![The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge 3
Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Considerable progress has been made in the accumulation of experience-based
knowledge of OO micro-architectural design, but we have advanced consider-
ably less in its exploitation and classification. This could be seen as a case of the
“Feigenbaum Bottleneck”: “as domain complexity grows, it becomes very
difficult for human experts to formulate their knowledge as practical strategies”
(Pescio, 1997).
First, in the following section, we will analyze the maintenance and design
patterns and relationship with analyzability and changeability in more detail.
Later, we will show a measurement of the impact of the patterns used. In the last
sections, we present acknowledgments, our conclusions and future projects, and
references.
The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge
Serious difficulties are still encountered when we tackle the construction of OO
systems, especially in the transition between the analysis processes and the OO
design, an aspect which is very vague in this type of paradigm (Henderson, Seller
& Eduards, 1990). In practice, designers have accumulated a body of knowledge
Table 1. Examples of OO design knowledge
PRINCIPLES
The Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP)
“Depend upon Abstractions. Do not depend upon concretions” (Martin, 1996).
HEURISTICS
“If two or more classes only share common interface (i.e., messages, not methods), then they
should inherit from a common base class only if they will be used polymorphically” (Riel, 1996).
BEST PRACTICES
“See objects as bundles of behavior, not bundles of data” (Venners, 2004).
BAD SMELLS
Refused bequest
Subclasses that do not use what they inherit (Fowler, Beck, Brant, Opdyke, & Roberts, 2000).
REFACTORINGS
Extract Interface
“Several clients use the same subset of a class's interface, or two classes have part of their
interfaces in common. Extract the subset into an interface. [ ]” (Fowler et al., 2000).
PATTERNS
Observer
“Intent: Define a one-to-many dependency between objects so that when one object changes
state, all its dependents are notified and updated automatically” (Gamma, Helm, Johnson, &
Vlissides, 1995).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3485-250316043823-3bc76da9/85/Object-oriented-design-knowledge-principles-heuristics-and-best-practices-Javier-Garza-S-20-320.jpg)
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![the latter the women weave gay cloths, so that their attire is of more
splendid color than that of any tribe. Eighty-five years ago it was not
thus; then we were not compelled to cultivate the fields, for having
gold in abundance we employed others to work. That gold proved
our curse, for the white men came from Spain and levied tribute
upon us, more and more each year, until we knew that soon all
would be taken away. They levied tribute which we were compelled
to pay, but they never learned from where we secured the metal,
although they searched in parties large and small and put many of
our leading men to the torture, in effort to force the secret from
them. An Ayulis has no fear of pain, and they laughed when burned
with hot irons and when boiling oil was poured upon them.
“When at last the Spaniards drove them too far, they choked the
approaches to the mine with the trunks of huge trees, and all voiced
a pledge that the place should never be opened again, nor would
the location be made known to these unwelcome visitors from Spain.
I am one hundred years old now; I was twenty then, and I
remember well the great meeting of our tribe. Later we were
revenged. Six months from that day we joined forces with the
Jivaros, and at night we entered the town of Logroño, where a
terrible butchery befell. Every white man was beheaded and every
woman was carried away. Then other white men came and we were
hunted through the forests for years, until at last we settled on the
banks of the Marañon and there turned our attention to farming.
“We thought no more of gold, my masters, for that had been our
curse; but well I remember the days when the yellow metal was in
plenty, and with these eyes I have seen a nugget of gold taken from
the mine of which I speak, that was as large as a horse’s head and
weighed four arrobas.[1]
Silver was so plentiful and iron so scarce
that horses were shod with the white metal.
1. One hundred pounds.
“Now I come to a time later by twenty years, when, by accident, I
killed a man of our tribe. They would not believe me that I had](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/3485-250316043823-3bc76da9/85/Object-oriented-design-knowledge-principles-heuristics-and-best-practices-Javier-Garza-S-45-320.jpg)
Object oriented design knowledge principles heuristics and best practices Javier Garzã¡S
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- 5. Object oriented design knowledge principles heuristics and best practices Javier Garzã¡S Digital Instant Download Author(s): Javier Garzás, Javier Garzás and Mario Piattini ISBN(s): 9781591408987, 1591408989 Edition: illustrated edition File Details: PDF, 5.29 MB Year: 2007 Language: english
- 7. i Object-Oriented Design Knowledge: Principles, Heuristics and Best Practices JavierGarzás Oficina de Cooperación Universitaria (OCU)S.A., Spain Mario Piattini University of Castilla - La Mancha,Spain Hershey • London • Melbourne • Singapore IDEA GROUP PUBLISHING
- 8. ii AcquisitionsEditor: MichellePotter DevelopmentEditor: Kristin Roth SeniorManagingEditor: JenniferNeidig ManagingEditor: SaraReed CopyEditor: AprilSchmidt Typesetter: MarkoPrimorac CoverDesign: LisaTosheff Printed at: YurchakPrintingInc. PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaby Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue HersheyPA17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail:cust@idea-group.com Website:http://www.idea-group.com andintheUnitedKingdomby Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.) 3 Henrietta Street CoventGarden LondonWC2E8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Website:http://www.eurospanonline.com Copyright © 2007 by Idea Group Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this book are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI of the trademark or registered trademark. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-Publication Data LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Object-orienteddesignknowledge:principles,heuristics,andbestpractices/JavierGarzasandMarioPiattini, editors. p. cm. Summary:"Thesoftwareengineeringcommunityhasadvancedgreatlyinrecentyearsandwecurrentlyhave numerousdefineditemsofknowledge,suchasstandards,methodologies,methods,metrics,techniques,languages, patterns, knowledge related to processes, concepts, etc.The main objective of this book is to give a unified and globalvisionaboutMicro-ArchitecturalDesignKnowledge,analyzingthemaintechniques,experiencesand methods"--Providedbypublisher. ISBN 1-59140-896-2 (hardcover) -- ISBN 1-59140-897-0 (softcover) -- ISBN 1-59140-898-9 (ebook) 1. Object-oriented methods (Computer science) 2. Object-oriented programming (Computer science) I. Garzas, Javier, 1975- II. Piattini, Mario, 1966- QA76.9.O35.O244 2006 005.1'17--dc22 2006010089 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
- 9. iii Object-Oriented Design Knowledge: Principles, Heuristics and Best Practices Table of Contents Preface .............................................................................................................vi Chapter I The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge................................................... 1 Javier Garzás, Oficina de Cooperación Universitaria (OCU) S.A., Spain Mario Piattini, University of Castilla - La Mancha, Spain Chapter II The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge Ontology ................................. 8 Javier Garzás, Oficina de Cooperación Universitaria (OCU) S.A., Spain Mario Piattini, University of Castilla - La Mancha, Spain Chapter III Using Linguistic Patterns to Model Interactions ....................................23 Isabel Díaz, Central University of Venezuela, Venezuela Oscar Pastor, Technical University of Valencia, Spain Lidia Moreno, Technical University of Valencia, Spain Alfredo Matteo, Central University of Venezuela, Venezuela
- 10. iv Chapter IV A Framework Based on Design Patterns: Implementing UML Association, Aggregation and Composition Relationships in the Context of Model-Driven Code Generation .....................................56 Manoli Albert, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Marta Ruiz, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Javier Muñoz, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Vincente Pelechano, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain Chapter V Design Patterns as Laws of Quality ........................................................ 105 Yann-Gaël Guéhéneuc, University of Montreal, Canada Jean-Yves Guyomarc’h, University of Montreal, Canada Khashayar Khosravi, University of Montreal, Canada Houari Sahraoui, University of Montreal, Canada Chapter VI Automatic Verification of OOD Pattern Applications .......................... 143 Andrés Flores, University of Comahue, Argentina Alejandra Cechich, University of Comahue, Argentina Rodrigo Ruiz, University of Comahue, Argentina Chapter VII From Bad Smells to Refactoring: Metrics Smoothing the Way ......... 193 Yania Crespo, Universidad de Valladolid, Spain Carlos López, Universidad de Burgos, Spain María Esperanza Manso Martínez, Universidad de Valladolid, Spain Raúl Marticorena, Universidad de Burgos, Spain Chapter VIII Heuristics and Metrics for OO Refactoring: A Consolidation and Appraisal of Current Issues ..................................................................... 250 Steve Counsell, Brunel University, UK Youssef Hassoun, University of London, UK Deepak Advani, University of London, UK Chapter IX A Survey of Object-Oriented Design Quality Improvement .............. 282 Juan José Olmedilla, Almira Lab, Spain
- 11. v Chapter X A Catalog of Design Rules for OO Micro-Architecture ..................... 307 Javier Garzás, Oficina de Cooperación Universitaria (OCU) S.A., Spain Mario Piattini, University of Castilla - La Mancha, Spain About the Authors ..................................................................................... 349 Index ............................................................................................................ 356
- 12. vi Preface In order to establish itself as a branch of engineering, a profession must under- stand its accumulated knowledge. In addition, software engineering as a branch of engineering must take several basic steps in order to become an established profession, highlighting understanding of the nature of its knowledge. Software engineering experts always have used proven ideas. Concretely, in the object-oriented (OO) design knowledge field, the practical experience of it has been crucial to software engineers, and it is in the last years when these ideas, materialized in items such as patterns or refactorings have reached their biggest popularity and diffusion. And in this regard, the software engineering community has advanced greatly and we currently have numerous and defined chunks of knowledge, including standards, methodologies, methods, metrics, techniques, languages, patterns, knowledge related to processes, concepts, and so forth. Although these different areas of knowledge relate to the construction of an OO system, there is a lot of work still to be done in order to systematize and offer this knowledge to designers in such a way that it can be easily used in practical cases. A software architecture is a description of the subsystems and components of a software system and relationships between then.1 Usually, the software ar- chitecture is subdivided into macro and micro architecture. Whereas macro architecture describes the metamodel of design, this that provides the high- level organization, the micro architecture describes details of a design at a lower level.
- 13. vii OO design is a software design technique, which is expressed in terms of ob- jects and relationships between those; at the level of micro architecture it in- cludes elements such as classes, its relationships, responsibilities, refactorings, and so on. OO micro architectural knowledge is built upon design experiences, such as problem solving, or lessons learned. Therefore, the OO micro architectural de- sign knowledge has grown with time and the increasing complexity of soft- ware. This knowledge expands and accumulates when it is stored in books and other media for the use of designers. In addition, the major part of OO design knowledge is difficult to identify and use. The experience has demonstrated that design often omits common prin- ciples, heuristics, and so on, with a consequent major loss of experience. Con- sequently, actually, serious difficulties are still encountered when we tackle the construction of OO systems. Although designers have accumulated a body of knowledge that they apply during these processes, this is very implicit. Fortu- nately, it is now being specified and popularized in different forms: principles, heuristics, patterns, and more recently, refactoring techniques. However, today, the difference between these concepts is generally unclear and not all of them have received the same amount of attention or have reached the same degree of maturity. In addition, a strong knowledge does not exist on items such as design principles, best practices, or heuristics. The problem confronting the designer is how to articulate all this explicit knowledge and to apply it in an orderly and efficient way in the OODA, in such a way that it is really of use to him or her. In fact, in practice, even such advanced subjects like OO patterns have this problem Design knowledge and best practices are stored in individual expert minds, or implicitly encoded and documented in local organisational processes. It has always been true that a significant part of design knowledge resides in the minds of the experts that make it up. However, communities and companies are beginning to find that it is easy to lose a vital element of their intellectual prop- erty: corporate design knowledge. Therefore, we can say that the major part of the design knowledge today is tacit knowledge: it in the form of project experi- ences, heuristics, or human competencies that are difficult to be captured and externalised. The effective management of this knowledge is today a significant challenge. For knowledge management to be effective, this knowledge should be orga- nized and classified. In addition, with this purpose, developing unified cata- logues of knowledge, ontologies, empirical studies, and so on, books and studies such as those we present here, are very important issues to improve the use of OO design knowledge. Therefore, in this context, we present this book whose main objective is to give a global vision of micro-architectural design knowledge, exposing the main tech- niques and methods, and analyzing several aspects related to it.
- 14. viii The subject matter in this book is divided into ten chapters. The chapters seek to provide a critical survey of the fundamental themes, problems, arguments, theories, and methodologies in the field of OO micro architectural design knowl- edge. Each chapter has been planned as a self-standing introduction to its sub- ject. Therefore, in Chapter I Javier Garzás and Mario Piattini present an introduc- tion to “The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge,” where they show the main issues and problems of the field. In OO micro-architectural design knowledge, design patterns are the most popular example of accumulated knowledge, but other elements of knowledge exist such as principles, heuristics, best practices, bad smells, refactorings, and so forth, which are not clearly differentiated; in- deed, many are synonymous and others are just vague concepts. An essential issue to building an OO design knowledge discipline is organizing this knowledge. In Chapter II, titled “The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge Ontology,” Javier Garzás and Mario Piattini show an ontology that organize and relation the OO knowledge. The authors propose an ontology in order to struc- ture and unify such knowledge. The ontology includes rules (principles, heuris- tic, bad smells, etc.), patterns, and refactorings. They divide the knowledge on rules, patterns, and refactorings and they show the implications among these. Moreover, they show an empirical validation of the proposed conclusions. Chapter III, “Using Linguistic Patterns to Model Interactions,” by Isabel Díaz, Oscar Pastor Lidia Moreno, and Alfredo Matteo, is a pivotal chapter that changes the focus of the book to more technical information systems issues. This chap- ter shows an elegant example of how highly relevant clinical questions can be addressed in a scientific manner. In this chapter, heuristic-oriented techniques and linguistics-oriented techniques proposed by several authors to model inter- actions are analyzed. In addition, a framework to facilitate and to improve the interaction modeling is described. This framework was conceived to be inte- grated into automatic software production environments. It uses linguistic pat- terns to recognize interactions from use case models. The validation process used and the main results are also presented. In Chapter IV, Manoli Albert, Marta Ruiz, Javier Muñoz and Vicente Pelechano show “A Framework Based on Design Patterns: Implementing UML Associa- tion,Aggregation and Composition Relationships in the Context of Model-Driven Code Generation.” The chapter proposes a framework based on design pat- terns to implement UML (Unified Modeling Language) association, aggrega- tion, and composition relationships, and for it they propose a semantic interpre- tation of these concepts that avoids the ambiguities introduced by UML. Therefore, in “Design Patterns as Laws of Quality” Yann-Gaël Guéhéneuc, Jean-Yves Guyomarc’h, Khashayar Khosravi, and Houari Sahraoui, Chapter V, show how design patterns can be used as facts to devise a quality model and they describe the processes of building and of applying such a quality model.
- 15. ix The chapter highlights the need for principles in software engineering, where these can be laws or theories formalizing and explaining observations realized on software. For the sake of completeness in this book, automatic verification of design knowledge is addressed in Chapter VI. Andres Flores, Alejandra Cechich, and Rodrigo Ruiz present “Automatic Verification of OOD Pattern Applications.” Chapter VII, “From Bad Smells to Refactoring: Metrics Smoothing the Way”, is authored by Yania Crespo, Carlos López, María Esperanza Manso Martínez, and Raúl Marticorena. This chapter discusses one of the current trends in refactorings: when and where we must refactor. From the bad smell concept, it is possible to discover their existence from an objective viewpoint, using metrics. The chapter presents a study on the relation of refactorings, bad smells and metrics, including a case study on the use of metrics in bad smells detection. The chapter leads to the determination where refactoring is the basis of heuris- tics and metrics, which is likely to be the single most important factor at the moment of use refactorings in the maintenance phase. Therefore, in Chapter VIII, “Heuristics and Metrics for OO Refactoring: A Consolidation and Appraisal of Current Issues,” Steve Counsell, Youssef Hassoun, and Deepak Advani cover this topic in great depth. They look at some of the issues which determine when to refactor (i.e., the heuristics of refactoring) and, from a metrics perspective, open issues with measuring the refactoring process. They thus point to emerging trends in the refactoring arena, some of the problems, controversies, and future challenges the refactoring com- munity faces. A key point to building a OO design knowledge field is to understand the sev- eral contributions to it. Since several OO metrics suites have been proposed to measure OO properties, such as encapsulation, cohesion, coupling, and abstrac- tion, both in designs and in code, in Chapter IX, titled “A Survey of Object- Oriented Design Quality Improvement,” Juan José Olmedilla reviews the lit- erature to find out to which high level quality properties are mapped and if an OO design evaluation model has been formally proposed or even is possible. The chapter is an excellent example of how performing a systematic review of the estate of art. At last, in Chapter X, “A Catalog of OOD Knowledge Rules for OO Micro- Architecture,” by Javier Garzás and Mario Piattini, several types of knowledge such as principles, heuristics, bad smells, and so on, are unified in a rules cata- log. In summary, these chapters constitute an evidence of the importance of micro- architectural design knowledge, representing important ideas in different soft- ware design areas. These are intended to be useful to a wide audience, includ- ing software engineers, designers, project managers, software architects, IS/IT managers, CIOs, CTOs, consultants, and software students.
- 16. x We hope that the practical vision, scientific evidence and experience presented in this book will enable the reader to use the design knowledge within the field of software engineering and to help the field of software engineering answer how software engineers might acquire its rich and essential accumulated knowl- edge. Javier Garzás and Mario Piattini, Editors Ciudad Real, Spain January 2006 Endnote 1 Buschmann, F., Meunier, R., Rohnert, H., Sommerlad, P., & Stal, M. (1996). A system of patterns: Pattern-oriented software architecture. Addison- Wesley.
- 17. xi Acknowledgments We would like to thank all the authors, because without their contribution this book would not have been possible. We would also like to thank Kristin Roth, our development editor, for her help and encouragement.
- 18. The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge 1 Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Chapter I TheObject-Oriented DesignKnowledge Javier Garzás, Oficina de Cooperación Universitaria (OCU) S.A., Spain Mario Piattini, University of Castilla - La Mancha, Spain Abstract In order to establish itself as a branch of engineering, a profession must understand its accumulated knowledge. In this regard, software engineering has advanced greatly in recent years, but it still suffers from the lack of a structured classification of its knowledge. In this sense, in the field of object-oriented micro-architectural design designers have accumulated a large body of knowledge and it is still have not organized or unified. Therefore, items such as design patterns are the most popular example of accumulated knowledge, but other elements of knowledge exist such as principles, heuristics, best practices, bad smells, refactorings, and so on, which are not clearly differentiated; indeed, many are synonymous and others are just vague concepts.
- 19. 2 Garzás & Piattini Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Introduction “Chaos is order waiting to be deciphered” ~ José Saramago Twenty years ago, Redwine (1984) commented that “an expert in a field must know about 50,000 chunks of information, where a chunk is any cluster of knowledge sufficiently familiar that it can be remembered rather than derived,” adding that in mature areas it usually takes about 10 years to acquire this knowledge. Since then, many authors (Shaw, 1990) have commented on the need for defined chunks of knowledge in the software engineering field. In this regard, the software engineering community has advanced greatly in recent years, and we currently have numerous and defined chunks of knowledge, including standards, methodologies, methods, metrics, techniques, languages, patterns, knowledge related to processes, concepts, and so on. Nevertheless, the field of software engineering is still beset by a lack of structured and classified chunks of knowledge (McConnell, 2003) and not all knowledge is transmitted, accessible or studied in the same way. For example, what and where is the enormous amount of practical knowledge regarding object-oriented micro-architectural design? We mean knowledge that has been accumulated from the experience of working with the inherent properties of software, knowledge which normally comes under what is generally accepted or “practices which are applicable to most projects, about which there is a widespread consensus regarding value and usefulness” (Bourque & Dupuis, 2004, p. A-10). Such knowledge may take the form of a source code, compo- nents, frameworks, and so on, but these are no mechanisms for obtaining designs throughout the software life cycle. At this point, many will have already identified one of the essential items of knowledge based on experience with object-oriented micro-architectural design: design patterns. These are just the tip of the iceberg. Let us simplify matters and suppose that we want to specialize as software engineers in object-oriented design. By means of projects like SWEBOK, we can now ascertain what “design” is, how it is subdivided, find the main bibliographical references, and so on, and quite easily acquire a sound theoretical knowledge. If indeed we concentrate part of our professional activity on design, we find that we need to study the practical experience of other experts in the area, and at that moment, the concept of pattern occurs to us. Yet, after examining the main pattern references in object-oriented design, we still feel that something is missing. Missing elements for the formulation of a good micro-architectural design include principles, heuristics, best practices, bad smells, refactorings, and so on. Table 1 gives an example of each of these.
- 20. The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge 3 Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Considerable progress has been made in the accumulation of experience-based knowledge of OO micro-architectural design, but we have advanced consider- ably less in its exploitation and classification. This could be seen as a case of the “Feigenbaum Bottleneck”: “as domain complexity grows, it becomes very difficult for human experts to formulate their knowledge as practical strategies” (Pescio, 1997). First, in the following section, we will analyze the maintenance and design patterns and relationship with analyzability and changeability in more detail. Later, we will show a measurement of the impact of the patterns used. In the last sections, we present acknowledgments, our conclusions and future projects, and references. The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge Serious difficulties are still encountered when we tackle the construction of OO systems, especially in the transition between the analysis processes and the OO design, an aspect which is very vague in this type of paradigm (Henderson, Seller & Eduards, 1990). In practice, designers have accumulated a body of knowledge Table 1. Examples of OO design knowledge PRINCIPLES The Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP) “Depend upon Abstractions. Do not depend upon concretions” (Martin, 1996). HEURISTICS “If two or more classes only share common interface (i.e., messages, not methods), then they should inherit from a common base class only if they will be used polymorphically” (Riel, 1996). BEST PRACTICES “See objects as bundles of behavior, not bundles of data” (Venners, 2004). BAD SMELLS Refused bequest Subclasses that do not use what they inherit (Fowler, Beck, Brant, Opdyke, & Roberts, 2000). REFACTORINGS Extract Interface “Several clients use the same subset of a class's interface, or two classes have part of their interfaces in common. Extract the subset into an interface. [ ]” (Fowler et al., 2000). PATTERNS Observer “Intent: Define a one-to-many dependency between objects so that when one object changes state, all its dependents are notified and updated automatically” (Gamma, Helm, Johnson, & Vlissides, 1995).
- 21. 4 Garzás & Piattini Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. that they apply during these processes. Up until a few years ago, this knowledge was very implicit but fortunately, it is now being specified and popularized in different forms: principles, heuristics, patterns and more recently, refactoring, and so on. The difference between these concepts is generally unclear and not all of them have received the same amount of attention or have reached the same degree of maturity. In fact, OO design principles are often confused and few formalized. In this regard, there are few works about it, with the exception of the contributions of a few (Gamma et al., 1995; Liskov & Zilles, 1974; Martin, 1995, 1996; Meyer, 1997). Regarding OO design heuristics the main works to which we can refer are those of Riel (1996) and Booch (1996). Patterns, however, are without doubt one of the elements that have undergone the greatest evolution and proof of this is the existence of numerous publications on the theme. The application of patterns in OO began at the beginning of this decade (Coad, 1992) and was consolidated by the work of Gamma et al. (1995), Buschmann, Meunier, Rohnert, Sommerlad, and Stal (1996), Fowler (1996), and Rising (1998). Amongst the different types of patterns, we can distinguish, mainly, although other categories exist (antipatterns, specific domains, etc.): • Architectural: These focus on the structure of the system, the definition of subsystems, their responsibilities and rules. • Object-oriented analysis/design (OOAD): To support the refining of the subsystems and components as well as the relationships between them. • Idioms: They help us to implement particular aspects of the design in a specific programming language. As we already know, the use of patterns means that we can avoid constant reinvention, thus reducing costs and saving time. Gamma et al., 1995 point out that one thing that expert designers do not do is resolve each problem from the beginning. When they find a good solution, they use it repeatedly. This experi- ence is what makes them experts. However, at the present time, when patterns are used, several types of problems can occur (Schmidt, 1995; Wendorff, 2001): difficult application, difficult learning, temptation to recast everything as a pattern, pattern overload, ignorance, deficiencies in catalogs, and so forth. Refactoring techniques are characterized by their immaturity, although it is true to say that this topic is rapidly gaining acceptance, the main works in this area are Kent Beck and Fowler’s (2000), Tokuda and Batory (2001), and Opdyke (1992).
- 22. The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge 5 Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. The problem confronting the designer is how to articulate all this explicit knowledge and to apply it in an orderly and efficient fashion in the OODA, in such a way that it is really of use to him or her. In fact, in practice, even such advanced subjects like patterns have this problem. Ralph Johnson comments in this sense that “for one thing, the large number of patterns that have been discovered so far need to be organized. Many of them are competitors; we need to experiment and find which are best to use. …Analyzing existing patterns, or making tools that use patterns, or determining the effectiveness of patterns, could all be good topics” (Johnson, 2000, personal communication). These problems could give rise to incorrect applications of the patterns (Wendorff, 2001). The differences between these elements are not clear. Many concern a single concept with different names, while others on occasions do not contain knowl- edge gained from experience, and still others are simply vague concepts. This confusion leads to a less efficient use of knowledge, so concepts such as principles or heuristics are still unknown to some software engineers, few of whom understand completely their goals or relationships. This problem has been brought up at several major congresses, for example the OOPSLA 2001 Workshop: “Beyond Design: Patterns (mis)used,” where such authors as Schwanninger (2001) say “We got more and more aware that a good description of the proposed solution is necessary, but useless for the reader if the problem and the forces that drive the relationship between problem and solution are not covered properly.” Conclusion Expert designers have always used proven ideas. It is in recent years when these ideas, materialized mainly into the pattern concept, have reached their greatest popularity and diffusion. However, more knowledge exists apart from that related to patterns, although it would be true to say that this other knowledge is frequently “hidden.” We should consider that OO micro architectural design knowledge is associated with the pattern concept, but other elements exist, such as principles, heuristics, best practices, bad smells, and so forth. These other elements show a confused description, unification, definition, and so on. Therefore, few studies systematize and offer the OO design knowledge to designers in such a way that it can be easily used in practical cases. In addition, the different studies published show the elements related to design knowledge in a disconnected way. There has not been much effort made on empirical studies about OO design knowledge, and the few works we have found are mainly focused on design patterns.
- 23. 6 Garzás & Piattini Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. As Shaw (1990) states, a branch of engineering must take several basic steps in order to become an established profession, highlighting understanding of the nature of knowledge. We as a discipline must ask how software engineers might acquire this knowledge. References Abran, A., Moore, J. W., Bourque, P., & Dupuis, R. (Eds.). (2004). Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge: SWEBOK. Los Alamos, CA: IEEE CS Press. Booch, G. (1996). Object solutions. Managing the object-oriented project. Red- wood City, CA: Addison-Wesley. Buschmann, F., Meunier, R., Rohnert, H., Sommerlad, P., & Stal, M. (1996). A system of patterns: Pattern-oriented software architecture. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Coad, P. (1992). Object-oriented patterns. Communications of the ACM, 35(9), 152-159. Fowler, M. (1996). Analysis patterns: Reusable object models. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. Fowler, M., Beck, K., Brant, J., Opdyke, W., & Roberts, D. (2000). Refactoring: Improving the design of existing code (1st ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional. Gamma, E., Helm, R., Johnson, R., & Vlissides, J. (1995). Design patterns. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Professional. Henderson Seller, B., & Eduards, J. M. (1990). The object-oriented system life cycle. Communications of the ACM, 33(9), 142-159. Liskov, B. H., & Zilles, S. N. (1974). Programming with abstract data types. SIGPLAN Notices, 9(4), 50-59. Martin, R. C. (1995). Object-oriented design quality metrics: An analysis of dependencies. ROAD, 2(3). Martin,R.C.(1996).Thedependencyinversionprinciple.C++Report,8(6),61-66. McConnell, S. (2003). Professional software development. Boston: Addison- Wesley. Meyer, B. (1997). Object-oriented software construction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- 24. The Object-Oriented Design Knowledge 7 Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Opdyke, W. (1992). Refactoring Object Oriented Frameworks. Illinois, Urbana- Champain. Pescio, C. (1997). Principles versus patterns. Computer, 30(9), 130-131. Redwine, S. T. (1984). DOD-related software technology requirements, practices, and prospects for the future (Tech. Rep. No. P-1788). Alexandria, VA: Institute of Defense Analyses. Riel, A. J. (1996). Object-oriented design heuristics. Boston: Addison- Wesley Professional. Rising, L. (1998). The patterns handbook: Techniques, strategies, and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schmidt, D. C. (1995). Experience using design patterns to develop reusable object-oriented communication software. Communications of the ACM, 38(10), 65-74. Schwanninger, C. (2001). Patterns as problem indicators. Paper presented at the Workshop on Beyond Design Patterns (mis)Used. OOPSLA, Tampa Bay, FL. Shaw, M. (1990). Prospects for an engineering discipline of software. IEEE Software, 7(6), 15-24. Tokuda, L., & Batory, D. (2001). Evolving object-oriented designs with refactoring. Automated Software Engineering, 8(1), 89-120. Venners, B. (2004). Interface design best practices in object-oriented API design in Java. Retrieved March 25, 2006, from http://www.artima.com/ interfacedesign/contents.html Wendorff, P. (2001). Assessment of design patterns during software reengineering: Lessons learned from a large commercial project. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Software Maintenance and Reeingineering (CSMR).
- 25. 8 Garzás & Piattini Copyright © 2007, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. Chapter II TheObject-Oriented DesignKnowledge Ontology Javier Garzás, Oficina de Cooperación Universitaria (OCU) S.A., Spain Mario Piattini, University of Castilla - La Mancha, Spain Abstract It has been a long time since the object-oriented (OO) paradigm appeared. From that moment, designers have accumulated much knowledge in design and construction of OO systems. Patterns are the most refined OO design knowledge. However, there are many others kinds of knowledge than are not yet classified and formalized. Therefore, we feel it necessary to define ontology in order to structure and unify such knowledge; a good understanding of practical experience is crucial to software engineers. Therefore, this chapter proposes an ontology for object-oriented design knowledge.
- 26. Other documents randomly have different content
- 30. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Incaland
- 31. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Incaland Author: Claude H. Wetmore Illustrator: H. Burgess Release date: October 4, 2016 [eBook #53204] Most recently updated: October 23, 2024 Language: English Credits: E-text prepared by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCALAND ***
- 32. The Project Gutenberg eBook, Incaland, by Claude H. (Claude Hazeltine) Wetmore, Illustrated by H. Burgess Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/incalandstory00wetmrich Incaland
- 33. “He ran forward, closely followed by the others.”
- 34. INCALAND A Story of Adventure in the Interior of Peru AND THE CLOSING CHAPTERS OF THE WAR WITH CHILE BY CLAUDE H. WETMORE AUTHOR OF “FIGHTING UNDER THE SOUTHERN CROSS,” ETC. With Illustrations by H. Burgess BOSTON AND CHICAGO W. A. WILDE COMPANY Copyright, 1902,
- 35. By W. A. Wilde Company. All rights reserved. Incaland.
- 36. Preface. Since the years of the Chile-Peruvian War—1879-1883—a great change has come over the land where the Incas once held power. Military rulers have yielded place to men chosen from the civil walks of life; the large standing army has been disbanded, and the pick, hoe, and shovel replace sword, bayonet, and rifle. Peru’s decline, from the days of Pizarro until near the close of the nineteenth century, was due to the ease with which natural wealth could be acquired. The stages of the nation’s fall are marked by gold, guano, and nitrate of soda. Spaniards lived in opulence while Indian slaves unearthed the yellow metal. Later, Peruvians lived in idleness while coolies and peons shovelled the most productive of all fertilizers from the surface of the Chincha and Lobos Islands. Then in the south was found an equally rich and equally accessible source of revenue in the nitrate of soda. All gold that lay in sight was exhausted by the Spaniard; all guano was stripped from the treasure islands; and finally, Chile wrested from Peru the nitrate provinces. It is this period of time—when Peru’s last visible means of wealth was passing from her—that is covered in “Fighting under the Southern Cross” and “Incaland.” Peru emerged from beneath the war cloud staggering under the burden of a foreign debt. To her relief came representatives of an Anglo-American syndicate. “Give us your railroads for sixty-nine years,” they said. “We will extend them into the fertile interior, and as compensation we will assume your obligations.” Peru acquiesced.
- 37. The Grace-Donoughmore contract was signed. Bondholders were satisfied. The shackles of debt cast one side, the men of Peru turned to work, guided by the rulers chosen from civil life who had been placed in power. They no longer depended upon the labor of a few to maintain the majority in indolence. They tunnelled and dug in the Sierra region and brought to light a wealth of copper; they sank wells in the north and were rewarded with flowing oil; they constructed irrigation canals in Piura Province, and developed a cotton which, because of its lustre and resemblance to wool, is creating a furore in the New York and Liverpool markets. Gold, guano, nitrate, are the tombstones of old Peru; agriculture and mining are the watchwords of the new. The dawn of a brighter day for Incaland is glinting over the Andean chain.
- 38. Contents. CHAPTER PAGE I. In the Andes 11 II. The Montaña of Peru 32 III. A Snake and a Puma 44 IV. In the Coils of a Boa 54 V. Huari, and the Story of the Beautiful Countess 66 VI. A Discovery and an Alarm 85 VII. The Cannibals of Peru 99 VIII. The Fort on the Marañon 113 IX. Attacked by Cannibals 125 X. Near to Death’s Door 137 XI. Beyond the White Rock 142 XII. Harvey as a Sentry 157 XIII. Bella Caceras recognizes a Voice 170 XIV. Blockade of Callao Harbor 186 XV. Darning the Needle 200 XVI. John Longmore’s Revenge 207 XVII. John Longmore’s Revenge (continued) 219 XVIII. John Longmore’s Revenge (concluded) 236 XIX. A Strange Disappearance 248 XX. A Chase into the Pampas Country 261 XXI. Old Glory in the Bay 282 XXII. Dark Days in Incaland 292
- 39. XXIII. An Appeal to the United States of America 296
- 40. Illustrations. PAGE “He ran forward, closely followed by the others” Frontispiece 41 “Ran ... to the side of his friend, whom he seized by the collar” 61 “Angry copper-colored faces showed at the opening” 135 “This engine of death drifted slowly into the mist” 216 “Two black streaks, bearing fluffy burdens of white, were moving swiftly down the moonlit road” 280 INCALAND.
- 41. H CHAPTER I. IN THE ANDES. arvey held some of the white substance in both hands, examined it curiously, then let it filter through his benumbed fingers. “This is snow, isn’t it?” he exclaimed. Hope-Jones and Ferguson laughed. “What! Have you never seen snow before?” asked the former. “Of course not. Didn’t I tell you that I visited the States only once, when I was little more than a baby, and remained but a month or two? I’ve never been in these regions any more than have you. I can remember rainfall, but snow! this is the first I have seen,” and he stooped over again, scooping up a fresh handful of the white, fluffy flakes that had covered the ground to the depth of an inch. “Look out!” screamed Hope-Jones. Ferguson and Harvey jumped to one side, warned by the cry, not a second too soon, for a huge boulder, roaring with the sound of an express train, bounded down the mountain side, crashed over the place where they had stood, and disappeared below the ledge, reverberating as it fell into the chasm. “Narrow escape that!” “I should say so,” said Harvey, who had dropped his snow and stood looking at the two young men, his cheeks quite pale.
- 42. The three who thus had barely escaped death were explorers from Callao, Peru, in the year 1879, and this day they were eight hours’ walk beyond Chicla, the highest point to which the Oroya railroad had been built, and to which terminal they had journeyed by train from the main seacoast city of Peru. Harvey Dartmoor was seventeen years of age, the birthday which marked his passage from sixteen having been celebrated a week before his departure from home. His father had been a wealthy iron merchant in Peru, but the reverses which that country had sustained in the few months of the war with Chile, and which are described in detail in “Fighting Under the Southern Cross,” had forced Mr. Dartmoor, as well as many others in Lima and Callao, to the brink of the financial precipice beneath which yawned the chasm, ruin. Harvey had been more in the confidence of his father than Louis, who was a year older. This was perhaps due to the younger lad’s resemblance to his father, in face and in personal bearing; or, perhaps, to the fact that he was more studiously inclined and therefore passed more time at home than did Louis, who was fond of outdoor sports, and preferred a spin in Callao Bay, or a dash over the pampas on his pony, with his chum Carl Saunders as a companion, to poring over books in the library. It was in this manner—by being frequently at home and in the office —that Harvey had learned of his father’s distress of mind, caused by financial difficulties, long before other members of the family had realized the true state of affairs; and this observance by the lad and his inquiries had as a sequel his appearance in the great Andes chain, or the Cordilleras of Peru. His companions were an Englishman and an American, who had resigned clerkships in offices to undertake this journey. Horace Hope-Jones, the senior, had been five years on the Peruvian coast, coming to Callao from Liverpool, and John Ferguson had lived in Ohio until 1875, when he was offered a very good salary to enter the employ of a large American house which had branch
- 43. establishments in several cities on the southwest coast. One was twenty-three, the other twenty-two. They were well known in the cities, and were popular in amateur athletic circles, both having been members of a famous four of the Callao Rowing Club, that had wrested victory from fours sent from Valparaiso, Panama, and other cities. Harvey Dartmoor was a junior member of this club, and it was while serving as coxswain that he became acquainted with Hope-Jones and Ferguson. It came about curiously that the three were in the Andes, at an altitude of 16,500 feet, this twenty-third day of August, 1879. Two days before they had stood on the beach at Callao, breakers of the Pacific Ocean dashing at their feet; now they were in a wilderness of granite, snow-capped peaks rising on every side, and behind, towering above these, were still others, stretching in a seemingly endless chain. Their quest in this vastness was gold, and an Indian’s narrative caused their search for yellow metal in the interior, where the great Incas once ruled. Hope-Jones and Ferguson had lived in bachelor apartments in Lima, which is eight miles from Callao, and for a year their wants had been attended to by an old native, named Huayno, who cooked their meals, made their beds and kept their rooms tidy. He was singularly uncommunicative during the first eight months of his service, but later, falling ill and being treated kindly by the young men, he told them that he was of direct descent from the Incas; indeed, that there flowed through his veins blood of the royal Atahuallpa, and that he might have been a king had not the race been first betrayed by the white men from Spain and then gradually exterminated, until only a few were left; and these wandered in bands through the interior, turned from a once proud people to Philistines, because of the injustice done them. Thus old Huayno would talk evenings for hour after hour, speaking in Spanish with a strange mixture of the Indian tongue, and they would
- 44. listen intently, because he told wonderful things of life in that portion of the interior to the north of Cerro de Pasco, where the foot of white man had never trod. The Indian became worse instead of better, and finally was bedridden. Hope-Jones and Ferguson had grown much attached to him. They recognized a person above the station in which circumstances had placed him, and, moreover, they felt sorry for one who was far away from his people and so lonely. Therefore, instead of sending him to a hospital, they called a doctor and engaged a nurse to be near his side during the day, while they were absent at their offices. The physician shook his head, after examining the old man, and said:— “He cannot linger long; perhaps a week, possibly two, but no longer.” Ten days later the end came, and a few hours before Huayno breathed his last, he beckoned Hope-Jones and Ferguson to his side. “My masters, I know that I am about to die,” said he. “The sun of my life is setting in the hills and soon it will have disappeared. Before darkness comes I have much to tell you. In these weeks you have done much for me, as much as you would have done a brother; and so I, in turn, shall do for you. Give me, I pray you, from that bottle, so the strength may come to my voice.” One of them handed him a glass, into which he had poured some cordial, and the Indian drank slowly, then raised himself partly in bed, leaning on pillows which had been placed behind his back. He was a tall, well-formed man, his skin of light copper color, and he wore a beard that reached halfway to his waist. His cheeks were much sunken and shrivelled, and resembled stained pieces of chamois skin that had been wet, then dried without stretching. His luminous black eyes glistened from deep cavities under shiny brows. “I am of the tribe of Ayulis,” he continued, his voice much firmer. “They now inhabit the country round about the river Marañon, where they cultivate yacas, plantains, maize, and cotton, and from
- 45. the latter the women weave gay cloths, so that their attire is of more splendid color than that of any tribe. Eighty-five years ago it was not thus; then we were not compelled to cultivate the fields, for having gold in abundance we employed others to work. That gold proved our curse, for the white men came from Spain and levied tribute upon us, more and more each year, until we knew that soon all would be taken away. They levied tribute which we were compelled to pay, but they never learned from where we secured the metal, although they searched in parties large and small and put many of our leading men to the torture, in effort to force the secret from them. An Ayulis has no fear of pain, and they laughed when burned with hot irons and when boiling oil was poured upon them. “When at last the Spaniards drove them too far, they choked the approaches to the mine with the trunks of huge trees, and all voiced a pledge that the place should never be opened again, nor would the location be made known to these unwelcome visitors from Spain. I am one hundred years old now; I was twenty then, and I remember well the great meeting of our tribe. Later we were revenged. Six months from that day we joined forces with the Jivaros, and at night we entered the town of Logroño, where a terrible butchery befell. Every white man was beheaded and every woman was carried away. Then other white men came and we were hunted through the forests for years, until at last we settled on the banks of the Marañon and there turned our attention to farming. “We thought no more of gold, my masters, for that had been our curse; but well I remember the days when the yellow metal was in plenty, and with these eyes I have seen a nugget of gold taken from the mine of which I speak, that was as large as a horse’s head and weighed four arrobas.[1] Silver was so plentiful and iron so scarce that horses were shod with the white metal. 1. One hundred pounds. “Now I come to a time later by twenty years, when, by accident, I killed a man of our tribe. They would not believe me that I had
- 46. meant him no harm, and that the arrow was not sped by design, but they declared that I should die. Had I been guilty I would have awaited the punishment; but I was innocent, and so I fled, and for a time I joined the savages on the Ucalayli, but in a few years I pushed on, over the mountains, to this coast where I have since been.” Hope-Jones and Ferguson had listened breathlessly, bending forward, for the old Indian’s voice had grown weaker and weaker. Soon he added:— “I will tell you where the gold mine lies, for you have been kind to me. Take paper and pencil, that you may write down what I may say and not forget.” They did so, and he went on:— “Cross the mountains to Oroya, go north even to Huari, all that way it is easy. From Huari go further north, three days on foot, to the great forest of cinchona trees, which commence at the sources of the upper Marañon. Enter this forest at Mirgoso, a village of few huts in my day, probably larger now. It is here that the Marañon properly commences. Follow the river, keeping in sight the right bank all the way. Travel six days by foot and you will suddenly see a great white rock. Beyond this once was a path, leading further north a half mile. Along it trees have been felled; they are rotted now. Push on and you will find the mine. Another—another—” They bent closer, for his breath was coming in spasms. “Another white rock marks—” They sprang to his side; a strange rattle sounded in his throat. “Lift me that I may see the setting sun.” They did so and he looked out the window, toward Callao, where the ball of red was sinking. Then he fell back, dead. For several days the young men said little concerning the Indian’s story. They gave his body fitting burial in the little cemetery at Bella
- 47. Vista, and returned to their work at office desks. It all seemed a dream to them; either they had dreamed or they had listened to the ravings of Huayno. But after a week they commenced to discuss the narrative, first curiously, as one might talk of a fairy tale, then earnestly, as if their minds were becoming convinced that it had foundation in fact. Why was it impossible? Were not legends heard from every tongue of the fabulous wealth of the Incas? Was it not said that they had secret mines, from which gold and silver had been taken, and which mines were closed and their bearings lost after the advent of the white man? Had there not been wonderful wealth in Cuzco?—a temple covered with sheets of gold and heaps of treasure? At Cajamaráca, did not Atahuallpa offer Pizarro, as a ransom, sufficient gold to fill the apartment in which he was confined and twice that amount of silver? There could be no reason for the Indian to deceive them; there was every reason why he should have told them the truth. Would it not be wise to go into the interior and investigate? Nothing stood in the way. They had youth and strength, the journey would be of advantage physically; each had a small sum of money in bank and a portion of this would furnish everything they might need on the trip, leaving sufficient for emergencies upon their return, should they prove unsuccessful. These arguments, advanced by one, then by the other, determined them, and one evening Ferguson jumped up from his seat at table and exclaimed:— “Let’s go!” “Say we do,” answered Hope-Jones. “Agreed?” “Agreed.” “Shake on it.”
- 48. They clasped hands, and it was settled. The very next afternoon they were discussing their plans in the dressing room of the Callao Rowing Club, when they were overheard by Harvey Dartmoor. He was not eavesdropping. Such was not his nature. They had not noticed his presence, and finally, when he attracted their attention, they were rather glad than otherwise that he had heard, and soon asked if he would like to join in the search. Harvey was known in Callao as a student, and the young men believed that he would be of assistance when knowledge of geology and chemistry should be needed. Besides, he was a pleasant companion, and although their junior, he was in many things far advanced for one of his years. So it was decided that Harvey should accompany them, provided his father should give consent, and in the evening Hope-Jones visited John Dartmoor at his home in Chucuito and unfolded to him the strange sayings of the Indian, Huayno. Mr. Dartmoor was at first reluctant to permit Harvey’s departure. There was considerable danger in the trip—from avalanches, wild animals, and perhaps from savages, occasional bands of which were known at times to approach the Marañon River. But in Hope-Jones and Ferguson he recognized young men of courage and determination; he knew Harvey to have a similar nature, and beyond all that he looked at the possibility of finding this treasure. John Dartmoor had seen nothing but darkness on all sides, and here was a glimmer of light. The depreciation of paper money and the stagnation of trade, because of war, had checked all business. He was confronted with obligations which he could not meet, and each night he dreaded the dawning of another day, lest it bring failure before darkness could come again. So at last he gave his consent, and Harvey, delighted, made his preparations for the journey. The three decided to make no secret of the fact that they were going inland to seek gold, but to no one except John Dartmoor did
- 49. they say aught concerning the Indian’s revelations. Having once interested himself in the venture, Mr. Dartmoor proved of valuable assistance to the travellers. Hope-Jones and Ferguson having shared their information with his son, he in turn furnished outfits complete for all three, and as his hardware store was the largest on the coast, he was able to find nearly everything in stock. But the travellers, after frequent discussions, left behind far more than they first had planned to carry, for they appreciated the fact that before them lay mile after mile of mountain climbing. When equipped for the journey, each was clad in a suit of heavy tweed, the trousers to the knee, gray woollen stockings, and walking shoes. Each carried a knapsack, surmounted by two thin blankets, shaped in a roll, and in each knapsack were the following articles: One light rubber coat, one pair of shoes, two pairs of stockings, one suit of underclothing, three pocket-handkerchiefs, one tin plate, one tin cup, knife and fork of steel, one pound of salt, one large box of matches, one tooth brush, one comb, needles, pins, and thread, one iron hammer, and one box containing two dozen quinine pills. Ferguson and Hope-Jones each carried a pick, slung by cords over their shoulders, but Harvey was deemed too young to bear a similar burden; besides, two picks were plenty. Hope-Jones carried a shot- gun, Ferguson a rifle, and Harvey a weapon similar to that borne by the Englishman, but of less weight. They all wore two ammunition belts, one around the waist, the other over the shoulder. In pockets were jack-knives, pieces of twine and lead pencils and paper, for they hoped to send letters from the interior to the coast by making use of native runners, although once away from the railroad they could receive none. Thus equipped, the departure was made from Lima on the morning of August 20, and the three adventurers were accompanied as far as Chosica by Harvey’s brother Louis and by Carl Saunders, their chum, who stood on the railway platform in the little mountain town and waved a God-speed until the train pulled out of sight.
- 50. The Oroya railroad is one of the seven wonders of Peru, and no work by civil engineers in all the world so challenges admiration. It rises from the sea and threads the gorges of the Rimac, creeping on ledges that have been blasted from out the solid rock, crossing bridges that seem suspended in air, and boring through tunnels over which rest giant mountains. In places the cliffs on which rails are laid so overhang the river far below that a stone let fall from a car window will drop on the opposite side of the stream. From the coast to the summit there is not an inch of down grade, and in seventy- eight miles an altitude of 12,178 feet is attained. Sixty-three tunnels are passed through. Placed end to end they would be 21,000 feet in length, so that for four miles of this wonderful journey one is burrowing in the bowels of mountains. At one point the travellers stood on the car platform and saw ahead of them the mouth of a tunnel, then, looking up the face of the precipice they saw another black opening that seemed the size of a barrel; higher still was a third, no larger in appearance than a silver dollar; yet higher, as high as a bird would fly, a fourth, resembling the eye of a needle. Four tunnels, one above the other! They would enter the first, wind around on ledges, pass through the second, wind again, the third, wind again, and before entering the fourth, look down from the train platform along the face of the precipice and see the entrances to the three holes through which they had passed. They were threading mountains, and always moving toward the summit. In this wild journey they passed over thirty bridges that spanned chasms, the most remarkable of them all being the iron bridge of Verrugas, which crosses a chasm 580 feet wide and rests on three piers, the central one being 252 feet high. The noonday meal was taken at Matucana, in the railway station house, and a half hour later they were on the way again, and all three stood on the platform of the rear car, watching the scenery, which every moment grew in grandeur. As the train wound around a ledge, like a huge iron snake, they saw far beneath a little lake of
- 51. blue, bordered by willows. Even as they looked, clouds rolled out and hid the water and the willows. So they were above the clouds! Yet above them were other clouds, of fleecy white, drifting and breaking against the gray masses of stone that rose ever and ever at the sides of them and in front of them! For a long time they were silent, looking down into chasms so deep they could not in places see the bottom; at other points appeared a silver thread which they knew to be a river; or, they gazed up at smooth cliffs, towering as if to shut out the sun, and again at huge overhanging boulders that seemed to need but a touch to drop and obliterate train and passengers. While thus watching, Hope-Jones suddenly exclaimed:— “Where Andes, giant of the Western star, Looks from his throne of clouds o’er half the world.” “Who wrote those lines?” asked Harvey. “Campbell, I believe. I never appreciated them as I do now,” he replied. They were soon joined by the conductor, who was much interested in the three adventurers. The road not having been constructed its entire length, it was seldom that passengers for the interior were on trains, and rarely indeed were met persons who intended journeying as far as did these three companions. Those who rode up the Oroya railroad were mainly tourists. So, in those years, the railway was operated at a loss; but it was government property, and the purpose was in time to connect the great interior with the seaboard. The conductor was an American who had been five years in Peru, and he was always glad to meet any one from the States; so at once he fell into conversation with Ferguson. “How often do you go over the road?” he was asked. “Three times a week.” “Do you not tire of the solitude?”
- 52. “No. Each time I see new grandeur. Look over there. What is on that cliff?” The three gazed in the direction he pointed. “It seems to be a little animal about the size of a lamb,” said Ferguson. “It’s an Andean bull.” “But, surely, how can that be?” “Because the cliff, which seems only a few hundred feet away, is thousands. In this rarefied air all distances and sizes are misleading.” “What did this road cost?” Harvey asked. “In money, no one knows exactly, unless it be the superintendent of public construction at Lima. Henry Meiggs took the contract in 1868 for $27,000,000, but the government has added many million dollars since then.” “You say in money. What other cost has there been?” “Lives of men, my son. The line is not completed, yet seven thousand men have perished during its construction. They say that for every tie on the railroad across the Isthmus of Panama a man gave his life, but even that road has no such death list on the dark side of its ledger as has this.” “That is more than double the number of the killed on both sides at the battle of Shiloh!” exclaimed Harvey. “Yes; if I remember my history aright,” assented the conductor. “What caused this frightful mortality?” asked Hope-Jones. “There have been many causes, sir. Extremes of climate have affected those with weak constitutions and rendered them easy victims to disease, pestilences have raged in the camps, and there have been hundreds of fatal accidents, due to blasting and to the fall of boulders. I dare say that if one could find a passage along the
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