition a block and a half of ground as a site for the institution, valued at $125,000, given by Mr. Marshall Field of Chicago. Two and a half blocks were purchased for $282,500, making in all twenty-four acres, lying between the two great south parks of Chicago, Washington and Jackson, and fronting on the Midway Plaisance, a park connecting the other two. These parks contain a thousand acres. The university was incorporated in 1890, and Professor William Rainey Harper of Yale University was elected President. The choice was an eminently wise one, a man of progressive ideas being needed for the great university. He had graduated at Muskingum College in 1870, taken his degree of Ph.D. at Yale in 1875, been Professor of Hebrew and the cognate languages at the Baptist Union Theological Seminary for seven years, Professor of the Semitic Languages at Yale for five years, and Woolsey Professor of Biblical Literature at Yale for two years, besides filling other positions of influence. In September, 1890, Mr. Rockefeller made a second subscription of $1,000,000; and, in accordance with the terms of this gift, the Theological Seminary was removed from Morgan Park to the University site, as the Divinity School of the University, and
- 64. dormitories erected, and an academy of the University established at Morgan Park. The University began the erection of its first buildings Nov. 26, 1891. Mr. Henry Ives Cobb was chosen as the architect, and the English Gothic style is to be maintained throughout. The buildings are of blue Bedford stone, with red tiled roofs. The recitation buildings, laboratories, chapel, museum, gymnasium, and library are the central features; while the dormitories are arranged in quadrangles on the four corners. Mr. Rockefeller's third gift was made in February, 1892, one thousand five per cent bonds of the par value of one million dollars, for the further endowment of instruction. In December of the same year he gave an equal amount for endowment, one thousand thousand-dollar five per cent bonds. In June, 1893 he gave $150,000; the next year, December, 1894, in cash, $675,000. On Jan. 1, 1896, another million, promising two millions more on condition that the University should also raise two millions. Half of this sum was obtained at once through the gift of Miss Helen Culver. In her letter to the trustees of the University, she says, The whole gift shall be devoted to the increase and spread of knowledge within the field of biological science.... Among the motives prompting this gift is the desire to carry out the ideas, and to honor the memory, of Mr. Charles J. Hull, who was for a considerable time a member of the Board of Trustees of the old University of Chicago. Miss Culver is a cousin of the late Mr. Hull, who left her his millions for philanthropic purposes. Their home for many years was the mansion since known as Hull House. The University of Chicago has been fortunate in other gifts. Mr. S. A. Kent of Chicago gave the Kent Chemical Laboratory, costing $235,000, opened Jan. 1, 1894. The Ryerson Physical Laboratory, costing $225,000, opened July 2, 1894, was the gift of Mr. Martin A. Ryerson, as a memorial to his father. Mrs. Caroline Haskell gave $100,000 for the Haskell Oriental Museum, as a memorial of her
- 65. husband, Mr. Frederick Haskell. There will be rooms for Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek, Hebrew, and other collections. Mr. George C. Walker, $130,000 for the Walker Museum for geological and anthropological specimens; Mr. Charles T. Yerkes, nearly a half million for the Yerkes Observatory and forty-inch telescope; Mrs. N. S. Foster, Mrs. Henrietta Snell, Mrs. Mary Beecher, and Mrs. Elizabeth G. Kelley have each given $50,000, or more, for dormitories. It is expected that half a million will be realized from the estate of William B. Ogden for The Ogden (graduate) School of Science. The first payment has amounted to half that sum. Considerably over $10,000,000 have been given to the University. The total endowment is over $6,000,000. The University opened its doors to students on Oct. 1, 1892, in Cobb Lecture Hall, given by Mr. Silas B. Cobb of Chicago, and costing $150,000. The number of students during the first year exceeded nine hundred. The professors have been chosen with great care, and number among them some very distinguished men, from both the Old World and the New. The University of Chicago is co-educational, which is matter for congratulation. Its courses are open on equal terms to men and women, with the same teachers, the same studies, and the same diplomas. Three of the deans are women, says Grace Gilruth Rigby in Peterson's Magazine for February, 1896, and half a dozen women are members of its faculty. They instruct men as well as women, and in this particular it differs from most co- educational schools. The University has some unique features. Instead of the usual college year beginning in September, the year is divided into four quarters, beginning respectively on the first day of July, October, January, and April, and continuing twelve weeks each, with a recess of one week between the close of each quarter and the beginning of the next. Degrees are conferred the last week of every quarter. The summer quarter, which was at first an experiment, has proved so successful that it is now an established feature.
- 66. The instructor takes his vacation in any quarter, or may take two vacations of six weeks each. The student may absent himself for a term or more, and take up the work where he left off, or he may attend all the quarters, and thus shorten his college course. Much attention is given to University Extension work, and proper preparatory work is obtained through the affiliation of academies with the University. Instruction is also given by the University through correspondence with those who wish to pursue preparatory or college studies. Chicago is, as far as I am aware, writes the late Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen in the Cosmopolitan for April, 1893, the first institution which, by the appointment of a permanent salaried university extension faculty, has formally charged itself with a responsibility for the outside public. This is a great step, and one of tremendous consequence. A non-resident student is expected to matriculate at the University, and usually spends the first year in residence. Non-resident work is accepted for only one-third of the work required for a degree. The University has eighty regular fellowships and scholarships, besides several special fellowships. The institution, according to Robert Herrick, in Scribner's Magazine for October, 1895, seems to have the spirit of its founder. Two college settlements in the hard districts of Chicago, he writes, are supported and manned by the students.... The classes and clubs of the settlements show that the college students feel the impossibility of an academic life that lives solely to itself. On the philanthropic committee, and as teachers in the settlement classes, men and women, instructors and students, work side by side. The interest in sociological studies, which is commoner at Chicago than elsewhere, stimulates this modern activity in college life. The University of Chicago has been successful from the first. In 1895 it numbered 1,265 students, of whom 493 were in the graduate
- 67. schools, most of them having already received their bachelor's degree at other colleges. In 1896 there are over 1,900 students. The possibilities of the university are almost unlimited. Dr. Albert Shaw writes in the Review of Reviews for February, 1893, No rich man's recognition of his opportunity to serve society in his own lifetime has ever produced results so mature and so extensive in so very short a time as Mr. John D. Rockefeller's recent gifts to the Chicago University. The New York Sun for July 4, 1896, gives Mr. Rockefeller the following well-deserved praise: Mr. John D. Rockefeller has paid his first visit to the University of Chicago, which was built up and endowed by his magnificent gifts. The millions he has bestowed on that institution make him one of the very greatest of private contributors to the foundation of a school of learning in the whole history of the world. He has given the money, moreover, in his lifetime, and thus differs from nearly all others of the most notable founders and endowers of colleges. By so giving, too, he has distinguished himself from the great mass of all those who have made large benefactions for public uses. He has taken the millions from his rapidly accumulating fortune; and he has made the gifts quietly, modestly, and without the least seeking for popular applause, or to win the conspicuous manifestations of honor their munificence could easily have obtained for him. The reason for this remarkable peculiarity of Mr. Rockefeller as a public benefactor is that, being a deeply religious man, he has made his gifts as an obligation of religious duty, as it seems to him. Mr. Rockefeller's latest gift, of $600,000, was made to the people of Cleveland, Ohio, when that city celebrated her one hundredth birthday, July 22, 1896. The gift was two hundred and seventy-six acres of land of great natural beauty, to complete the park system of the city. For this land Mr. Rockefeller paid $600,000. The land is already worth a million dollars, and will be worth many times that amount in the years to come.
- 68. When announcing Mr. Rockefeller's munificent gift to the city, Mr. J. G. W. Cowles, president of the Chamber of Commerce, said of the giver: His modesty is equal to his liberality, and he is not here to share with us this celebration. The streams of his benevolence flow largely in hidden channels, unseen and unknown to men; but when he founds a university in Chicago, or gives a beautiful park to Cleveland, with native forests and shady groves, rocky ravines, sloping hillsides and level valleys, cascades and running brook and still pools of water, all close by our homes, open and easy of access to all our people, such deeds cannot be hid—they belong to the public and to history, as the gift itself is for the people and for posterity. The Centennial gift has caused great rejoicing and gratitude, and will be a blessing forever to the whole people, but especially to those whose daily work keeps them away from the fresh air and the sunshine. A day or two after the gift had been received, a large number of Cleveland's prominent citizens visited the giver at his home at Forest Hill, to express to him the thanks of the city. After the address of gratitude, Mr. Rockefeller responded with much feeling. This is our Centennial year, he said. The city of Cleveland has grown to great proportions, and has prospered far beyond anything any of us had anticipated. What will be said by those who will come after us when a hundred years hence this city celebrates its second Centennial anniversary, and reference is made to you, gentlemen, and to me? Will it be said that this or that man has accumulated great treasures? No; all that will be forgotten. The question will be, What did we do with our treasures? Did we, or did we not, use them to help our fellow-man? This will be forever remembered. After referring to his early school-life in the city, and efforts to find employment, he told how, needing a little money to engage in business, and in the innocence of his youth and inexperience supposing almost any of his business friends would indorse his note
- 69. for the amount needed, he visited one after another; and, said Mr. Rockefeller, each one of them had the most excellent reasons for refusing! Finally he determined to try the bankers, and called upon a man whom the city delights to honor, Mr. T. P. Handy. The banker received the young man kindly, invited him to be seated, asked a few questions, and then loaned him $2,000, a large amount for me to have all at one time, said Mr. Rockefeller. Mr. Rockefeller is still in middle life, with, it is hoped, many years before him in which to carry out his great projects of benevolence. He is as modest and gentle in manner, as unostentatious and as kind in heart, as when he had no millions to give away. He is never harsh, seems to have complete self-control, and has not forgotten to be grateful to the men who befriended and trusted him in his early business life. His success may be attributed in part to industry, energy, economy, and good sense. He loved his work, and had the courage to battle with difficulties. He had steadiness of character, the ability to command the confidence of business men from the beginning, and gave close and careful attention to the matters intrusted to him. Mr. Rockefeller will be remembered, not so much because he accumulated millions, but because he gave away millions, thereby doing great good, and setting a noble example.
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