network security.pdf

Network Security Tutorial
Contact: training@apnic.net
TSEC01_v1.0

Overview
•  Network Security Fundamentals
•  Security on Different Layers and Attack Mitigation
•  Cryptography and PKI
•  Resource Registration (Whois Database)
•  Virtual Private Networks and IPsec

Network Security
Fundamentals
Network Security Workshop

Overview
•  Why We Need Security
•  Definitions and Concepts
•  Access Control
•  Risk vs. Vulnerability
•  Threats and Attack Types

Why Security?
•  The Internet was initially designed for connectivity
–  Trust assumed
–  We do more with the Internet nowadays
–  Security protocols are added on top of the TCP/IP
•  Fundamental aspects of information must be protected
–  Confidential data
–  Employee information
–  Business models
–  Protect identity and resources
•  We can’t keep ourselves isolated from the Internet
–  Most business communications are done online
–  We provide online services
–  We get services from third-party organizations online

Internet Evolution
•  Different ways to handle security as the Internet evolves
LAN connectivity Application-specific
More online content
Cloud computing
Application/data hosted
in the cloud environment

Why Security?
•  Key findings:
–  Hacktivism and vandalism are the common DDoS attack motivation
–  High-bandwidth DDoS attacks are the ‘new normal’
–  First-ever IPv6 DDoS attacks are reported
–  Trust issues across geographic boundaries
Source: Arbor Networks Worldwide Infrastructure
Security Report Volume VII

Breach Sources
Infiltration
Aggregation
Exfiltration
Source: Trustwave 2012 Global Security Report

Types of Security
•  Computer Security
–  generic name for the collection of tools designed to protect data and
to thwart hackers
•  Network Security
–  measures to protect data during their transmission
•  Internet Security
–  measures to protect data during their transmission over a collection
of interconnected networks

Goals of Information Security
Confidentiality Integrity Availability
SECURITY
prevents
unauthorized
use or
disclosure of
information
safeguards the
accuracy and
completeness
of information
authorized
users have
reliable and
timely access
to information

Access Control
•  The ability to permit or deny the use of an object by a
subject.
•  It provides 3 essential services:
–  Authentication (who can login)
–  Authorization (what authorized users can do)
–  Accountability (identifies what a user did)

Authentication
•  A means to verify or prove a user’s identity
•  The term “user” may refer to:
–  Person
–  Application or process
–  Machine or device
•  Identification comes before authentication
–  Provide username to establish user’s identity
•  To prove identity, a user must present either of the following:
–  What you know (passwords, passphrase, PIN)
–  What you have (token, smart cards, passcodes, RFID)
–  Who you are (biometrics such as fingerprints and iris scan, signature or
voice)

Examples of Tokens
eToken
RFID cards
Smart Cards
Fingerprint scanner

Trusted Network
•  Standard defensive-oriented technologies
–  Firewall
–  Intrusion Detection
•  Build TRUST on top of the TCP/IP infrastructure
–  Strong authentication
–  Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

Strong Authentication
•  An absolute requirement
•  Two-factor authentication
–  Passwords (something you know)
–  Tokens (something you have)
•  Examples:
–  Passwords
–  Tokens
–  Tickets
–  Restricted access
–  PINs
–  Biometrics
–  Certificates

Two-factor Authentication
•  Requires a user to provide at least two authentication
‘factors’ to prove his identity
–  something you know
Username/userID and password
–  something you have
Token using a one-time password (OTP)
•  The OTP is generated using a small electronic device in
physical possession of the user
–  Different OTP generated each time and expires after some time
–  An alternative way is through applications installed on your mobile
device
•  Multi-factor authentication is also common

Authorization
•  Defines the user’s rights and permissions on a system
•  Typically done after user has been authenticated
•  Grants a user access to a particular resource and what
actions he is permitted to perform on that resource
•  Access criteria based on the level of trust:
–  Roles
–  Groups
–  Location
–  Time
–  Transaction type

Authentication vs. Authorization
Client
Service
Authentication
Mechanism Authorization
Mechanism
“Authentication simply identifies a party, authorization defines whether they can
perform certain action” – RFC 3552

Authorization Concepts
•  Authorization creep
–  When users may possess unnecessarily high access privileges within
an organization
•  Default to Zero
–  Start with zero access and build on top of that
•  Need to Know Principle
–  Least privilege; give access only to information that the user
absolutely need
•  Access Control Lists
–  List of users allowed to perform particular access to an object (read,
write, execute, modify)

Single Sign On
•  Property of access control where a user logs in only once
and gains access to all authorized resources within a
system.
•  Benefits:
–  Ease of use
–  Reduces logon cycle (time spent re-entering passwords for the same
identity)
•  Common SSO technologies:
–  Kerberos, RADIUS
–  Smart card based
–  OTP Token
•  Disadvantage: Single point of attack

Types of Access Control
•  Centralized Access Control
–  Radius
–  TACACS+
–  Diameter
•  Decentralized Access Control
–  Control of access by people who are closer to the resources
–  No method for consistent control

Accountability
•  The security goal that generates the requirement for actions
of an entity to be traced uniquely to that entity
–  Senders cannot deny sending information
–  Receivers cannot deny receiving it
–  Users cannot deny performing a certain action
•  Supports nonrepudiation, deterrence, fault isolation,
intrusion detection and prevention and after-action recovery
and legal action
Source: NIST Risk Management Guide for
Information Technology Systems

Integrity
•  Security goal that generates the requirement for protection
against either intentional or accidental attempts to violate
data integrity
•  Data integrity
–  The property that data has when it has not been altered in an
unauthorized manner
•  System integrity
–  The quality that a system has when it performs its intended function
in an unimpaired manner, free from unauthorized manipulation
Source: NIST Risk Management Guide for
Information Technology Systems

Risk, Threat and Vulnerability
•  Vulnerability - weakness in a system
•  Risk - likelihood that a particular threat using a particular
attack will exploit a particular vulnerability
•  Exploit - taking advantage of a vulnerability
•  Non-repudiation—assurance that both parties are involved
in the transaction

Vulnerability
•  A weakness in security procedures, network design, or
implementation that can be exploited to violate a corporate
security policy
–  Software bugs
–  Configuration mistakes
–  Network design flaw
–  Lack of encryption
•  Exploit
–  Taking advantage of a vulnerability

Threat
•  Any circumstance or event with the potential to cause harm
to a networked system.
•  These are some example of threats:
–  Denial of service
•  Attacks make computer resources (e.g., bandwidth, disk space, or CPU time)
unavailable to its intended users
–  Unauthorised access
•  Access without permission issues by a rightful owner of devices or networks
–  Impersonation
–  Worms
–  Viruses

Risk
•  The possibility that a particular vulnerability will be exploited
•  IT-related risks arise from:
–  Unauthorized (malicious or accidental) disclosure, modification, or
destruction of information
–  Unintentional errors or omissions
–  IT disruptions due to natural or man-made disasters
–  Failure to exercise due care and diligence in implementation and
operation of the IT system
Risk = Threat * Vulnerability
(* Impact)

Risk Analysis
•  Identification, assessment and reduction of risks to an
acceptable level
•  the process of identifying security risks and probability of
occurrence, determining their impact, and identifying areas
that require protection
•  Three parts:
–  Risk assessment – determine the possible risks
–  Risk management – evaluating alternatives for mitigating the risk
–  Risk communication – presenting this material in an understanble
way to decision makers and/or the public

Risk Management vs. Cost of Security
•  Risk mitigation
–  The process of selecting appropriate controls to reduce risk to an
acceptable level
•  The level of acceptable risk
–  Determined by comparing the risk of security hole exposure to the
cost of implementing and enforcing the security policy
•  Trade-offs between safety, cost, and availability

Attack Sources
•  Active vs. passive
–  Active involves writing data to the network. It is common to disguise
one’s address and conceal the identity of the traffic sender
–  Passive involves only reading data on the network. Its purpose is breach
of confidentiality. This is possible if:
•  Attacker has gained control of a host in the communication path between two victim
machines
•  Attacker has compromised the routing infrastructure to arrange the traffic pass through a
compromised machine
Active Attacks Passive Attacks
Denial of Service attacks
Spoofing
Man in the Middle
ARP poisoning
Smurf attacks
Buffer overflow
SQL Injection
Reconnaissance
Eavesdropping
Port scanning
Source: RFC 4778

Attack Sources
•  On-path vs. Off-path
–  On-path routers (transmitting datagrams) can read, modify, or remove
any datagram transmitted along the path
–  Off-path hosts can transmit datagrams that appear to come from any
hosts but cannot necessarily receive datagrams intended for other
hosts
•  If attackers want to receive data, they have to put themselves on-path
–  How easy is it to subvert network topology?
•  It is not easy thing to do but, it is not impossible
•  Insider vs. outsider
–  What is definition of perimeter/border?
•  Deliberate attack vs. unintentional event
–  Configuration errors and software bugs are as harmful as a
deliberate malicious network attack
Source: RFC 4778

General Threats
•  Masquerade
–  An entity claims to be another entity
•  Eavesdropping
–  An entity reads information it is not intended to read
•  Authorization violation
–  An entity uses a service or resource it is not intended to use
•  Loss or modification of information
–  Data is being altered or destroyed
•  Denial of communication acts (repudiation)
–  An entity falsely denies its participation in a communication act
•  Forgery of information
–  An entity creates new information in the name of another entity
•  Sabotage
–  Any action that aims to reduce the availability and/or correct functioning of services or
systems

Reconnaissance Attack
•  Unauthorised users to gather information about the network
or system before launching other more serious types of
attacks
•  Also called eavesdropping
•  Information gained from this attack is used in subsequent
attacks (DoS or DDoS type)
•  Examples of relevant information:
–  Names, email address
•  Common practice to use a person’s first initial and last name for accounts
–  Practically anything

Man-in-the-Middle Attack
•  Active eavesdropping
•  Attacker makes independent connections with victims and
relays messages between them, making them believe that
they are talking directly to each other overa private
connection, when in fact the entire conversation is
controlled by the attacker
•  Usually a result of lack of end-to-end authentication
•  Masquerading - an entity claims to be another entity

Session Hijacking
•  Exploitation of a valid computer session, to gain
unauthorized access to information or services in a
computer system.
•  Theft of a “magic cookie” used to authenticate a user to a
remote server (for web developers)
•  Four methods:
–  Session fixation – attacker sets a user’s session id to one known to
him, for example by sending the user an email with a link that
contains a particular session id.
–  Session sidejacking – attacker uses packet sniffing to read network
traffic between two parties to steal the session cookie.

Denial of Service (DoS) Attack
•  Attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to
its intended users.
•  Purpose is to temporarily or indefinitely interrupt or suspend
services of a host connected to the Internet
•  Methods to carry out this attack may vary
–  Saturating the target with external communications requests (such that it
can’t respond to legitimate traffic) – SERVER OVERLOAD
–  May include malware to max out target resources (such as CPU), trigger
errors, or crash the operating system
•  DDoS attacks are more dynamic and comes from a broader
range of attackers
•  Examples: SYN flooding, Smurf attacks, Starvation
•  Can be used as a redirection and reconnaissance technique

Layered Security &
Attack Mitigation

Overview
•  Attacks in Different Layers
•  Security Technologies
•  Link-Layer Security
•  Network Layer Security
•  Transport Layer Security
•  Application Layer Security

Attacks on Different Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Application
Transport
Internet
Network Access
Layer 2: PPTP, Token Ring
Layer 3: IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, IPSec
Layer 4: TCP, UDP
Layer 5: SMB, NFS, Socks
Layer 7: DNS, DHCP, HTTP, FTP, IMAP,
LDAP, NTP, Radius, SSH, SMTP, SNMP,
Telnet, TFTP
Ping/ICMP Flood
TCP attacks, Routing
attack, SYN flooding,
Sniffing
DNS Poisoning, Phishing,
SQL injection, Spam/Scam
ARP spoofing, MAC
flooding
OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Model

Layer 2 Attacks
•  ARP Spoofing
•  MAC attacks
•  DHCP attacks
•  VLAN hopping

ARP Spoofing
1
Client’s ARP Cache already poisoned
It will communicate directly to the fake
destination
I want to connect to
10.0.0.3. I don’t know the
MAC address
10.0.0.1
AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA
10.0.0.2
BB-BB-BB-BB-BB-BB
10.0.0.3
CC-CC-CC-CC-CC-CC
10.0.0.4
DD-DD-DD-DD-DD-
DD
ARP Request
ARP Reply
Wait, I am 10.0.0.3!
I am 10.0.0.3. This is
my MAC address

MAC Flooding
•  Exploits the limitation of all switches – fixed CAM table size
•  CAM = Content Addressable memory = stores info on the
mapping of individual MAC addresses to physical ports on
the switch.
Port 1 Port
2
Port
3
Port
4
00:01:23:45:67:A1 x
00:01:23:45:67:B2 x
00:01:23:45:67:C3 x
00:01:23:45:67:D4 x

DHCP Attacks
•  DHCP Starvation Attack
–  Broadcasting vast number of DHCP requests with spoofed MAC
address simultaneously.
–  DoS attack using DHCP leases
•  Rogue DHCP Server Attacks
Attacker sends many different DHCP requests
with many spoofed addresses.
Server runs out of IP addresses
to allocate to valid users

DHCP Attack Types
•  Solution: enable DHCP snooping
ip dhcp snooping (enable dhcp snooping globally)
ip dhcp snooping vlan <vlan-id> (for specific
vlans)
ip dhcp snooping trust
ip dhcp snooping limit rate <rate>

Layer 3 Attacks
•  ICMP Ping Flood
•  ICMP Smurf
•  Ping of death

Ping Flood
Internet
Broadcas
t Enabled
Network
Victim
1
Other forms of ICMP attack:
- Ping of death
- ICMP ping flood
Attacker

Mitigating Sniffing Attacks
•  Avoid using insecure protocols like basic HTTP
authentication and telnet.
•  If you have to use an insecure protocol, try tunneling it
through something to encrypt the sensitive data.
•  Run ARPwatch.
•  Try running tools like sniffdet and Sentinel to detect network
cards in promiscuous mode that may be running sniffing
software.

Routing Attacks
•  Attempt to poison the routing information
•  Distance Vector Routing
–  Announce 0 distance to all other nodes
•  Blackhole traffic
•  Eavesdrop
•  Link State Routing
–  Can drop links randomly
–  Can claim direct link to any other routers
–  A bit harder to attack than DV
•  BGP attacks
–  ASes can announce arbitrary prefix
–  ASes can alter path

TCP Attacks
•  SYN Flood – occurs when an attacker sends SYN requests
in succession to a target.
•  Causes a host to retain enough state for bogus half-
connections such that there are no resources left to
establish new legitimate connections.

TCP Attacks
•  Exploits the TCP 3-way handshake
•  Attacker sends a series of SYN packets without replying
with the ACK packet
•  Finite queue size for incomplete connections
Server
(Victim)
Attacker
OPEN CONNECTIONS
SYN
SYN+ACK
ACK?

Application Layer Attacks
•  Applications don’t authenticate properly
•  Authentication information in clear
–  FTP, Telnet, POP
•  DNS insecurity
–  DNS poisoning
–  DNS zone transfer
1

Application Layer Attacks
•  Scripting vulnerabilities
•  Cookie poisoning
•  Buffer overflow
•  Hidden field manipulation
•  Parameter tampering
•  Cross-site scripting
•  SQL injection
1

Application-Layer Attacks
Source: Arbor Networks Worldwide Infrastructure
Security Report Volume VII

Application Layer DDoS: Slowloris
•  Incomplete HTTP requests
•  Properties
–  Low bandwidth
–  Keep sockets alive
–  Only affects certain web servers
–  Doesn’t work through load balancers
–  Managed to work around accf_http

Web Application Security Risks
•  Injection
•  Cross-Site Scripting
•  Broken authentication and Session Management
•  Insecure Direct Object References
•  Cross-site Request Forgery (CSRF)
•  Insecure Cryptographic Storage
•  Failure to Restrict URL Access
•  Insufficient Transport Layer Protection
•  Unvalidated Redirects and Forwards
Source: OWASP Top 10 Application Security Risks, 2010

DNS Changer
•  “Criminals have learned that if they can control a user’s
DNS servers, they can control what sites the user connects
to the Internet.”
•  How: infect computers with a malicious software (malware)
•  This malware changes the user’s DNS settings with that of
the attacker’s DNS servers
•  Points the DNS configuration to DNS resolvers in specific
address blocks and use it for their criminal enterprise
•  For more: see the NANOG presentation by Merike

Rogue DNS Servers
•  85.225.112.0 through 85.255.127.255
•  67.210.0.0 through 67.210.15.255
•  93.188.160.0 through 93.188.167.255
•  77.67.83.0 through 77.67.83.255
•  213.109.64.0 through 213.109.79.255
•  64.28.176.0 through 64.28.191.255
•  If your computer is configured with one of these DNS
servers, it is most likely infected with DNSChanger malware

Top DNS Changer Infections
•  By country (as of 11 June, 2012):
–  USA - 69517
–  IT – 26494
–  IN – 21302
–  GB – 19589
–  DE – 18427
•  By ASNs
–  AS9829 (India) – 15568
–  AS3269 () – 13406
–  AS7922 () – 11964
–  AS3320 () – 9250
–  AS7132 () – 6743
•  More info at http://dcwg.org/

DNS Vulnerabilities
master Caching forwarder
Zone administrator
Zone file
Dynamic
updates
1"
2"
slaves
3"
4"
5"
resolver
Server protection! Data protection!
Corrupting data" Impersonating master"
Unauthorized updates"
Cache impersonation"
Cache pollution by"
Data spoofing"

DNS Cache Poisoning
•  Caching incorrect resource record that did not originate
from authoritative DNS sources.
•  Result: connection (web, email, network) is redirected to
another target (controlled by the attacker)

DNS Cache Poisoning
(pretending to be
the authoritative
zone)
ns.example.com
Webserver
(192.168.1.1)
DNS Caching
Server
Client
I want to access
www.example.com
1
QID=6457
1
2
QID=64569
QID=64570
QID=64571
www.example.com 192.168.1.1
match!
3
3
Root/GTLD
QID=64571

DNS Amplification
Queries for
www.example.com
Attacker
ns.example.com
Victim Server
DNS Recursive server
Compromised
Machines
(spoofed IP)
Root/GTLD

Common Types of Attack
•  Ping sweeps and port scans - reconnaissance
•  Sniffing – capture packet as they travel through the network
•  Man-in-the-middle attack – intercepts messages that are
intended for a valid device
•  Spoofing - sets up a fake device and trick others to send
messages to it
•  Hijacking – take control of a session
•  Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed DoS (DDoS)

Wireless Attacks
•  WEP – first security mechanism for 802.11 wireless
networks
•  Weaknesses in this protocol were discovered by Fluhrer,
Mantin and Shamir, whose attacks became known as “FMS
attacks”
•  Tools were developed to automate WEP cracking
•  Chopping attack were released to crack WEP more
effectively and faster
•  Cloud-based WPA cracker
–  https://www.wpacracker.com/

Man in the Middle Attacks (Wireless)
•  Creates a fake access point and have clients authenticate
to it instead of a legitimate one.
•  Capture traffic to see usernames, passwords, etc that are
sent in clear text.

Botnet
•  Collection of compromised computers (or ‘bot’)
•  Computers are targeted by malware (malicious software)
•  Once controlled, an attacker can use the compromised
computer via standards-based network protocol such as
IRC and HTTP
•  How to become a bot:
–  Drive-by downloads (malware)
–  Go to malicious websites (exploits web browser vulnerabilities)
–  Run malicious programs (Trojan) from websites or as email
attachment

Password Cracking
•  Dictionary attacks
–  Guessing passwords using a file of 1M possible password values
•  Ordinary words and people’s names
–  Offline dictionary attack when the entire password file has been
attacked
–  Use random characters as password with varying upper and lower
case, numbers, and symbols
•  Brute-force attacks
–  Checking all possible values until it has been found
–  The resource needed to perform this attack grows exponentially while
increasing the key size
•  Social engineering

Pharming and Phishing
•  Phishing – victims are redirected to a fake website that
looks genuine. When the victim supplies his account and
password, this can be used by the attacker to the target site
–  Typically uses fraud emails with clickable links to fake websites
•  Pharming – redirect a website’s traffic to another fake site
by changing the victim’s DNS settings or hosts file

Security on Different Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Layer 2: ARP, Token Ring
Layer 3: IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, IPSec
Layer 4: TCP, UDP
Layer 5: SMB, NFS, Socks
Layer 7: DNS, DHCP, HTTP, FTP,
IMAP, LDAP, NTP, Radius, SSH,
SMTP, SNMP, Telnet, TFTP
Ping/ICMP Flood
TCP attacks, Routing attack,
SYN flooding, Sniffing
DNS Poisoning, Phishing, SQL
injection, Spam/Scam
ARP spoofing, MAC
flooding
IEEE 802.1X, PPP &
PPTP
IPSec
TLS, SSL, SSH
HTTPS, DNSSEC, PGP, SMIME

Link-Layer Security
•  Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F)
•  Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
•  Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)

Layer 2 Forwarding Protocol
•  Created by Cisco Systems and replaced by L2TP
•  Permits the tunneling of the link layer – High-level Data Link
Control (HDLC), async HDLC, or Serial Line Internet
Protocol (SLIP) frames – of higher-level protocols
IP/UDP L2F PPP (Data)
Carrier
Protocol
Encapsulator
Protocol
Passenger
Protocol

Point to Point Tunneling Protocol
•  Initiated by Microsoft but later became an informational
standard in the IETF (RFC 2637)
•  Client/server architecture that allows PPP to be tunneled
through an IP network and decouples functions that exist in
current NAS.
•  Connection-oriented

Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol
•  Combination of L2F and PPTP
•  Published as RFC 2661 and known as L2TPv2
•  L2TPv3 provides additional security features and the ability
to carry data links other than PPP
•  The two end-points are L2TP Access Concentrator (LAC) or
L2TP Network Server (LNS)

PPPoE
•  PPP over Ethernet
•  Defined in RFC 2516
•  A means to encapsulate PPP packets over the Ethernet link
layer
•  Mostly used in ADSL environments to provide access
control, billing, and type of service on a per-user rather than
a per-site basis

Transport Layer Security
•  Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
•  Secure Shell Protocol
•  SOCKS Protocol

SSL/TLS
•  TLS and SSL encrypts the segments of network
connections above the Transport Layer.
•  Versions:
–  SSLv1 – designed by Netscape
–  SSLv2 – publicly released in 1994; has a number of security flaws;
uses RC4 for encryption and MD5 for authentication
–  SSLv3 – added support for DSS for authentication and DH for key
agreement
–  TLS – based on SSLv3; uses DSS for authentication, DH for key
agreement, and 3DES for encryption
•  TLS is the IETF standard which succeeded SSL.

SSL Handshake
SSL Client SSL Server
Client initiates SSL connection
Server sends digital certificate
and selected cipher suite
Client sends encrypted shared secret
Message encryption and integrity algorithms
are negotiated
Session keys are generated

Advantages of SSL
•  The connection is private
–  Encryption is used after initial handshake to define a secret key
–  Encryption uses symmetric cryptography (DES or RC4)
•  Peer’s identity can be authenticated using asmmetric
cryptography (RSA or DSS)
•  The connection is reliable
–  Message transport includes message integrity check using a keyed
MAC. Secure hash functions (SHA or MD5) are used for MAC
computation.

Applications Using SSL/TLS
Protocol Defined Port Number SSL/TLS Port Number
HTTP 80 443
NNTP 119 563
LDAP 389 636
FTP-data 20 989
FTP-control 21 990
Telnet 23 992
IMAP 143 993
POP3 110 994
SMTP 25 995

Secure Shell Protocol (SSH)
•  Protocol for secure remote login
•  Provides support for secure remote login, secure file
transfer, and secure forwarding of TCP/IP and X Window
System traffic
•  Consists of 3 major components:
–  Transport layer protocol (server authentication, confidentiality,
integrity)
–  User authentication protocol (authenticates client to the server)
–  Connection protocol (multiplexes the encrypted tunnel into several
logical channels)

Application Layer Security
•  HTTPS
•  PGP (Pretty Good Privacy)
•  SMIME (Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
•  TSIG and DNSSEC
•  Wireless Encryption - WEP, WPA, WPA2

HTTPS
•  Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
•  Widely-used, message-oriented communications protocol
•  Connectionless oriented protocol
•  Technically not a protocol in itself, but simply layering HTTP
on top of the SSL/TLS protocol
•  Encapsulates data after security properties of the session
•  Not to be confused with S-HTTP
Note: A website must use HTTPS everywhere, otherwise it is still
vulnerable to some attacks

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)
•  Stands for Pretty Good Privacy, developed by Phil
Zimmerman in 1995
•  PGP is a hybrid cryptosystem
–  combines some of the best features of both conventional and public
key cryptography
•  Assumptions:
–  All users are using public key cryptography and have generated
private/public key pairs (using RSA or El Gamal)
–  All users also use symmetric key system (DES or Rijndael)
•  Offers authentication, confidentiality, compression, e-mail
compatibility and segmentation

S/MIME
•  Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
•  Uses public key certificates conforming to standard X.509
•  Very similar to PGP

Securing the Nameserver
•  Run the most recent version of the DNS software
–  Bind 9.9.1 or Unbound 1.4.16
–  Apply the latest patches
•  Hide version
•  Restrict queries
–  Allow-query { acl_match_list; };
•  Prevent unauthorized zone transfers
–  Allow-transfer { acl_match_list; };
•  Run BIND with the least privilege (use chroot)
•  Randomize source ports
–  don’t use query-source option
•  Secure the box
•  Use TSIG and DNSSEC

DNSSEC
•  DNSSEC – Domain Name Security Extensions
•  A set of extensions to DNS that provides
–  Origin authentication of DNS data
–  Data integrity
–  Authenticated denial of existence
•  designed to protect against attacks such as DNS cache
poisoning.
•  Adds four new resource record types:
–  RRSIG (Resource Record Signature)
–  DNSKEY (DNS Public Key)
–  DS (Delegation Signer)
–  NSEC (Next Secure)

Cryptography

Overview
•  What is Cryptography?
•  Symmetric Key Cryptography
•  Asymmetric Key Cryptography
•  Block and Stream Cipher
•  Digital Signature and Message Digest

Cryptography
•  Cryptography is everywhere
German Lorenz cipher machine

Cryptography
•  Cryptography deals with creating documents that can be
shared secretly over public communication channels
•  Other terms closely associated
–  Cryptanalysis = code breaking
–  Cryptology
•  Kryptos (hidden or secret) and Logos (description) = secret speech / communication
•  combination of cryptography and cryptanalysis
•  Cryptography is a function of plaintext and a cryptographic
key
C = F(P,k)
Notation:
Plaintext (P)
Ciphertext (C)
Cryptographic Key (k)

Typical Scenario
•  Alice wants to send a “secret” message to Bob
•  What are the possible problems?
–  Data can be intercepted
•  What are the ways to intercept this message?
•  How to conceal the message?
–  Encryption

Crypto Core
•  Secure key establishment
•  Secure communication
Alice has key (k)
Bob has key (k)
Alice has key (k)
Bob has key (k)
m
m
m
Confidentiality and integrity
Source: Dan Boneh, Stanford

It can do much more
•  Digital Signatures
•  Anonymous communication
•  Anonymous digital cash
–  Spending a digital coin without anyone knowing my identity
–  Buy online anonymously?
•  Elections and private auctions
–  Finding the winner without actually knowing individual votes (privacy)

Other uses are also theoretically
possible (Crypto magic)
•  Privately outsourcing computation
•  Zero knowledge (proof of knowledge)
Alice with
search query
Google
E(query)
E(results)
What did
she search
for?
I know the factorial of N Bob
I know the factorial of N
Proof

History: Ciphers
•  Substitution cipher
–  involves replacing an alphabet with another character of the same
alphabet set
–  Can be mono-alphabetic (single set for substitution) or poly-
alphabetic system (multiple alphabetic sets)
•  Example:
–  Caesar cipher, a mono-alphabetic system in which each character is
replaced by the third character in succession
–  Vigenere cipher, a poly-alphabetic cipher that uses a 26x26 table of
characters

How to Break a Substitution Cipher
UKBYBIPOUZBCUFEEBORUKBYBHOBBRFESPVKBWFOFERVNBCVBZPRUBOFERVNBCVBPCYYFVUFO
FEIKNWFRFIKJNUPWRFIPOUNVNIPUBRNCUKBEFWWFDNCHXCYBOHOPYXPUBNCUBOYNRVNIWN
CPOJIOFHOPZRVFZIXUBORJRUBZRBCHNCBBONCHRJZSFWNVRJRUBZRPCYZPUKBZPUNVPWPCYVF
ZIXUPUNFCPWRVNBCVBRPYYNUNFCPWWJUKBYBIPOUZBCUIPOUNVNIPUBRNCHOPYXPUBNCUB
OYNRVNIWNCPOJIOFHOPZRNCRVNBCUNENVVFZIXUNCHPCYVFZIXUPUNFCPWZPUKBZPUNVR
(1) Use frequency of the English letters
e = 12.7%
t = 9.1 %
a = 8.1%
(2) Use frequency of pairs of letters
he, in, an, th
In the example,
B appeared 36 times, U 33 times, and P 32 times
NC appeared 11 times, PU 10 times
UKB appeared 6 times

Transposition Cipher
•  No letters are replaced, they are just rearranged.
•  Rail Fence Cipher – another kind of transposition cipher in
which the words are spelled out as if they were a rail fence.

History: Rotor Machines (1870-1943)
•  Hebern machine – single rotor
•  Enigma - 3-5 rotors

Modern Crypto Algorithms
•  specifies the mathematical transformation that is performed
on data to encrypt/decrypt
•  Crypto algorithm is NOT proprietary
•  Analyzed by public community to show that there are no
serious weaknesses
•  Explicitly designed for encryption

Encryption
•  process of transforming plaintext to ciphertext using a
cryptographic key
•  Used all around us
–  In Application Layer – used in secure email, database sessions, and
messaging
–  In session layer – using Secure Socket Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer
Security (TLS)
–  In the Network Layer – using protocols such as IPSec
•  Benefits of good encryption algorithm:
–  Resistant to cryptographic attack
–  They support variable and long key lengths and scalability
–  They create an avalanche effect
–  No export or import restrictions

Encryption and Decryption
Plaintext
ENCRYPTION
ALGORITHM
DECRYPTION
ALGORITHM
Ciphertext Plaintext
Encryption Key Decryption Key

Symmetric Key Algorithm
•  Uses a single key to both encrypt and decrypt information
•  Also known as a secret-key algorithm
–  The key must be kept a “secret” to maintain security
–  This key is also known as a private key
•  Follows the more traditional form of cryptography with key
lengths ranging from 40 to 256 bits.

Symmetric Encryption
Plaintext
ENCRYPTION
ALGORITHM
DECRYPTION
ALGORITHM
Same shared secret key
Shared Key Shared Key
Symmetric Key
Cryptography

•  DES – block cipher using shared key encryption, 56-bit
•  3DES (Triple DES) – a block cipher that applies DES three
times to each data block
•  AES – replacement for DES; it is the current standard
•  RC4 – variable-length key, “stream cipher” (generate
stream from key, XOR with data)
•  RC6
•  Blowfish

Symmetric Algorithm Key Size
DES 56-bit keys
Triple DES (3DES) 112-bit and 168-bit keys
AES 128, 192, and 256-bit keys
IDEA 128-bit keys
RC2 40 and 64-bit keys
RC4 1 to 256-bit keys
RC5 0 to 2040-bit keys
RC6 128, 192, and 256-bit keys
Blowfish 32 to 448-bit keys
Note:
Longer keys are more difficult to crack, but more computationally expensive.

Block and Stream Cipher
•  Block cipher
–  takes a block of bits and encrypts them as a single unit
–  operate on a pre-determined block of bits (one byte, one word, 512
bytes, so forth), mixing key data in with the message data in a variety
of different ways.
•  Stream cipher
–  encrypts bits of the message at a time
–  typically bit-wise.
–  They either have a very long key (that eventually repeats) or a
reusable key that generates a repeatable but seemingly random
string of bits.
–  They perform some operation (typically an exclusive OR) with one of
these key bits and one of the message bits.

Block Cipher
•  Transforms a fixed-length block of plain text into a block of
ciphertext
•  Works with data per block
•  Common block ciphers:
–  DES and 3DES (in ECB and CBC mode)
–  Skipjack
–  Blowfish
–  RSA
–  AES
–  IDEA
–  Secure and Fast Encryption Routing (SAFER)

Stream Cipher
•  Use smaller units of plaintext than what are used with block
ciphers.
•  Typically work with bits
•  Common stream ciphers:
–  RC4
–  DES and 3DES (running OFB or CFB mode)
–  Software encryption algorithm (SEAL)

Data Encryption Standard (DES)
•  Developed by IBM for the US government in 1973-1974,
and approved in Nov 1976.
•  Based on Horst Feistel’s Lucifer cipher
•  block cipher using shared key encryption, 56-bit key length
•  Block size: 64 bits

DES: Illustration
Plaintext
ENCRYPTION
ALGORITHM
DECRYPTION
ALGORITHM
56-bit keys +
8 bits parity
64-bit blocks of input text

Triple DES
•  3DES (Triple DES) – a block cipher that applies DES three
times to each data block
•  Uses a key bundle comprising of three DES keys (K1, K2,
K3), each with 56 bits excluding parity.
•  DES encrypts with K1, decrypts with K2, then encrypts with
K3
•  Disadvantage: very slow
Ci = EK3(DK 2 (EK1(Pi )))

3DES: Illustration
•  Note:
–  If Key1 = Key2 = Key3, this is similar to DES
–  Usually, Key1 = Key3
Plaintext
ENCRYPT
Ciphertext
Key 1
DECRYPT ENCRYPT
Key 2 Key 3

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
•  Published in November 2001
•  Symmetric block cipher
•  Has a fixed block size of 128 bits
•  Has a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits
•  Based on Rijndael cipher which was developed by Joan
Daemen and Vincent Rijmen
•  Better suited for high-throughput, low latency environments

Rivest Cipher
RC Algorithm Description
RC2 Variable key-sized cipher used as a drop in replacement
for DES
RC4 Variable key sized stream cipher; Often used in file
encryption and secure communications (SSL)
RC5 Variable block size and variable key length; uses 64-bit
block size; Fast, replacement for DES
RC6 Block cipher based on RC5, meets AES requirement

RC4
•  Most widely used stream cipher
•  Popularly used in Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Wired
Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocols
•  Although simple and fast, it is vulnerable and can lead to
insecure systems

Block Cipher Modes
•  Defines how the block cipher algorithm is applied to the
data stream
•  Four Basic Modes
–  Electronic Code Book (ECB)
–  Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)
–  Cipher Feedback (CFB)
–  Output Feedback (OFB)

Ciphertext Block Chaining (CBC)
Pi = Dk (Ci )⊕ Ci−1,C0 = IV
Ci = Ek (Pi ⊕ Ci−1),C0 = IV

Cipher Feedback (CFB)
Ci = Ek (Ci−1)⊕ Pi
Pi = Ek (Ci−1)⊕ Ci
Co = IV

Selecting a Block Cipher Mode
•  Small amounts of truly random data: ECB
–  Example: randomly generated keying material
–  Other modes can be used but ECB is most efficient
•  Protocols with crypto integrity protection: CBC, CFB, OFB
•  Arbitrary communications with arbitrary data: CBC, CFB
–  Repeated plaintext data is obscured
–  Constantly changing encryption keys defeat differential cryptanalysis
attacks

Asymmetric Key Algorithm
•  Also called public-key cryptography
–  Keep private key private
–  Anyone can see public key
•  separate keys for encryption and decryption (public and
private key pairs)
•  Examples of asymmetric key algorithms:
–  RSA, DSA, Diffie-Hellman, El Gamal, Elliptic Curve and PKCS

Asymmetric Encryption
Plaintext
ENCRYPTION
ALGORITHM
DECRYPTION
ALGORITHM
Public Key Private Key
Asymmetric Key
Cryptography
Different keys

Asymmetric Key Algorithm
•  RSA – the first and still most common implementation
•  DSA – specified in NIST’s Digital Signature Standard
(DSS), provides digital signature capability for
authentication of messages
•  Diffie-Hellman – used for secret key exchange only, and not
for authentication or digital signature
•  ElGamal – similar to Diffie-Hellman and used for key
exchange
•  PKCS – set of interoperable standards and guidelines

Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Key
Symmetric Asymmetric
generally fast
Same key for both encryption and
decryption
Can be 1000 times slower
Uses two different keys (public and
private)
Decryption key cannot be calculated
from the encryption key
Key lengths: 512 to 4096 bits
Used in low-volume

Hash Functions
•  produces a condensed representation of a message (hashing)
•  The fixed-length output is called the hash or message digest
•  A hash function takes an input message of arbitrary length and
outputs fixed-length code. The fixed-length output is called the
hash, or the message digest, of the original input message.
•  A form of signature that uniquely represents the data
•  Uses:
–  Verifying file integrity - if the hash changes, it means the data is either
compromised or altered in transit.
–  Digitally signing documents
–  Hashing passwords

Hash Functions
•  Message Digest (MD) Algorithm
–  Outputs a 128-bit fingerprint of an arbitrary-length input
•  Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)
–  SHA-1 produces a 160-bit message digest similar to MD5
–  Widely-used on security applications (TLS, SSL, PGP, SSH, S/MIME,
IPsec)
–  SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512 are also commonly used, which can
produce hash values that are 256, 384, and 512-bits respectively
•  RIPEMD

Digital Signature
•  A digital signature is a message appended to a packet
•  The sender encrypts message with own private key instead
of encrypting with intended receiver’s public key
•  The receiver of the packet uses the sender’s public key to
verify the signature.
•  Used to prove the identity of the sender and the integrity of
the packet

Digital Signature
•  Two common public-key digital signature techniques:
–  RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adelman)
–  DSS (Digital Signature Standard)
•  Successful verification assures:
–  The packet has not been altered
–  The identity of the sender

Digital Signature Process
1.  Hash the data using one of the supported hashing
algorithms (MD5, SHA-1, SHA-256)
2.  Encrypt the hashed data using the sender’s private key
3.  Append the signature (and a copy of the sender’s public
key) to the end of the data that was signed)
DATA
HASH
(DATA)
DIGITAL
SIGNATURE
MD5/SHA-1 PRIVATE KEY

Signature Verification Process
1.  Hash the original data using the same hashing algorithm
2.  Decrypt the digital signature using the sender’s public key. All
digital signatures contain a copy of the signer’s public key
3.  Compare the results of the hashing and the decryption. If the
values match then the signature is verified. If the values do not
match, then the data or signature was probably modified.
DATA
HASH
(DATA)
HASH
(DIGITAL SIG)
MD5/SHA-1
MATCH?

Public Key Infrastructure

Overview
•  Public Key Infrastructure
•  Digital Certificates
•  Certificate Authority
•  RPKI Introduction

•  Framework that builds the network of trust
•  Combines public key cryptography, digital signatures, to
ensure confidentiality, integrity, authentication,
nonrepudiation, and access control
•  Protects applications that require high level of security

Functions of a PKI
•  Registration
•  Initialization
•  Certification
•  Key pair recovery
•  Key generation
•  Key update
•  Cross-certification
•  Revocation

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org

Components of a PKI
•  Certificate authority
–  The trusted third party
–  Trusted by both the owner of the certificate and the party relying upon
the certificate.
•  Validation authority
•  Registration authority
–  For big CAs, a separate RA might be necessary to take some work
off the CA
–  Identity verification and registration of the entity applying for a
certificate
•  Central directory

Certificates
•  Public key certificates bind public key values to subjects
•  A trusted certificate authority (CA) verifies the subject’s identity
and digitally sign each certificate
–  Validates
•  Has a limited valid lifetime
•  Can be used using untrusted communications and can be
cached in unsecured storage
–  Because client can independently check the certificate’s signature
•  Certificate is NOT equal to signature
–  It is implemented using signature
•  Certificates are static
–  If there are changes, it has to be re-issued

Digital Certificate
•  Digital certificate – basic element
of PKI; secure credential that
identifies the owner
•  Also called public key certificate

Digital Certificate
•  deals with the problem of
–  Binding a public key to an entity
–  A major legal issue related to eCommerce
•  A digital certificate contains:
–  User’s public key
–  User’s ID
–  Other information e.g. validity period
•  Certificate examples:
–  X509 (standard)
–  PGP (Pretty Good Privacy)
–  Certificate Authority (CA) creates and digitally signs certificates

Digital Certificate
•  To obtain a digital certificate, Alice must:
–  Make a certificate signing request to the CA
–  Alice sends to CA:
•  Her identifier IdA
•  Her public key KA_PUB
•  Additional information
•  CA returns Alice’s digital certificate, cryptographically
binding her identity to public key:
–  CertA = {IDA, KA_PUB, info, SigCA(IDA,KA_PUB,info)}

X.509
•  An ITU-T standard for a public key infrastructure (PKI) and
Privilege Management Infrastructure (PMI)
•  Assumes a strict hierarchical system of Certificate
Authorities (CAs)
•  RFC 1422 – basis of X.509-based PKI
•  Current version X.509v3 provides a common baseline for
the Internet
•  Structure of a Certificate, certificate revocation (CRLs)

X.509 Certificate Usage
•  Fetch certificate
•  Fetch certificate revocation list
(CRL)
•  Check the certificate against the
CRL
•  Check signature using the
certificate
Certificate CRL
Signature
Check
Check

Every certificate contains…
•  Body of the certificate
–  Version number, serial number, names of the issuer and subject
–  Public key associated with the subject
–  Expiration date (not before, not after)
–  Extensions for additional tributes
•  Signature algorithm
–  Used by the CA to sign the certificate
•  Signature
–  Created by applying the certificate body as input to a one-way hash
function. The output value is encrypted with the CA’s private key to
form the signature value

Certificate Authority
•  Issuer and signer of the certificate
•  Trusted (Third) Party
–  Based on trust model
–  Who to trust?
•  Types:
–  Enterprise CA
–  Individual CA (PGP)
–  Global CA (such as VeriSign)
•  Functions:
–  Enrolls and Validates Subscribers
–  Issues and Manages Certificates
–  Manages Revocation and Renewal of Certificates
–  Establishes Policies & Procedures

Certificate Revocation Lists
•  CA periodically publishes a data structure called a
certificate revocation list (CRL).
•  Described in X.509 standard.
•  Each revoked certificate is identified in a CRL by its serial
number.
•  CRL might be distributed by posting at known Web URL or
from CA’s own X.500 directory entry.

Resource Registration

Resource Registration
•  As part of your membership agreement with APNIC, all
Members are required to register their resources in the
APNIC database.
–  First allocation/assignment, APNIC will create:
•  Inetnum or inet6num object
•  Autnum object (if you received an ASN)
•  Maintainer object (to protect your data)
•  Role object
•  Members must keep records up to date:
–  Whenever there is a change in contacts
–  When new resources are received
–  When resources are sub-allocated or assigned

What is the APNIC Database?
•  Public network management database
–  Operated by Internet Registries
•  Public data only
•  (For private data, please see “Privacy of customer assignment” module)
•  Tracks network resources
–  IP addresses, ASNs, Reverse Domains, Routing policies
•  Records administrative information
–  Contact information (persons/roles)
–  Authorization

Whois Database Query - Clients
•  Standard whois client
–  Included with many Unix distributions
–  RIPE extended whois client
–  http://ftp.apnic.net/apnic/dbase/tools/ripe-dbase-client.tar.gz
•  Query via the APNIC website
–  http://www.apnic.net/apnic-bin/whois2.pl
•  Query clients – MS Windows etc

Object Types
OBJECT PURPOSE
•  person contact persons
•  role contact groups/roles
•  inetnum IPv4 addresses
•  Inet6num IPv6 addresses
•  aut-num Autonomous System number
•  domain reverse domains
•  route prefixes being announced
•  mntner (maintainer) data protection
•  mnt-irt Incident Response Team
http://www.apnic.net/db/

Database Object
•  An object is a set of attributes and values
•  Each attribute of an object…
–  Has a value
–  Has a specific syntax
–  Is mandatory or optional
–  Is single or multi-valued
•  Some attributes are …
–  Primary (unique) keys
–  Lookup keys for queries
–  Inverse keys for queries
•  Object templates illustrate this structure

Inter-Related Objects
inetnum:
202.64.10.0 – 202.64.10.255
…
admin-c: EC196-AP
tech-c: ZU3-AP
…
mnt-by: MAINT-WF-EX
…
IPv4 addresses
person/role:
…
nic-hdl: ZU3-
AP
…
Contact info
mntner:
MAINT-WF-EX
…
…
Data protection
person/role:
…
nic-hdl: EC196-
AP
…
Contact info

New Members
•  If you are receiving your first allocation or assignment,
APNIC will create the following objects for you:
–  role object
–  inetnum or inet6num object
–  maintainer object (to protect your data)
–  aut-num object (if you received an ASN)
•  Information is taken from your application for resources and
membership

Inetnum / Inet6num Objects
•  Contains IP allocation and assignment information
•  APNIC creates an inetnum (or inet6num) object for each
allocation or assignment they make to the Member
•  All members must create inetnum (or inet6num) objects for
each sub-allocation or assignment they make to customers

Person Object
•  Represents a contact person for an organization
–  Every Member must have at least one contact person registered
–  Large organizations often have several contacts for different
purposes
•  Is referenced in other objects
•  Has a nic-hdl
–  Eg. EC17-AP

What is a ‘nic-hdl’?
•  Unique identifier for a person or role
•  Represents a person or role object
–  Referenced in objects for contact details
•  (inetnum, aut-num, domain…)
–  format: <XXXX-AP>
•  Eg: EC196-AP Person: Eric Chu
address: ExampleNet Service Provider
address: Level 1 33 Park Road Milton
address: Wallis and Futuna Islands
country: WF
phone: +680-368-0844
fax-no: +680-367-1797
e-mail: echu@example.com
nic-hdl: EC196-AP
mnt-by: MAINT-WF-EX
changed: echu@example.com 20020731
source: APNIC

Role Object
•  Represents a group of contact persons for an organization
–  Eases administration
–  Can be referenced in other objects instead of the person objects for
individuals
•  Also has a nic-hdl
–  Eg. HM20-AP
NOC Role Admin Role

How a Role Object Works
•  Role Object is used instead of a Person Object as a
reference in other objects
•  If a contact leaves the organization:
–  New Person Object is created
–  The nic-hdl of the new contact replaces nic-hdl of the old person in
the Role Object
–  Old Person Object is deleted
•  This means only a single replacement is required instead of
many

Replacing Contacts in the DB
- Using Person Objects
E. Chu is leaving my organization.
A. Nagali is replacing him.
1.  Create a Person Object for new
contact (E. Chu)
2.  Find all objects containing old
contact (E. Chu)
3.  Update all objects, replacing
old contact (EC196-AP) with
new contact (AN3-AP)
4.  Delete old contact’s (EC196-
AP) Person Object
inetnum:
202.0.10.0
…
person:
…
EC196-AP
inetnum:
202.0.15.192
…
inetnum:
202.0.12.127
…
person:
…
AN3-AP
AN3-AP
AN3-AP
AN3-AP

Replacing Contacts in the DB
– Using a Role Object
E. Chu is leaving my organization.
A. Nagali is replacing him.
1.  Create a Person Object for new
contact (A. Nagali)
2.  Replace old contact (EC196-
AP) with new contact (AN3-AP)
in Role Object
3.  Delete old contact’s Person
Object.
inetnum:
202.0.10.0
…
EIPA91-AP
Person:
…
EC196-AP
inetnum:
202.0.15.192
…
EIPA91-AP
inetnum:
202.0.12.127
…
EIPA91-AP
role:
…
EIPA-91-AP
KX17-AP
AB1-AP
CD2-AP
AN3-AP
person:
…
AN3-AP
No need to update any other objects!
My Role Object contains all contact info,
that is referenced in all my objects.

Whois - Role vs Person Objects

IRT Object
•  Incident Response Team (IRT)
–  Dedicated abuse handling teams (not netops)
•  Implemented in Nov 2010 through Prop-079
•  Abuse contact information
•  Mandatory object reference in inetnum, inet6num, and aut-
num objects

IRT Object
•  Why provide abuse contact
–  Dedicated contacts or team that specifically resolve computer
security incidents
–  Efficient and accurate response
–  Stops the tech-c and admin-c from getting abuse reports
–  Shared response to address abuse

Database Protection - Maintainers
•  protects other objects in the APNIC Whois Database
•  used to prevent unauthorized persons from changing the
details in whois
•  Multiple levels of maintainers exist in a hierarchical manner
–  Maint-by
–  Maint-lower
•  Applied to any object created directly below that maintainer
object

Database Protection
•  Authorisation
–  “mnt-by” references as maintainer object
•  Can be found in all database objects
•  “mnt-by” should be used with every object
•  Authentication
–  Updates to an object must pass the authentication rule specified by
its maintainer
–  Authentication methods (using ‘auth’ attribute)
•  Crypt-PW
•  PGP – GNUPG
•  MD5

Database Protection
Maintainer Object

Maintainer Hierarchy Diagram
•  Allocated to APNIC
–  Maint-by can only be changed by
IANA
•  Allocated to Member
APNIC
•  Sub-allocated to Customer
Members

Customer Privacy
•  Privacy issues
–  Concerns about publication of customer information
–  Increasing government concern
•  APNIC legal risk
–  Legal responsibility for accuracy and advice
–  Damages incurred by maintaining inaccurate personal data
•  Customer data is hard to maintain
•  Customer assignment registration is still mandatory

RPKI
•  Resource Public Key Infrastructure
•  verify the authenticity of data that has been digitally signed
by the originator of the data
•  Based on the X.509 certificate format (RFC5280) and
extended by RFC3779
•  RPKI is in the process of standardization through the
Secure Inter-Domain Routing (SIDR) working group.

Resource Certification
•  RIRs have been developing a new service for their
members
•  APNIC has now launched Resource Certification for the AP
region
•  The goal is to improves the security of inter-domain routing
and augmenting the information published in the APNIC
Whois Database

Terminologies
•  Resource holders include:
–  Regional Internet Registries (RIRs)
–  Local Internet Registries (LIRs)
–  Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
–  End-user organizations
•  Internet resources are:
–  IPv4 and IPv6 address blocks
–  Autonomous System (AS) numbers

Resource Certification Benefits
•  Routing information corresponds to properly delegated
address resources
•  Resource Certification gives resource holders proof that
they hold certain resources
•  Resource holders can attest to those resources when
distributing them
•  Resource Certification is a highly robust means of
preventing the injection of false information into the
Internet's routing system.

Resource Public Key Infrastructure
•  RPKI hierarchy is based on the administrative resource
allocation hierarchy
•  IANA à RIRs à LIRs à end-users
•  Main components:
•  Trust anchors
•  ROAs
•  validators

Route Origin Attestations (ROAs)
•  allow entities to verify that an autonomous system (AS) has
been given permission by an IP address block holder to
advertise routes to one or more prefixes within that block.
We call this mechanism a Route Origin Attestation (ROA).
•  The certificate holder uses their private key to sign an ROA
for specific IP address blocks to be routed by a specific AS,
and this can be tested and verified by the public key, and
the certificate hierarchy.
–  Example: the ROA might state the following: "ISP 4 permits AS 65000
to originate a route for the prefix 192.2.200.0/24”

More Info on RPKI
•  RPKI Origin Validation, Randy Bush
•  Securing BGP with BGPsec, Geoff Huston and Randy Bush

IP Security (IPSec)

Overview
•  Introduction to VPN
•  IPSec Fundamentals
•  Tunnel and Transport Mode IPSec
•  Architecture and Components of IPSec
•  Internet Key Exchange
•  Configuring IPSec for IPv4 and IPv6

Virtual Private Network
•  Creates a secure tunnel over a public network
–  Client to firewall
–  Router to router
–  Firewall to firewall
•  Uses the Internet as the public backbone to access a
secure private network
–  Remote employees can access their office network
•  Two types:
–  Remote access
–  Site-to-site VPN

Virtual Private Network
•  There are three basic types of VPN:
–  Remote access VPNs or virtual private dial-up networks (VPDNs)
–  Site-to-site VPN, where multiple fixed sites are connected over a
public network i.e. Internet
–  Point-to-Point VPN, these are also referred to as "leased-line
VPNs.” Two or more networks are connected using a dedicated line
from an ISP. These lines can be packet or circuit switched. For
example, T1's, Metro Ethernet, DS3, ATM or something else

VPN Implementations
•  Hardware
–  Usually a VPN-type router
–  Pros: highest network throughput, plug and play, dual purpose
–  Cons: cost and lack of flexibility
•  Software
–  Ideal for two end-points in different organisations
–  Pros: flexible, and low relative cost
–  Cons: lack of efficiency, more labor training required, lower
productivity; higher labor costs
•  Firewall
–  Pros: cost effective, tri-purpose, hardens the operating system
–  Cons: still relatively costly

VPN Protocols
•  PPTP (Point-to-Point tunneling Protocol)
–  Developed by Microsoft to secure dial-up connections
–  Operates in the data-link layer
•  L2F (Layer 2 Forwarding Protocol)
–  Developed by Cisco
–  Similar as PPTP
•  L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol)
–  IETF standard
–  Combines the functionality of PPTP and L2F
•  IPSec (Internet Protocol Security)
–  Open standard for VPN implementation
–  Operates on the network layer

Advantages of VPN
•  Cheaper connection
–  Use the Internet connection instead of a private lease line
•  Scalability
–  Flexibility of growth
–  Efficiency with broadband technology
•  Availability
–  Available everywhere there is an Internet connection

Disadvantages of VPN
•  VPNs require an in-depth understanding of public network
security issues and proper deployment precautions
•  Availability and performance depends on factors largely
outside of their control
•  VPNs need to accommodate protocols other than IP and
existing internal network technology

IPsec
•  Provides Layer 3 security (RFC 2401)
–  Transparent to applications (no need for integrated IPSec support)
•  A set of protocols and algorithms used to secure IP data at
the network layer
•  Combines different components:
–  Security associations (SA)
–  Authentication headers (AH)
–  Encapsulating security payload (ESP)
–  Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
•  A security context for the VPN tunnel is established via the
ISAKMP

IPsec Standards
•  RFC 4301 “The IP Security Architecture”
–  Defines the original IPsec architecture and elements common to both AH
and ESP
•  RFC 4302
–  Defines authentication headers (AH)
•  RFC 4303
–  Defines the Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
•  RFC 2408
–  ISAKMP
•  RFC 5996
–  IKE v2 (Sept 2010)
•  RFC 4835
–  Cryptographic algorithm implementation for ESP and AH

Benefits of IPsec
•  Confidentiality
–  By encrypting data
•  Integrity
–  Routers at each end of a tunnel calculates the checksum or hash
value of the data
•  Authentication
–  Signatures and certificates
–  All these while still maintaining the ability to route through existing IP
networks
“IPsec is designed to provide interoperable, high quality, cryptographically-
based security for IPv4 and IPv6” - (RFC 2401)

Benefits of IPsec
•  Data integrity and source authentication
–  Data “signed” by sender and “signature” is verified by the recipient
–  Modification of data can be detected by signature “verification”
–  Because “signature” is based on a shared secret, it gives source
authentication
•  Anti-replay protection
–  Optional; the sender must provide it but the recipient may ignore
•  Key management
–  IKE – session negotiation and establishment
–  Sessions are rekeyed or deleted automatically
–  Secret keys are securely established and authenticated
–  Remote peer is authenticated through varying options

Different Layers of Encryption
Network Layer - IPSec
Link Layer Encryption
Source Destination
Application Layer – SSL, PGP, SSH, HTTPS

IPsec Modes
•  Tunnel Mode
–  Entire IP packet is encrypted and becomes the data component of a
new (and larger) IP packet.
–  Frequently used in an IPsec site-to-site VPN
•  Transport Mode
–  IPSec header is inserted into the IP packet
–  No new packet is created
–  Works well in networks where increasing a packet’s size could cause
an issue
–  Frequently used for remote-access VPNs

Tunnel vs. Transport Mode IPsec
Payload
TCP
Header
IP
Header
Without IPSec
Transport Mode
IPSec
Tunnel Mode
IPSec
Payload
TCP
Header
IP
Header
IPsec
Header
IP
Header
Payload
TCP
Header
IP
Header
IPsec
Header
New IP
Header

IPsec Architecture
ESP
AH
IKE
IPSec Security Policy
Encapsulating Security
Payload
Authentication Header
The Internet Key Exchange

Security Associations (SA)
•  A collection of parameters required to establish a secure
session
•  Uniquely identified by three parameters consisting of
–  Security Parameter Index (SPI)
–  IP destination address
–  Security protocol (AH or ESP) identifier
•  An SA is unidirectional
–  Two SAs required for a bidirectional communication
•  A single SA can be used for AH or ESP, but not both
–  must create two (or more) SAs for each direction if using both AH and
ESP

Security Associations
INTERNET
A Security Association (SA) Defines:
- communicating parties [aka ‘selectors’]
- security services used to protect traffic [AH / ESP]
- cryptographic algorithm used
- cipher key length
- lifetime of key

Security Parameter Index (SPI)
•  A unique 32-bit identification number that is part of the
Security Association (SA)
•  It enables the receiving system to select the SA under
which a received packet will be processed.
•  Has only local significance, defined by the creator of the
SA.
•  Carried in the ESP or AH header
•  When an ESP/AH packet is received, the SPI is used to
look up all of the crypto parameters

How to Set Up SA
•  Manually
–  Sometimes referred to as “manual keying”
–  You configure on each node:
•  Participating nodes (I.e. traffic selectors)
•  AH and/or ESP [tunnel or transport]
•  Cryptographic algorithm and key
•  Automatically
–  Using IKE (Internet Key Exchange)

ISAKMP
•  Internet Security Association and Key Management
Protocol
•  Used for establishing Security Associations (SA) and
cryptographic keys
•  Only provides the framework for authentication and key
exchange, but key exchange is independent
•  Key exchange protocols
–  Internet Key Exchange (IKE) and Kerberized Internet Negotiation of
Keys (KINK)

Selectors
•  Defines when to create an SA and what the SA will be used
for
•  Classifies the type of traffic requiring IPsec protection and
the kind of protection to be applied.
•  Elements of a selector:
–  Source IP address
–  Destination IP address
–  Protocol (TCP or UDP)
–  Upper layer protocol
•  Example: use ESP with NULL encryption and HMAC-SHA1 for routing updates, but
use ESP with 3DES and SHA-1 for telnet and TFTP access for a router

Authentication Header (AH)
•  Provides source authentication and data integrity
–  Protection against source spoofing and replay attacks
•  Authentication is applied to the entire packet, with the
mutable fields in the IP header zeroed out
•  If both AH and ESP are applied to a packet, AH follows ESP
•  Operates on top of IP using protocol 51
•  In IPv4, AH protects the payload and all header fields
except mutable fields and IP options (such as IPSec option)

AH Header Format
Next Header (8 bits): indicates which upper layer protocol is protected (UDP, TCP, ESP)
Payload Length (8 bits): size of AH in 32-bit longwords, minus 2
Reserved (16 bits): for future use; must be set to all zeroes for now
SPI (32 bits): arbitrary 32-bit number that specifies to the receiving device which security association is being
used (security protocols, algorithms, keys, times, addresses, etc)
Sequence Number (32 bits): start at 1 and must never repeat. It is always set but receiver may choose to
ignore this field
Authentication Data: ICV is a digital signature over the packet and it varies in length depending on the
algorithm used (SHA-1, MD5)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Next Header Payload Length Reserved
Sequence Number
Authentication Data
[ Integrity Check Value (ICV) ]

Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
•  Uses IP protocol 50
•  Provides all that is offered by AH, plus data confidentiality
–  It uses symmetric key encryption
•  Must encrypt and/or authenticate in each packet
–  Encryption occurs before authentication
•  Authentication is applied to data in the IPsec header as well
as the data contained as payload

ESP Header Format
SPI: arbitrary 32-bit number that specifies SA to the receiving device
Seq #: start at 1 and must never repeat; receiver may choose to ignore
IV: used to initialize CBC mode of an encryption algorithm
Payload Data: encrypted IP header, TCP or UDP header and data
Padding: used for encryption algorithms which operate in CBC mode
Padding Length: number of bytes added to the data stream (may be 0)
Next Header: the type of protocol from the original header which appears in the encrypted part of the
packet
Authentication Header: ICV is a digital signature over the packet and it varies in length depending on
the algorithm used (SHA-1, MD5)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Next Header
Padding Length
Payload Data (Variable)
Padding (0-255 bytes)
Initialization Vector (IV)
Sequence Number
Authentication Data (ICV)
ENCRYPTED

Packet Format Alteration for AH
Transport Mode
Original
IP Header TCP/UDP Data
Original
IP Header
AH
Header TCP/UDP Data
Without AH
With AH
Authenticated except for
mutable fields in IP header
• ToS
• TTL
• Header Checksum
• Offset
• Flags

Packet Format Alteration for ESP
Transport Mode
Original
Original
IP Header
ESP
Header
Encapsulating Security Payload
Before applying
ESP:
After applying
ESP:
Encrypted
ESP
Authentication
Authenticated
TCP/UDP Data
ESP
Trailer

Packet Format Alteration for AH
Tunnel Mode
Original
New
IP Header
AH
Header Data
Before applying
AH:
After applying
AH:
Authenticated except for
mutable fields in new IP header
Original
IP Header
• ToS
• TTL
• Header Checksum
• Offset
• Flags

Packet Format Alteration for ESP
Tunnel Mode
Original
New
IP Header
ESP
Header
Encapsulating Security Payload
Before applying
ESP:
After applying
ESP:
Encrypted
ESP
Authentication
Authenticated
Original
ESP
Trailer

Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
•  “An IPSec component used for performing mutual
authentication and establishing and maintaining Security
Associations.” (RFC 5996)
•  Typically used for establishing IPSec sessions
•  A key exchange mechanism
•  Five variations of an IKE negotiation:
–  Two modes (aggressive and main modes)
–  Three authentication methods (pre-shared, public key encryption,
and public key signature)
•  Uses UDP port 500

IKE Modes
Mode Description
Main mode Three exchanges of information between IPsec peers.
Initiator sends one or more proposals to the other peer
(responder)
Responder selects a proposal
Aggressive Mode Achieves same result as main mode using only 3 packets
First packet sent by initiator containing all info to establish
SA
Second packet by responder with all security parameters
selected
Third packet finalizes authentication of the ISAKMP
session
Quick Mode Negotiates the parameters for the IPsec session.
Entire negotiation occurs within the protection of ISAKMP
session

Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
•  Phase I
–  Establish a secure channel (ISAKMP SA)
–  Using either main mode or aggressive mode
–  Authenticate computer identity using certificates or pre-shared secret
•  Phase II
–  Establishes a secure channel between computers intended for the
transmission of data (IPsec SA)
–  Using quick mode

Overview of IKE
Traffic which needs
to be protected
IPsec Peer
IPsec Peer
IKE Phase 1
Secure communication channel
IKE Phase 2
IPsec Tunnel
Secured traffic exchange
1
2
3
4

ISAKMP Header Format
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Initiator Cookie
Total Length of Message
Flags
Responder Cookie
Next Payload Exchange Type
Message ID
Major
Version
Minor
Version

ISAKMP Message Format
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Next Payload: 1byte; identifier for next payload in message. If it is the last payload
It will be set to 0
Reserved: 1byte; set to 0
Payload Length: 2 bytes; length of payload (in bytes) including the header
Payload: The actual payload data
Next Payload Reserved Payload Length
Payload
Next Payload Reserved Payload Length
Payload
ISAKMP HEADER

IKE Phase 1 (Main Mode)
•  Main mode negotiates an ISAKMP SA which will be used to
create IPsec SAs
•  Three steps
–  SA negotiation (encryption algorithm, hash algorithm, authentication
method, which DF group to use)
–  Do a Diffie-Hellman exchange
–  Provide authentication information
–  Authenticate the peer

IKE Phase 1 (Main Mode)
Responder
Initiator
1
2
IKE Message 1 (SA proposal)
IKE Message 2 (accepted SA)
IKE Message 3 (DH public value, nonce)
IKE Message 4 (DH public value, nonce)
IKE Message 5 (Authentication material, ID)
IKE Message 6 (Authentication material, ID)
4
3
Negotiate
IKE Policy
Authenticated
DH Exchange
Compute DH shared secret
and derive keying material
Protect IKE
Peer Identity
Internet
(Encrypted)

IKE Phase 1 (Aggressive Mode)
•  Uses 3 (vs 6) messages to establish IKE SA
•  No denial of service protection
•  Does not have identity protection
•  Optional exchange and not widely implemented

IKE Phase 2 (Quick Mode)
•  All traffic is encrypted using the ISAKMP Security
Association
•  Each quick mode negotiation results in two IPsec Security
Associations (one inbound, one outbound)
•  Creates/refreshes keys

IKE Phase 2 (Quick Mode)
Responder
Initiator
3
Compute keying material
Internet
Message 1 (authentication/keying material and SA proposal)
Message 2 (authentication/keying material and accepted SA)
Message 3 (hash for proof of integrity/authentication)
1
2
5
Validate
message 1
7
4
6
Validate
message 3
Validate
message 2

IPSec Best Practices
•  Use IPsec to provide integrity in addition to encryption
–  Use ESP option
•  Use strong encryption algorithms
–  AES instead of DES
•  Use a good hashing algorithm
–  SHA instead of MD5
•  Reduce the lifetime of the Security Association (SA) by
enabling Perfect Forward Secrecy (PFS)
–  Increases processor burden so do this only if data is highly sensitive

Configuring IPSec
•  Step 1: Configure the IKE Phase 1 Policy (ISAKMP Policy)
–  crypto isakmp policy [priority]
•  Step 2: Set the ISAKMP Identity
–  crypto isakmp identity {ipaddress|hostname}
•  Step 3: Configure the IPSec transfer set
–  crypto ipsec transform-set transform-set-name
<transform1> <transform2> mode [tunnel|transport]
–  crypto ipsec security-association lifetime seconds
seconds

Configuring IPSec
•  Step 5: Creating map with name
–  Crypto map crypto-map-name seq-num ipsec-isakmp
–  Match address access-list-id
–  Set peer [ipaddress|hostname]
–  Set transform-set transform-set-name
–  Set security-association lifetime seconds seconds
–  Set pfs [group1|group2]
•  Step 6: Apply the IPsec Policy to an Interface
–  Crypto map crypto-map-name local-address interface-
id

IPSec Layout
R1 R2
Encrypted session
Public Network

Router Configuration
crypto isakmp policy 1
authentication pre-share
encryption aes
hash sha
group 5
crypto isakmp key Training123 address 172.16.11.66
!
crypto ipsec transform-set ESP-AES-SHA esp-aes esp-sha-hmac
!
crypto map LAB-VPN 10 ipsec-isakmp
match address 101
set transform-set ESP-AES-SHA
set peer 172.16.11.66
Phase 1 SA
Encryption and
authentication
Phase 2 SA

Router Configuration
int fa 0/1
crypto map LAB-VPN
Exit
!
access-list 101 permit ip 172.16.16.0
0.0.0.255 172.16.20.0 0.0.0.255
Apply to an
outbound interface
Define interesting
VPN traffic

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