O'Levels Chemistry Notes (GCE and IGCSE)

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GCE O LEVEL SYLLABUS 2010
CHEMISTRY (5070)
Name: _____________________________________ Date: ____________
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=CHAPTER 1 – EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY
1.1 Experimental Design
Volumes of Liquids
SI unit: cubic metre (m3)
Large volume measurement: decimetres (dm3)
1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3
Daily life measurement: millilitres (ml) or litres(l)
1 litre = 1 000 ml
Apparatus for measuring liquids depends on:
- The volume being measured
- How accurate the measurement needs to be

Volumes of Gases
Measured with gas syringe, up to 100 cm3

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Temperature
Measured with thermometer. 2 types are:
a) Mercury-in-glass
b) Alcohol-in-glass
SI Unit: Kelvin (K)
Daily life measurement: degree Celcius (oC)
K = oC + 273

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- Beaker hold approximate volume of 100 cm3 and 250 cm3.
- Conical flask hold approximate volume of 100 cm3 and 250 cm3.
- Measuring cylinder has accuracy to 1 cm3.
- Reading to be taken nearer to the meniscus (bottom line).
- If reading is 23 cm3, should not write 23.0 cm3 as the ‘0’ means accurate to
0.1 cm3.
- Burette has long scale of 0 – 50 cm3, accurate to 0.1 cm3.
- Liquid level to be measured before and after tap opening. The difference of
volume gives the liquid volume poured off.
- Bulb pipette measures exact volumes such as 20.0, 25.0 or 50.0 cm3, not odd
volumes such as 31.0 cm3.

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Time
SI Unit: seconds (s)
Other Units: minutes (min)/hour (h)
Measured with:
(a) Clock
(b) Digital stopwatch
Mass
Mass – the measure of amount of matter in a substance
SI Unit: kilogram (kg)
Other Units: grams (g)/milligrams (mg)
Large volume measurements: tonnes (t)
1 tonne = 1 000 kg
Measured with:
(a) Electric “top-pan” balance
(b) Triple beam balance

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1.2 Methods of Purification and Analysis
Pure substance – single substance not mixed with anything else
E.g: white sugar, copper sulfate crystals, distilled water

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Mixture – contains two or more substances. Its quantity is more on Earth.
E.g: seawater (salt, water & dissolved solids), milk (fats & dissolved solids)

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Why crystallisation occur?
- Solubility of most solutes decrease as temperature decrease, when
solution cools, solution can’t hold more solute (saturated) so the extra
solute separates as pure crystals.

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Filtration
Filtration – separates insoluble solid from a liquid.
- Mixture is poured through a filter with tiny holes made of paper.
- Large solid particles cannot pass through the pores and trapped in it as
residue while tiny liquid particles pass through as filtrate.

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2.2 Obtaining Pure Substances
Purification – The seperation process of mixtures into pure substances by using
physical methods without chemical reactions.

Crystallisation & Evaporation to Dryness
Crystallisation – separation of dissolved solid from a solution as well-formed
crystals
Evaporation to Dryness – seperation of dissolved solid from a solution as crystals of
salt by evaporating all the liquid off.
FULL OVERVIEW PROCESS ON THE RIGHT:

Sublimation
Sublimation – separation of a mixture of solids which one of it sublimes (by heating
the solid mixture to turn one of the substance into vapour without going through
liquid state).

When mixture of iodine and sand is heated, iodine sublimes (turns into vapour
directly) then cools and crystallise when it reaches cold water area
Examples of sublimable solids: CO2 (s), dry FeCl3 (s), dry AlCl3 (s)
Simple Distillation
Simple Distillation – separation of pure liquid from a solution by condensing
vaporised liquid
Condensed pure liquid – distillate

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Diagram and Distillation Graph

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Process of Distillation:
Solution is heated, and steam (pure vapour) is produced. The steam is cooled in
condenser to form pure liquid. Solute remains in the flask.

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Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation – separates mixture of miscible (soluble) liquids with widely
differing boiling points.
Use of fractionationg column separates them
Process of Fractional Distillation: E.g. ethanol and water
Mixture of ethanol and water is placed in flask and heated. Ethanol with lower
boiling point boils and vaporises first and reach fractionating column then cools
and condenses into ethanol as it passes through condenser. Temperature will stay
constant until all ethanol is distilled. Water will distil the same way after all ethanol
is distilled.

Uses of fractional distillation:
- Separates pure oxygen and pure nitrogen from liquefied air
- Separates substances in petroleum (crude oil) into fractions
- Separates alcohol to produce alcoholic drinks
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis – separates a solution (e.g. seawater) by pressurizing the mixture
against a membrane which separates the solute and the solvent

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Seawater is pumped under great pressure into a closed container onto a
membrane forcing water particles but salt particles to pass through.
Some salt particles may still pass through.

- 2 comparison dyes are of one of the compositions of the
original dye as the spots are of same colour and distance.
- a comparison dye isn’t part of sample.

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Rf value =

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Chromatography
Chromatography – a method of separating and identifying mixtures.
The need for Chromatography
- Separates and identify mixtures of coloured substances in dyes
- Separates substances in urine, drugs & blood for medicinal uses
- To find out whether athletes have been using banned drugs

Rf Values
To identify unknown dye in the diagram at the very top:

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- two liquids insoluble to each other will create two layers
of overlying liquids of each type. To separate, take the
stopper off and turn the tap on to run the denser liquid
at the bottom off the funnel and leave the less dense
liquid in the funnel by turning the tap off and reset the
stopper at its original position.

Separating and Identifying Mixtures of Colourless Substances
To do this a locating agent is to be sprayed on filter paper.
Locating Agent – a substance that reacts with substances (e.g. sugars) on paper to
procuce a coloured product.

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Use of Separating Funnel
Separating Funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids

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Separating Mixtures of Coloured Substances
Obtain a dye sample then put a drop of the sample on a pencil line drawn on the
filter paper then dip the paper into a solvent with the level below the spot. The dye
will dissolve in solvent and travel up the paper at different speed. Hence they are
separated.
Identifying Mixturees of Coloured Substances
In the diagram on the right, drop of sample dye is placed on pencil line. The result
shows that:
- The sample dye is made of 3 colours.

Where x = distance moved by the substance and;
y = distance moved by the solvent
Checking the Purity of Substances
- Pure substances have FIXED MELTING AND BOILING POINTS.
 Pure water boils at 100oC and melts at 0oC.
- Impure substances have NO FIXED MELTING AND BOILING POINTS. They melt and
boil at a RANGE OF TEMPERATURES
 e.g. starts boil at 70oC, completes boil at 78oC
 Also, it can VARY melting and boiling points of pure substances.
 e.g. pure water boil at 100oC, but with salt is at 102oC
1.3 Identification of Ions and Gases
Refer to Insert 1. Everything lies there.
END OF CHAPTER 1

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Diffusion of gases
Bromine drops are placed into a jar. Another jar full of air
is placed on top of jar with bromine, separated with
cover. Cover is removed and bromine evaporates, filling
both jars with dense reddish-brown bromine vapour.
Explanation:
Bromine particles move from lower jar into spaces between air particles in upper
jar. At the same time, air particles move down from upper jar to mix with bromine
particles in lower jar. Eventually, bromine and air particles are mixed completely.

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CHAPTER 2 – THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
2.1 Kinetic Particle Theory
Matter – anything that has mass and takes up space. Three forms – solids, liquids,
gas.

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SOLIDS
- fixed volume
- fixed shape
- incompressible
- do not flow

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Diffusion of liquids

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GASES
- no fixed volume
- no fixed shape
- compressible
- flow in all direction

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LIQUIDS
- fixed volume
- no fixed shape – takes the shape of container
- incompressible
- flow easily

The Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter
- particles are too small to be seen directly
- there are spaces between particles of matter; the amount of space varies
between each states
- the particles are constantly move; each state moves in different speed

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the spreading and mixing of particles in gases and liquids.

CuSO4 crystals placed in beaker of water, blue
particles of the crystals is spread throughout
the water to form uniformly blue solution.

Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion
- Temperature
The higher the temperature, the more particles of matter absorb energy making
them move faster, the higher the rate of diffusion; the lower the temperature,
the slower the rate of diffusion
- Mass of particles
Greater mass, the slower it diffuses; Smaller mass, the faster it diffuses

A cotton soaked in aqueous ammonia and another soaked in hydrochloric acid
are placed on opposite sides of the tube. NH4OH vapor and HCl vapor diffuses in
the tube and a compound is produced inside the tube closer to HCl soaked
cotton as the particles are heavier. The greater mass, the slower particles diffuse.
The smaller mass, the faster particles diffuse.

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Particles in liquid:
Particles in gas:
- Are packed closely but - Are far apart and in
not orderly arranged
random arrangement
- Have little empty - Are free to move
space between them
anywhere
in
the
but more than in solids
container
- Are not held fixed but
free
to
move
throughout liquid

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Gas

Boiling
Boiling is the change of liquid to gas by absorbing heat to break the forces holding
them together.
Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid boils.

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Particles in solid:
- Are
packed
close
together in orderly
arrangement
- Have little empty space
between them
- Can vibrate but cannot
move freely about
their fixed position

Liquid

Freezing
Freezing is the change of liquid to solid by cooling down of liquid.
Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid freezes.
A-B: liquid temperature decreases to freezing point.
B-C: heat energy is released as particles slow down to
take up fixed and orderly position of a solid. The
temperature remain constant release of energy
compensates for loss of heat to surroundings.
C-D: solid cools to the temperature of surroundings.

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Particulate Models of Matter
Solid

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Changes of State
Melting

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Differences between properties of matter and particles in them.
1. Matter can be coloured (e.g. sulphur is yellow) but particles are not.
2. Substances feels hot/cold but particles don’t get hot/cold. The temperature is
due to speed of movement of particles. If hot, particles move fast.
3. Matter expands when heated but particles don’t. They increase distance
between particles during expansion.

Melting is change from solid to liquid by absorbing heat
to break force of attraction holding particles together.
The temperature at which solid melts is melting point.
From the graph:
A-B: the temperature of solid increases to melting point.
B-C: the temperature remains constant as heat is
absorbed to break forces of attraction instead for
raising temperature. Solid and liquid are present.
C-D: liquid heats as heat energy increases temperature.

A-B: liquid temperature rises to boiling point.
B-C: heat energy is absorbed by particles to break the
attractive forces so that they move freely and far
apart as gas particles. That’s why the temperature
remain constant

Evaporation
Evaporation is change of liquid to gas without boiling, occurs below boiling point
on water surface. It gives cooling effect – heat energy absorbed from surroundings.
Condensation
Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas
particles slow down and move closer to one another to form liquid.
Sublimation is the change of solid to gas without melting. Heat is absorbed.

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2.2 Atomic Structure
Atoms contain PROTONS, NEUTRONS, and ELECTRONS
Protons have positive charge while neutrons has neutral charge but same mass as
protons. Since an atom is electrically neutral, electrons has to carry a negative
charge and the amount of electrons is the same as the amount of protons.
Particle
Symbol
Relative mass
Charge
Proton
p
1
+1
Neutron
n
1
0
e–

To write electronic configuration we write as n.n.n.... where first n denotes the first
shell, second the second shell and so and so for.
E.g. Sulfur has electronic configuration of 2.8.6

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Electron

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Electrons are placed in orbits. First shell contains maximum 2 electrons. Second
shell and so and so for has maximum of 8 electrons.

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Protons and neutrons are located in nucleus. These make up nucleon number.
Electrons move around nucleus in an orbit called electron shells.

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PROTON NUMBER is the number of protons in an atom.
NUCLEON NUMBER is the number of protons and neutrons in nucleus of an atom.
Therefore, to find the number of neutrons, we subtract proton number from
nucleon number, i.e.: Nucleon number – Proton number = Neutrons
ELECTRONS have the same number as protons to balance the charges.

The valence electrons is the number of electrons of the outermost shell. Sulphur
has 6 valence electrons.
Relation with Periodic Table
Elements in same horizontal row: Period
Elements in same vertical column: Group
Group 1 has 1 valency, Group 2 has 2 valency, Group 3 has 3 valency and so on.
Group 0 has full valency which makes it having stable electronic configuration.
Down the period the number of shells increases.

ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons.
Therefore, their nucleon number is different.
E.g. Hydrogen atoms has 3 isotopes, ,
and . Structurally, it’s drawn:

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2.3 Structure and Properties of Materials
Elements
Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical nor physical methods.

e.g. seawater is made up of water and NaCl (salt); oxygen in air varies.

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2.4 Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another to become
achieve an inert gas configuration, forming ions.
Ionic bonds are formed between METALLIC and NON- METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.
- Metals lose electrons to form positive ions (cations)
- Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions)
The formation of ions is resulted from transfer of atoms from one atom to another
atom(s), which the ions produced are of opposite charges, and unlike charges
attract, causing them to be held together with a strong force.
E.g. Formation of NaCl

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COMPOSITION OF ELEMENTS
Elements are made of atoms
Atom is smallest unit of an element, having properties of that element.
Molecule is group of two or more atoms chemically joined together, e.g. chlorine
molecule has 2 chlorine atoms
Chemical formula shows the number and kinds of atoms in a molecule, e.g.
chlorine molecule has formula Cl2, where Cl is chlorine symbol and the subscript
number (2) shows that there are 2 atoms in a chlorine gas molecule.

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Classifying Elements
- Classifying by state. E.g. some elements are solids, some liquids, some gases.
- Classifying by metals and non-metals. E.g. most elements are metals, semi-metals
are metalloids (having properties of metals & non-metals), some are non-metals
- Classifying by periodicity.From left-right elements change from metal to non-metal

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Compounds
Compound is substance containing 2 or more elements chemically joined together
e.g. Magnesium is an element; oxygen is an element – they can only be burnt to
form magnesium oxide compound.
COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS
Ions or molecules make up compounds
Ions are atoms having electrical charge
E.g. NaCl made up of 2 ions; positively charged Na, negatively charged Cl.
Mixtures
Mixture contains 2 or more substances not chemically joined together.

Sodium atom loses an electron by transferring the electron to chlorine atom,
making both stable. The loss of electron forms cation, Na+, and the gain of electron
forms anion, Cl-. The opposite charges acquired by both ions attract to each other,
forming a strong ionic bond of NaCl.

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STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF IONIC BONDS
Structure
Ionic substances appear as giant lattice structures which
the ions are held together by electrostatic force
between oppositely charged ions. To find the formula of
ionic bond, say sodium chloride bond, by looking at
lattice structure, we count the ratio of amount of metal
ions to non-metal ions. E.g. in sodium chloride, the ratio
Na:Cl is 1:1, therefore the ionic formula is NaCl.

Sodium atom loses two electrons by transferring the electrons to fluorine atoms,
one each, making both stable. The loss of electron forms cation, Mg2+, as it loses 2
electrons, and the gain of electron forms anion, F-. The opposite charges acquired
by both ions attract to each other, forming a strong ionic bond of MgF2.

Properties
1. Ionic compounds are hard crystalline solids with flat sides and regular shapes
because the ions are arrnged in straight rows in strong ionic bonds.
2. Ionic compounds have very high melting points and boiling points.
3. The strong forces holding ionic compounds prevents them to evaporate easily.
Hence, ionic compounds have no smell.
4. Solid ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity but they do when they are
aqueous or molten. This is because in liquid/aqueous state the ions which
conduct electricity are free to move. In solids, these ions are fixed in place.
5. Ionic compounds are soluble in water but insoluble in organic compounds. This is
because the ions attract water molecules which distrupts the crystal structure,
causing them separate & go into solution. Vice versa is when in organic solvent.

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E.g. Formation of MgF2

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Deducing formula ionic compounds
We can know the charge of elements by looking at groups of periodic table. Group
I to group III elements has charge of +1, increasing to +3, going to the right. Group
V to group VII elements has charge of -3, decreasing to -1, going to the right.
E.g. Aluminium sulfate
We have to balance the charges to make a stable bond
Ions present: Al3+
SO42Al3+
SO42SO42Total change: 6+
6Therefore, the formula is Al2(SO4)3
1. The symbol of metal ion should always be first, e.g. NaCl
2. Polyatomic ion should be placed in brackets, e.g. Fe(NO3)2

2.5 Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the sharing a pair of electrons to gain electronic configuration
of an inert gas, usually for molecules.
Covalent bonds occur between NON-METALLIC ATOMS ONLY.
In covalent bond, WE TRY TO SUBTITUTE THE SHORT OF ELECTRONS OF
TWO/MORE ATOMS BETWEEN EACH OTHER TO FORM THE 2 OR 8 VALENCE
ELECTRONS. THE SHARED ELECTRONS APPEAR IN PAIRS!

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Apart from oxygen sharing between oxygen atoms, it can have electrons with other
atoms. Oxygen needs 2 electrons and when bonded with hydrogen, which need an
atom each, they combine to provide 2 electrons on both sides of oxygen bonded
with hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen with oxygen atom form a single bond: O – H.

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E.g. Cl2 molecule

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Hydrogen atom has one valency. To become stable with hydrogen atom, it needs
one more electron, just like helium which has 2 valency. When 2 hydrogen atoms
join, they share their electrons, on which, the share becomes 2 electrons, which is
now a noble gas configuration, being shared between these 2 atoms. We write the
bond as H – H single bond, which means they share an electron pair (2 electrons).

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E.g. H2O molecule

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E.g. H2 molecule

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E.g. CO2 molecule

E.g.O2 molecule

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Cl atom has 7 valency and needs one electron, each, to form a noble gas
configuration between two Cl atoms. Hence they share an electron EACH to hence
share 2 electrons between the atoms. Hence, each Cl atom now has 8 valency
which is a noble gas configuration.

Carbon needs 4, oxygen needs 2. We share two from oxygen part, WHICH HAS THE
SMALLEST NUMBER OF SHORT ELECTRONS, TO SHARE THE AMOUNT OF
ELECTRONS THAT ATOM NEEDS, to form 4 shared atoms. Now oxygen is stable but
carbon needs 2 more, which we now know they can get from another oxygen
atom. The atoms are now stable and since each bond has 2 pairs of electrons, we
call this double bond: C = O.
A pair of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms SINGLE BOND, X – Y.
Two pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms DOUBLE BOND, X = Y.
Three pairs of shared electrons between 2 atoms forms TRIPLE BOND, X  Y.

An O atom has 6 valency and needs 2 electrons, each, to form a noble gas
configuration. Hence, EACH SHARE THE AMOUNT OF ELECTRONS EACH SHORT OF,
in this case – 2 electrons, to form stable molecule. The contribution hence now
This information is important when you want to know the bond forces between
become 4 electrons and what left on each oxygen atom is 4 electrons. We combine
atoms in exothermic/endothermic reactions.
each 4 electrons on oxygen atom with the 4 electrons shared and hence we get 8
valency for each oxygen atom – a noble gas configuration!
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BOND FORMING
Each atom in metal gives up valence electrons to form positive ions. There are free
electrons moving between the spaces and positive metal ions are attracted to the
sea of electrons which hold the atoms together.
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALLIC BONDS
1. Metals can be bent (ductile) and can be stretched (malleable) because the
layers of atoms in metals slide over each other when force is applied but will
not break due to attractive force between electrons and metal ions.
2. Metals conduct electricity as it has free electrons which carries current.
3. Metals conduct heat as it has free electrons which gains energy when heated
and moves faster to collide with metal atoms, releasing heat in collisions.
4. Metals have high melting and boiling points because the bonds between
metals is very strong. Hence very high heat energy needed to break the bonds.

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Silicon Dioxide
Silicon dioxide, SiO2, has silicon atoms bonded with another oxygen atoms in a
tetrahedral arrangement which each silicon atom uses all its valence electrons to
form 4 single covalent bonds with other 4 oxygen atoms.

2.6 Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is bonding within atoms of metals caused by attractive force
between positively charged metal ions and negatively charged free electrons. The
atoms are packed closely together in giant lattice structures.

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STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BONDS
Structure
Giant Covalent Bond
Diamond
Diamond has carbon atoms bonded with another carbon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement which each carbon atom uses all its valence electrons to form 4 single
covalent bonds with other 4 carbon atoms.

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Graphite
Graphite has flat layers of carbon atoms bonded strongly in hexagonal
arrangement in which the layers are bonded to each other weakly.

Properties
1. It is a hard solid because it consists of many strong covalent bonds between
atoms. This property makes it suitable as abrasives.
2. It has very high melting and boiling points.
3. It does not conduct electricity (except graphite) because there are no free
electrons in covalent bonds since they are used to form bonds; hence electrons
are in fixed positions. To conduct electricity, there must be free electrons.
4. All covalent structures are insoluble in water.

2.7 Simple Molecular Substances
1. Simple molecular substances are usually liquids/gases at r.t.p. because the
molecules are not tightly bonded like in solids, hence free to move.
2. They have low melting and boiling points because the force of attraction is weak
that they can be easily broken by heat.
3. Since they have low boiling points, they evaporate easily.
4. They don’t conduct electricity because they don’t have free electrons/ions which
helps to conduct electricity.
5. Most of these are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.

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END OF CHAPTER 2



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CHAPTER 3 – FORMULAE, STOICHIOMETRY AND THE MOLE CONCEPT
3.1 Relative Atomic Mass
Comparing Atomic Masses with the Carbon Atom
To compare to a carbon atom, a carbon-12 atom is used. The mass of the isotope is

Mr(Fe2O3) = 2(56) + 3(16) = 160

12 times greater than hydrogen atom so

= 70%
Mr(Fe3O4) = 3(56) + 4(16) = 232

mass of one hydrogen atom.
Relative Atomic Mass - the average mass of one atom of the element (averaging

=

mass of a carbon-12 atom.

In short is:

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3.2 Relative Molecular Mass and Relative Formula Mass
Using Ar, we calculate Relative Masses of molecules and ionic compounds
Relative Molecular Mass
Molecules containes atoms joined together, e.g. Cl2
Average mass (molecular mass) of Cl2= add relative masses of both atoms.
Relative Molecular Mass – the average mass of one molecule of substance

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The Relative Atomic Masses are already stated on the periodic table above each
chemical formula.

In short: Mr =

x 100%

= 72%
 Fe3O4 has more iron composition than that of Fe2O3.
Calculating the Mass of an Element in a Compound
Use the example of Fe2O3 in the example above. The percentage mass of iron in
iron(III) oxide is 70%. Therefore to calculate mass of iron in a 200g compound of
iron(III) oxide is (0.7 x 200)g = 140g
e.g. Determine the mass of iron in 200g of Fe2O3.
Mr(Fe2O3)= 2(56) + 3(16) = 160

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Ar =

(averaging isotopes) when compared with

=

x 100 %

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Ar =

x 100%

Percentage of Fe in Fe2O3 =

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isotopes) when compared with

x 100 %

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of carbon-12 atoms is equivalent to the

Percentage of Fe in Fe2O3 =

mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Mass of Fe in Fe2O3 =
=

x 200g
x 200g

= 140g
Calculating the Mass of Water in a Compound
Compound with water mass is ‘hydrated’ and has H2O in their formula.
e.g. Calculate water mass in 12.5g hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4 5H2O
Mass of 5H2O in CuSO4 5H2O =

Relative Formula Mass– same as relative molecular mass but for ions only
Relative Formula Mass– total Ar of all atoms in formula of ionic compound
e.g. Relative formula mass of MgSO4?
Mr = 24 + 32 + 4(16) = 120
3.3 Percentage Composition
e.g. Determine which oxides of iron of Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 has more iron.
Solution next page

=
= 4.5g
MOLE
3.4 Counting Particles
Unit for particles = mole
Symbol = mol
1 mol = 6 x 1023 atoms

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x mass of sample
x 12.5g



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3.5 Moles of Particles
Calculating the Number of Moles

e.g. Argon Fluorohydride gas, HArF, first known noble gas compound, has molar
mass of 60g. Find the number of moles Argon atom in 6.66g of HArF.
n (HArF) =

n=
e.g 1: How many molecules in 6 x 1024 molecules of water, H2O?

= 0.111 mol
n (Ar) = 0.111 mol x 1 Ar atom in HArF
= 0.111 mol

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n=

0.25mol =

n=

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3.6 Molar Mass
Molar mass – the mass of one mole of any substances
For substances consisting of atoms
It is the Ar of the element in grams. Eg. Ar(C) = 12, molar mass = 12g
For substances consisting of molecules
It is the Ar of the substance in grams. Eg. Ar(H2O) = 18, molar mass = 18g
For substances consisting of ions
It is the Ar of substance in grams. Eg. Ar(NaCl)= 58.5, molar mass= 58.5g
Calculations Using Molar Mass

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Number of particles = 0.25 mol x 6 x 1023
= 1.5 x 1023 molecules
Number of atoms = total number of atoms in CO2 x noumber of particles
= 3 x 1.5 x 1023
= 4.5 x 1023 atoms

3.7 Different Kinds of Chemical Formulae
Ethene formula is C2H6
Molecular Formula – shows the actual formula and kinds of atoms present, e.g.
C2H6
Empirical Formula – shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present,
e.g. C2H6, ratio 1:3, therefore C1H3, simply CH3
Structural Formula – shows how atoms are joined in the molecule. It can be
represented by ball-and-stick model or diagrammatically.
Ball-and-Stick
Diagrammatic

M

= 5 mol
e.g 2: Calculate the number of molecules in 0.25 mole of CO2. Hence, how many
atoms are present?

e.g. Find the mass of 0.4 mol of iron atom.

Calculating the Empirical Formula of a Compound
Find the empirical formula of an oxide of magnesium consisting of 0.32g of oxygen
and 0.96g of magnesium.
Step 1: find the number of moles of the 2 elements.
n(Mg) =

n(O) =

= 0.04 mol
= 0.02 mol
Step 2: Divide the moles by the smallest number.

n=

Mg =

m = n x Mr
m = 0.4 x 56 = 22.4 g

=2
=1
Therefore, the empirical formula is Mg2O

Contact: 0323 509 4443

O=



16

Calculating the Empirical Formula from Percentage Composition
An oxide of sulphur consists of 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen.
Take the total 100% to be 100g.
Step 1: find the number of moles of the 2 elements.

e.g. What is the number of moles of 240cm3 of Cl2 at r.t.p.?

n(S) =

= 0.01 mol
Molar Volume and Molar Mass
Gases have same volume but not necessarily same mass
Example: Hydrogen -> 2g, Carbon Dioxide -> 44g

n=
=

AD

n(O) =

= 1.25 mol
= 3.75 mol
Step 2: Divide the moles by the smallest number.
=3

From Empirical formula to Molecular Formula
Find the molecular formula of propene, CH2, having molecular mass of 42.
Molecular formula will be CnH2n
Relative molecular mass = 12n(from carbon Ar) + 2n(2 x hydrogen Ar) = 14n
14 n = 42
Therefore, C3H6
=3

FA
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= 0.25 mol

0.25 mol =

3.8 Molar Volume of Gases
The Avogadro’s Law
Equal volume of gases at same temperature and volume contain equal number of
particles or molecules.
Molar Volume of Gas – volume occupied by one mole of gas
All gases at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) = 24dm3
1dm3 = 1000cm3
Formulae:

n=

Step 2: Find the volume of nitrogen, now with formula of gas

AD

n=

H

e.g. Find the volume of 7g of N2 at r.t.p.
Step 1: Find the number of moles from the mass of nitrogen

.A

=1
Therefore, the empirical formula is SO3

M

O=

H

S=

using dm3)

(or

Volume of gas = 0.25 mol x 24
= 6 dm3 (or 6000cm3)
3.9 Concentration of Solutions
Concentration of solution tells the number of solute in a volume of solution
(

Concentration (C) =
Moles of solute (n) = Concentration (

3

3

Volume of solution in dm = 0.60 dm
n = 1.5 x 0.60
= 0.9 mol

Volume of a gas = Number of moles (n) x Molar volume (Mr)

(

)

Calculating the Amount of Solute

e.g. What is the mass of solute in 600cm3 of 1.5

Number of moles of a gas (n) =

)

Number of moles of NaOH =
0.9 =

Contact: 0323 509 4443

m = 0.9 x 40
= 36g

) x Volume of solution (dm3)
NaOH solution?


17

M

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3.11 Calculations from Equations
Reacting Masses
In every equation, each atom is rational to each other. Suppose we want to find
moles of X atoms that reacted to form 0.25 mole of Y atoms. We always put the
atom we want to find as numerator and the denominator being the atom we know.
E.g.
X + 2Z  2Y
Find the ratio first:

Then multiply the ratio by no. of moles of Y to find the reacting mole of X.
x 0.25 = 0.125 mole

Therefore 0.125 mole of X reacted with 0.25 mole of Y. To find the reacting mass of
X, e.g. Y is given as 35g, we just multiply the mole by the mass of Y as they are
always in ratio:
0.125 x 35 = 4.375 g

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CALCULATIONS USING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
3.10 Constructing Chemical Equations
E.g. 1: Reaction Between Hydrogen and Oxygen
Word Equation: Oxygen + Hydrogen  Water
To write the chemical equation, we use symbols of atoms/molecules:
O2 + H2  H2O
BUT THIS IS IMBALANCED! A BALANCED EQUATION MUST HAVE THE SAME
NUMBER OF ATOMS OF EACH ELEMENTS ON BOTH SIDES! THEREFORE...
O2 + H2  H2O
O H
H
O H
H
O
From above, we know that H2O is short 1 oxygen atom. Therefore we multiply
product by 2 first. Note: all atoms in molecules are automatically multiplied by 2.
O2 + H2  2H2O
O H
H
O H
H
H
H
O
O
Now we can cancel off oxygen atoms. However, hydrogen atoms from reactant is
short 2 atoms. Therefore, we multiply the hydrogen molecule by 2 so that the short
is balanced. The equation is fully balanced when we are able to cancel off all atoms
of that element on both sides.
O2 + 2H2  2H2O
O H
H
O H
H
H
H
H
H
O
O

H


Reacting Masses and Volumes
First, find the ratio of moles and multiply the mole of the gas volume you want to
find with the volume of gas at room temperature (24dm3)
Example
MgCl2 is formed by reacting Mg and HCl according to equation:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(s) + H2(g)
Find the amount of hydrogen gas, in cm3, formed when 14.6g of HCl is reacted.
Ratio:

=
m(HCl) =
=0.4 mol

Multiply ratio by mole of HCl = x 0.4 = 0.2 mol
Multiply mole by molar volume of gas at r.t.p. = 0.2 x 24 dm3= 4.8 dm3
1dm3 = 1000cm3
 4.8dm3 x 1000 = 4 800 cm3
4 800cm3 of gas is formed

Contact: 0323 509 4443



18

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
3.12 Introductory Chemical Analysis
Analysis is finding out what a substance or product is made of
Chemical analyst is the person who does chemical analysis

3.14 Volumetric Analysis
Is a measure of concentrations of acids/alkalis in solutions

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Acid-alkali Titrations in Volumetric Analysis
It needs: - a standard solution: a solution of known concentration, and
- a solution of unknown concentration

.A

3.13 Use of Physical Tests to Identify Substances
- Colour – some substances have distinctive colours.
 Ammonium compounds and compounds in Groups I and II are white solids that
dissolve in water to form colourless solutions
 Copper(II) compounds are blue/green (except CuO is black)
 Iron(II) compounds are pale green, iron (III) compounds are red or yellowish
 Chlorine gas is greenish-yellow. Most other gases are colourless

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- Quantitative analysis
Is the meaurement of concentration of elements/compunds in unknown substance

Detecting the End Point
End point is the point at which neutralisation of acid and alkali is complete
- Sharp indicators (phenolphtalein and methyl orange) are used to detect end
point effectively
- Litmus and universal indicators isn’t used as the changes of end point isn’t sharp

H

2 kinds of chemical analysis:
- Qualitative analysis
is the identification of elements/compounds present in an unknown substance

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H

A Typical Acid-alkali Titration
The diagram shows how titration is used to find concentration of H2SO4 using NaOH

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- Smell
 Gases like oxygen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide are odourless
 Others like chlorine, ammonia and sulphur dioxide have characteristic smells
- Solubility in Water
Some substances like AgCl and CaSO4 are insoluble while other does
- pH
If a substance is pH 1 or 2, all alkaline and weakly acidic substances couldn’t be
the substance.

Using above example, to find the concentration of H2SO4 is given on the next page

Contact: 0323 509 4443


19

Example:
30.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol/dm3 NaOH reacted completely with 25.0 cm3 of H2SO4 in a
titration. Calculate the concentration of H2SO4 in mo mol/dm3 mol/dm3 given that:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Step 1: Find the reacting mole of NaOH
n(NaOH) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
= 0.100 x

mol

M

.A

n(H2SO4) = x number of moles of NaOH

H

mol

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= 0.0015 mol
Step 5: Find the concentration of H2SO4 in mol/dm3

= 0.06 mol/dm3

=

=

Step 4: Use ratio to find number of moles of FeSO4 that reacted
n(FeSO4) = 5 x number of moles of NaOH

Step 4: Use ratio to find number of moles of H2SO4 that reacted

= 0.0015 mol x

mol

H

=

Concentration =

= 0.020 x

Step 2: Write the chemical equation for the reaction
2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
Step 3: Find the ratio of number of moles of FeSO4 to number of moles of KMnO4

Step 2: Write the chemical equation for the reaction
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Step 3: Find the ratio of number of moles of H2SO4 to number of moles of NaOH

= x 0.100 x

Example:
25.0 cm3 of FeSO4(aq), H2SO4 acidified, needs 27.5 cm3 of 0.020 mol/dm3 KMnO4 for
reaction in titration. Calculate the concentration of FeSO4(aq)
Step 1: Find the reacting mole of KMnO4
n(KMnO4) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3

AD


Other Titrations
To find the concentration of a solution of FeSO4 using KMnO4 is as below

= 5 x 0.020 x

mol

= 0.00275 mol
Step 5: Find the concentration of FeSO4 in mol/dm3
Concentration =
= 0.00275 mol x
= 0.11 mol/dm3
3.15 Uses of Titrations in Analysis
Identification of Acids and Alkalis
Example:
An acid has formula of H2XO4. One mole of H2XO4 reacts with 2 moles of NaOH. A
solution of the acid contain 5.0 g/dm3 of H2XO4. In titration, 25.0cm3 of acid reacted
with 25.5cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 NaOH. Calculate the concentration of acid in mol/dm3
and find X of the acid and its identity
= 0.01 x

mol

Ratio of H2XO4 to NaOH:

Contact: 0323 509 4443

=

Continue on next page


20

n(H2XO4) = x 0.01 x
∴ Concentration =
= x 0.01 x

x
3

= 0.051 mol/dm
Since 1 dm of H2XO4 contains 0.051 mol and 5 g of H2XO4. ∴ 0.051 mol of H2XO4
3

has a mass of 5g of H2XO4 and 1 mole of H2XO4 has a mass of

= 0.02 x

= 98 g

M
H

∴ X is sulphur and H2XO4 is sulphuric acid
Percentage Purity of Compounds

=
n(FeSO4 xH2O) = 5 x 0.02 x

∴ Concentration =

.A

Percentage purity =

AD

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Example:
5 g of impure sulphuric acid is dissolved in 1 dm3 of water. 25.0 cm3 of the solution
required 23.5 cm3 of 0.1 mol/dm3 NaOH for complete titration reaction. Calculate
the percentage purity of the acid.
mol

FA
H

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ratio of H2SO4 to NaOH according to equation, then find mole according to ratio
=

n(H2SO4) = x 0.1 x
∴ Concentration =

= x 0.1 x

x 100 = 92.2%

= 5 x 0.02 x

x

= 0.108 mol/dm
Hence 0.108 mol FeSO4 xH2O = 30.0 g FeSO4 xH2O

3

Therefore 1 mole FeSO4 xH2O has a mass of

g = 278 g

Therefore Mr(FeSO4 xH2O) = 278, Hence x =

=7

Number of Reacting Moles in an Equation
Example:
In a titration, 25.0 cm3 of 0.04 mol/dm3 H2O2 reacted with 20.0 cm3 of 0.02
mol/dm3 KMnO4. Find the values of x and y given the equation:
xH2O2 + yKMnO4 + acid → products
n(H2O2) = Concentration x Volume in mol/dm3
= 0.04 x

mol = 0.001 mol


x

= 0.047 mol/ dm3
Hence mass of H2SO4 in 1 dm3 = 0.047 x Mr(H2SO4)
= 0.047 x 98g
= 4.61g
Hence percentage purity =

mol

Ratio of FeSO4 xH2O to KMnO4 according to question; find mole according to ratio

Hence, Mr of X = 98 – 2(1) – 4(16) = 32.

= 0.1 x

Formulae of Compounds
Example:
Solution Y contains 30.0 g/dm3of FeSO4 xH2O. In a titration, 25.0 cm3 of Y reacted
with 27.0 cm3 of 0.02 mol/dm3 KMnO4. In the reaction, 5 moles of FeSO4 xH2O react
with 1 mole KMnO4. Calculate the concentration of Y in mol/dm3 and the value of x.

AD


= 0.02 x
Therefore 1 mole KMnO4 react with

Contact:

mol = 0.0004 mol
= 2.5 moles of H2O2

Hence ratio of x:y is 2.5:1 = 5:2 (round off)
Therefore, x=5 and y=2
END OF CHAPTER 3
0323 509 4443



21
When molten binary compound is electrolysed, metal is formed on cathode while
non-metal is formed on anode.
Electrolysis of Molten PbBr2
To make molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, we strongly heat the solid until it melts. To
electrolyse it, pass current through the molten PbBr2.

M

Ions Present
Pb2+ and Br-

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CHAPTER 4 – ELECTROLYSIS
4.1 Introductory Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the decomposition of compound using electricity

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Electrolyte is an ionic compound which conducts electric current in molten or
aqueous solution, being decomposed in the process.
Electrode is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves electrolyte during
electrolysis. Reactions occur at electrodes.
Discharge is the removal of elctrons from negative ions to form atoms or the gain
of electrons of positive ions to become atoms.
Anode is positive electrode connected to positive terminal of d.c. source. Oxidation
occurs here. Anode loses negative charge as electrons flow towards the battery,
leaving anode positively charged. This causes anion to discharge its electrons here
to replace lost electrons and also, negativecharge are attracted to positive charge.
Cathode is negative electrode connected to negative terminal of d.c. source.
Reduction occurs here. Cathode gains negative charge as electrons flow from the
battery towards the cathode, making cathode negatively charged. This causes
cation to be attracted and gains electrons to be an atom.
Anion is negative ion. It’s attracted to anode.
Cation is positive ion. It’s attracted to cathode.

Reaction at Anode
Br- loses electrons at anode to become Br atoms. Br
atoms created form bond together to make Br2 gas.
2Br-(aq)  Br2(g)+ 2e-

4.2 Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Molten/aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity because ions free to move.
In solid state, these ions are held in fixed position within the crystal lattice. Hence
solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.

Reaction at Cathode
Pb2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Pb atoms becoming liquid lead (II).
Pb2+(aq) + 2e-  Pb(l)
Overall Equation
PbBr2(l)  Pb(l) + Br2(g)
Below are other compounds that can be electrolysed. The theory’s same as PbBr2.
Molten electrolyte
Cathode product
Anode product
Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Calcium, Ca
Chlorine, Cl2
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sodium, Na
Chlorine, Cl2
Aluminium(III) oxide (Al2O3)
Aluminium, Al
Oxygen, O2
Sodium Iodide (NaI)
Sodium, Na
Iodine, I2
4.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution
Aqueous solutions contain additional H+ and OH- ions of water, totalling 4 ions in
the solution – 2 from electrolyte, 2 from water. Only 2 of these are discharged.

Contact: 0323Electrolysis of aqueous solutions use the theory of selective discharge.
509 4443


22
Reaction at Anode
Cl- loses electrons at anode to become Cl atoms, although OH- is easier to
discharge. Cl atoms created form covalent bond together to make Cl2 gas.
2Cl -(aq)  Cl2(g)+ 2eReaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(l)
Overall Equation
2HCl(l)  H2(l) + Cl2(g)
Note: any cation and anion left undischarged in solution forms new bonds between
them. E.g. in above, leftovers Na+ and OH- combine to form NaOH.

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Very Dilute Solutions
Electrolysis of Dilute H2SO4

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At cathode
- In CONCENTRATED solutions of nickel/lead compound, nickel/lead will be
discharged instead of hydrogen ions of water which is less reactive than
nickel/lead.
- In VERY DILUTE solutions, hydrogen, copper and silver ions are preferrable to be
discharged, according to its ease to be discharged.
- Reactive ions (potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium) will NEVER
BE DISCHARGED in either concentrated or dilute condition. Instead, hydrogen
ions from water will be discharged at cathode.

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At anode
- In CONCENTRATED solutions, iodine/chlorine/bromine ions are preferrable to be
discharged, although it’s harder to discharged compared to hydroxide ions.
- In VERY DILUTE solutions containing iodide/chloride/bromide ions, hydroxide
ions of water will be discharged instead of iodide/chloride/bromide, according to
ease of discharge.
- Sulphate and nitrate are NEVER DISCHARGED in concentrated/dilute solutions.

Concentrated Solutions
Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl
Ions Present
Na+, H+, OH- and Cl-

Ions Present
H+, OH- and SO42Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH -(aq)  O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) +4eReaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g)
Overall Equation
Both equations must be balanced first. The cathode equation is short 2 electrons.
Hence, we should first even them by multiplying cathode equation by 2.
(2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g))x2
= 4H+(aq) + 4e-  2H2(g)
Now we can combine the equations, forming:
4H+(aq) + 4OH+(aq)  2H2(g) + O2(g)+ 2H2O(l)

Contact: 0323 509 4443


23

4H+ and 4OH+ ions, however, combine to form 4H2O molecules. Hence:
4H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)+ 2H2O(l)
H2O molecules are formed on both sides. Therefore, they cancel the coefficients:
2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)

Since copper ions in solution are used up, the blue colour fades. Hydrogen and
sulphate ions left forms sulphuric acid.

AD

Reaction at Anode
Both SO42- and OH- gets attracted here but not discharged. Instead, the copper
anode discharged by losing electrons to form Cu2+. So, the electrode size decreases.
Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2eReaction at Cathode
Cu2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms
becoming copper. Hence, the copper is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s)
Overall Change
There is no change in solution contents as for every lost of Cu2+ ions at cathode is
replaced by Cu2+ ions released by dissolving anode. Only the cathode increases size
by gaining copper and anode decreases size by losing copper. We can use this
method to create pure copper on cathode by using pure copper on cathode and
impure copper on anode. Impurities of anode falls under it.

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4.4 Electrolysis Using Different Types of Electrodes
Inert Electrodes are electrodes which do not react with electrolyte or products
during electrolysis. Examples are platinum and graphite.
Active Electrodes are electrodes which react with products of electrolysis, affecting
the course of electrolysis. Example is copper.

M

Since only water is electrolysed, the sulfuric acid now only becomes concentrated.

Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Active Electrodes(e.g. copper)
Ions Present
Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-

H


H

Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Inert Electrodes(e.g. carbon)
Ions Present
Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-

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Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH -(aq)  O2(g)+ 2H2O(l) +4eReaction at Cathode
Cu2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming liquid copper.
Hydrogen ions are not discharged because copper is easier to discharge.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s)
Overall Equation
Both equations must be balanced first. The cathode equation is short 2 electrons.
Hence, we should first even them by multiplying cathode equation by 2.
(Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s))x2
= 2Cu2+(aq) + 4e-  2Cu(s)
Now we can combine the equations, forming:
2Cu(OH)2(aq)  2Cu(s) + O2(g)+ 2H2O(l)

4.5 Electroplating
Electroplating is coating an object with thin layer of metal by electrolysis. This
makes the object protected and more attractive.

Contact: 0323 509 4443


24
How the Voltage is Produced
Use an example of zinc and copper as electrodes and sodium chloride as electrolyte
As zinc is more reactive, it is cathode while copper is anode.

M

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At cathode, Zn atoms in anode loses electrons to form
Zn2+
Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2eZn2+ goes into solution while the electrons lost makes
the zinc negative. The electrons flow against
conventional current towards copper anode. Both Na+ &
H+ ions in solution are attracted to the copper anode due
to electrons in it but only H+ ions discharged, due to
selective discharge, to form hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g)
Hence the overall ionic equation is:
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
which comes from the equation:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

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Object to be plated is made to be cathode and the plating metal is made as anode.
The electrolyte MUST contain plating metal cation.
Plating Iron object with Nickel
Reaction at Anode
Ni2+ discharged from anode into solution. So,
the electrode size decreases.
Ni(s)  Ni2+(aq) + 2eReaction at Cathode
Ni2+ produced from anode gains electrons at
cathode to become Ni atoms becoming
nickel. Hence, the nickel is deposited here
and the electrode grows.
Ni2+(aq) + 2e-  Ni(s)
Overall Change
There is no change in solution contents while iron object receives nickel deposit.
Uses of Electroplating
Plating Metal
Uses
Chromium
Water taps, motorcar bumpers, bicycle parts
Tin
Tin cans
Silver
Silver sports trophies, plaques, ornaments, cutleries
Nickel
For corrosion-resistant layer
Gold
Watches, plaques, cutleries, water taps, ornaments
Rhodium
Silverware, jewellery, watches, ornaments
Copper
Printed circuit boards, trophies, ornaments

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4.6 Creation of Electric Cells by Electrolysis
An electric cell consists of 2 electrodes made of 2 metals
of different reactivity. The cathode is made of more
reactive metal. This is because they have more tendency
of losing electrons. The anode is made of less reactive
metal. The more further apart the metals in reactivity
series, the higher voltage is created.

Contact: 0323 509 4443

END OF CHAPTER 4


25

FA
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Examples of endothermic changes:
1. Changes of states
When solid melts to water & boils to steam, heat is absorbed to break the bond.
Condensation of steam to water
H2O(s) + heat → H2O(l)
2. Photolysis
Reaction of light sensitive silver chloride in camera reel in light
2AgBr(s) + heat → 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
3. Dissolving of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds such as NH4Cl, KNO3, CaCO3 absorb heat from surroundings.
NH4Cl(s) + heat → NH4Cl(aq)
CuSO4(s) + heat → CuSO4(aq)
4. Photosynthesis
Light energy is absorbed by plants to produce starch.
5. Decomposition by heat
Many compounds require heat for decomposition, e.g. CaCO3 to CO2 + CaO
CaCO3(s) + heat → CO2(g) + CaO(s)
6. Acid + Bicarbonates (HCO3)
NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) + heat → NaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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Examples of exothermic changes:
1. Changes of State
When gas condenses to water or water freezes to solid, heat is given out.
Condensation of steam to water
H2O(g) → H2O(l) + heat
2. Combustion reactions
All combustion (burning) reactions are exothermic.
Burning of hydrogen in air
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + heat
3. Dissolving of anhydrous salts/acids in water
Dissolving solid salt to aqueous solution of the salt gives out heat
Dissolving of Na2CO3 in water (or CuSO4)
Na2CO3(s) → Na2CO3(l) + heat

5.2 Endothermic Reaction
Endothermic change is one which heat energy is absorbed. This is to break bonds
between the reactants which needs more energy in them.
Reaction is written as:
Reactants + heat → Products
(or)
Reactants → Products [∆H = + n kJ], where n is amount of heat energy absorbed

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CHAPTER 5 – ENERGY FROM CHEMICALS
5.1 Exothermic Reaction
Exothermic change is one which heat energy is given out. This is to form bonds
between the reactants which needs less energy in them.
Reaction is written as:
Reactants → Products + heat
(or)
Reactants → Products [∆H = – n kJ], where n is amount of heat energy released

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Dissolving of concentrated acid in water
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → less concentrated HCl(aq) + heat
4. Neutralization
When acid and alkali react it gives out heat due to combining of H+ ions from acid
and OH- ions from alkali to form water
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) + heat
5. Metal Displacement
Magnesium reacting with copper(II) sulphate
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(s) + Cu(s) + heat

Acid Spill Treatment on Body
We don’t neutralize spilled acid on body as it produces heat. Instead we dilute
the solution with water, although it also produces heat, but is less than
neutralizing it.

Contact: 0323 509 4443


26

AD

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Endothermic reaction:
CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s) [∆H = +222 kJ]
222 kJ of heat energy is absorbed when 1 mol of CaCO3 decompose to 1 mol of
CO2 and 1 mol of CaO.

Exothermic ∆H = the bond energy of 2 H – Br bonds
= 2(366)
= – 732 kJ
Endothermic ∆H = the bond energy of 1 H – H bond + 1 Br – Br bond
= 436 + 224
= + 660 kJ
∆H = – 732 + 660
= – 72 kJ
Therefore more heat is given out in making bond than absorbed in breaking bond.
The overall change is to give out heat and it’s exothermic with ∆H negative.
Exothermic graph:
When heat is given out, the solution becomes warm and later the temperature
goes back to room temperature.

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5.3 Heat of Reaction
The amount of energy given out or absorbed during a chemical reaction is
enthalpy change. The symbol is ∆H measured in kilojoules(kJ).
Examples of reactions from back page:
Exothermic reaction:
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s) [∆H = –378 kJ]
378 kJ of heat energy is given out when 1 mol of Mg react with 1 mol CuSO4 to
produce 1 mol of MgSO4 and 1 mol of Cu.

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5.4 Heat Energy and Enthalpy Change in Reaction
When bonds made, heat energy is given out, it’s exothermic and ∆H is negative
When bonds broken, heat energy is absorbed, it’s endothermic and ∆H is positive

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Question:
Hydrogen bromide is made by reacting H2 gas with Br2 gas. Calculate the heat
change of the reaction given the equation and bond energy table below.
H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)
Covalent Bond
Bond energy (kJ/mol)
H–H
436
Br – Br
224
H – Br
366
Bonds of H2 and Br2 molecules must be broken first to make HBr. Heat energy is
absorbed to break these bonds by endothermic reaction.
H – H + Br – Br → H H Br Br
Broken bonds are used to make H – Br bonds of HBr. Heat energy is released.
H H Br Br → 2H – Br
Heat change can be calculated by:
∆H = heat released in making bonds + heat absorbed in breaking bonds

Endothermic graph:
When heat is absorbed from the surrounding of reactant, the solution becomes
cooler and later the temperature goes back to room temperature.

5.5 Activation Energy
Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start a reaction.
It is the energy needed to break the reactant bonds before new bonds are formed.

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In endothermic reaction, insufficient energy is given out when bonds are made to
provide activation energy for reaction to continue. More energy is needed to form
products and heat must be continually added to fulfill energy requirement.

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Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction Graph
In exothermic reaction, enough energy given out in the reaction of parcticles to
provide activation energy therefore less energy is needed to form products.

Production of Hydrogen
Hydrogen is produced either by electrolysis of water or by cracking of hydrocarbon
By cracking of hydrocarbon:
First, methane (hydrocarbon) and steam are passed over a nickel catalyst to form
hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
CH4(g) + H2O(g)  CO(g) + 3H2(g)
The by-product carbon monoxide is not wasted. It is reacted with more steam to
form carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
CO(g) + H2O(g)  CO2(g) + H2(g)
Now you get more hydrogen.

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Reactions occur because of collision of particles and sufficient kinetic energy is
needed to provide activation energy to break the bonds and start the reaction by
providing extra energy from a heat source.

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By electrolysis:
Water is electrolysed according to equation:
2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)
However, electrolysis is costly.

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5.6 FUELS
The combustion of fuels gives out large amount of energy in industries, transport &
homes. These fuel mainly methane from coal, wood, oil, natural gas & hydrogen.
Combustion in air provides energy and gives out heat. Hence, exothermic reaction.

Creation of the Fuel
In Engines:
The hydrogen created is reacted with oxygen to form steam and heat energy
2H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(g) + heat
This heat is needed to thrust the vehicle forward. However, we don’t use heat
energy for our daily appliances. Instead we use electrical energy and to make
electrical energy from hydrogen, we use fuel cell.
A fuel cell converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy.
How Fuel Cells Work

Hydrogen as a Fuel
Hydrogen provides twice as much as heat energy per gram than any other fuel and
burns cleanly in air to form steam. They are mainly used as rocket fuel.

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28

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Hydrogen reacts with hydroxide ions into electrolyte on the platinum catalyst on
electrode to make the electrode negatively-charged.
H2 + 2OH-  2H2O + 2eElectrons flows past the load and to the other electrode. That negatively-charged
electrode is now anode. Hydroxide ions constantly deposit electrons here to make
water. While then, the other electrode is now cathode.

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H

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If we combine the ionic equations, we still get water as product of hydrogen and
oxygen, but the energy produced is now electrical energy:
2H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(g) + electrical energy
Advantages of Fuel Cells
- Electrical energy can be generated continuously if there’s continuous fuel supply
- The by-product of fuel cells is steam, which do not pollute the environment
- Chemical energy is efficiently converted to electrical energy. Hence there is
minimal loss of energy.

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Oxygen reacts with water created on from hydrogen on the cathode to gain
electrons from it:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-

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Disadvantages of Fuel Cells
- Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are very expensive, hence limiting their use.

Our Main Fuel Resource – PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons, which are compounds made up of carbon
and hydrogen only.
Crude oil, freshly extracted from underground, undergo refining – a process where
oil undergoes fractional distillation to be separated into its fractions.
First, crude oil is heated up to 350oC and the vapours rise up a tower, divided with
trays on some certain heights for the fractions to be collected. The fractionating
column is cooler on top, hence upper trays collects fractions of low boiling points
while the lower ones, being hotter, collect those with higher boiling points.

Figure 5.13 Fractions and their uses

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND ENERGY
Plants take in carbon dioxide and water in presence of chlorophyll and synthesize
them in the presence of sunlight to produce glucose and release oxygen:
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Plants get their energy by using the glucose formed. Scientists believe that we can
use the stored energy in glucose as combustible fuels.
First, glucose fermented to make ethanol by microorganisms such as yeast. This is
fermentation. The glucose is usually derived from corn plant or sugar cane.
C6H12O6 → 2C2H6O + 2CO2
Then, water is removed from ethanol by fractional distillation by heating it up until
78oC (boiling point of ethanol). Some water might still be present as the boiling
point is close to ethanol. The ethanol produced is then mixed with fuel to be
combusted to produce energy. This is biofuel, and it’s a renewable energy source.

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END OF CHAPTER 5



29

CHAPTER 6 – CHEMICAL REACTIONS
6.1 Speed of Reaction
Measuring Speed of Reaction
It is the speed for a reactant to be used up or product to be formed.

- Gradient largest at start indicating speed at its greatest.
- Gradient decreases with time – speed decreases with time.
- Gradient becomes zero, speed is zero. The reaction has finished.

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- Measuring change in mass of reaction mixture.

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2 ways to find out speed of reaction
1. Measuring time for reaction to complete
Speed of reaction is inversely proportional to time taken; the shorter the time
needed for reaction to complete, the faster the speed of reaction is.

= 0.333/s

Speed of reaction B =

= 0.667/s

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Speed of reaction A =

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Speed of reaction =

Therefore reaction B is faster than reaction A as time
taken for B is shorter
= 2 times

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Number of times B faster than A =

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2. Measuring the amount of product produced in a period of time or measuring
the amount of reactant remain in a period of time.
Can be measured by plotting change in volume of gas evolved, mass of reaction
mixture as reaction proceeds and change of pressure of gas formed.
- Measuring the amount of gas evolved.
Consider reaction of limestone with acid to produce carbon dioxide. A syringe is
used to help in measurement of gas produced in volume every time interval. A
graph of volume of gas against time is plotted.

Marble is reacted with acid in a flask with cotton wool stucked at top to prevent
splashing during reaction but it allows gas to be free. The reading on balance is
plotted on a graph on every time interval.
Factors Affecting Speed of Reaction
1. Particle Size of Reactant
When large marble is reacted with acid and compared to reaction of fine marble
solids being reacted with acid and the graph of volume of gas against time is
plotted, it’s found that the reaction involving finer marble chips produces gas
faster than the one with larger marble chunk as the graph of finer chips is
steeper. The volume of gas at the end is the same for both reactions. Therefore,
reactions of solids with liquid/gas is faster when the solids are of smaller pieces.

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5. Effect of Catalyst
What are catalysts?
They are chemical substances which alters speed of reaction without itself being
used at the end of a reaction. It can be reused and only small amount of catalyst
is needed to affect a reaction.
- transition metals (e.g. Titanium, Nickel, Iron, Copper) are good catalysts
- most catalyst catalyse one kind of reaction (except titanium)
Reaction
Catalyst
Production of sulphur by contact process
Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5
Production of ammonia by Haber Process
Iron, Fe
Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Production of hydrogen by cracking of hydrocarbons
Silicon dioxide, SiO2
Production of margarine by reacting hydrogen with
Nickel, Ni
vegetable oil
Production of plastics
Titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4
Titanium, Ti
Converting CO into CO2 in catalytic converters
Rhodium, Rh
Catalysts lower the need of energy to break bonds so activation energy is lower.
Consequently, bond breaking occurs easily and more often when particles collide
Factors Affecting Speed of Catalysed Reactions:
Speed of catalysed reactions can be increased by:
- increasing temperature
- increasing concentration of solutions
- increasing pressure of gas reactions
Catalyst provide “alternative path” which results in lower activation energy.

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Explanation:
Reactions occur when particles collide. Small particles creates larger surface area
for more collisions between reacting particles which increases speed of reaction.
Explosions: chemical reactions occuring extremely rapid rate producing heat+gas
- Coal dust burn faster than large pieces as it has larger surface area. In coal
mines, when air contains too much coal dust, explosion can occur from a single
spark or match. Water is sprayed into the air to remove coal dust.
- Flour in mills can ignite easily due to large surface area.

4. Temperature of Reaction
Speed of reaction increases when temperature increases. Particles don’t always
react upon collision but just bounce as they don’t have enough activation energy
to react. With increase in temperature, particles absorb the energy and having
enough activation energy, they move faster and collide more effectively per
second. Therefore, speed of reaction is increased.
Usually, speed of reaction doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature.

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3. Pressure of Reactant

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2. Concentration of Reactant
In the increase of concentration means there are more solute particles per unit
volume of the solution which favours for more effective collision resulting in an
increase in speed of reaction.

Only gaseous reactions are affected as gas is compressible. At higher pressure,
molecules are forced to move closely together, hence increasing the particles per
unit volume of gas and effectively increases the collision between reacting
molecules so the speed of reaction increases.
High pressure is used in industrial processes (e.g. Haber Process Plant) so that
the reaction goes faster.

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Hydrogen in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
Oxidation is the loss of hydrogen by a substance
Reduction is the gain of hydrogen by a substance

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H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(g)
H2S is oxidized as it loses hydrogen to Cl2 to form S. Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
Cl2 is reduced as it gains hydrogen from H2S to form HCl. H2S is reducing agent.

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2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2Na+Cl-(s)
Na is oxidized as it loses electron to Cl2 to form Na+ ions. Cl2 is oxidizing agent.
2Na(s)→ 2Na+(s) + 2eCl2 is reduced as it gains electron from Na to form Cl- ions. Na is reducing agent.
Cl2(g) + 2e+→ 2Cl -(s)
Redox reactions relating electron transfer:
1. Reaction of metal + dilute acid
2. Displacement reactions

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Characteristics of enzymes:
- They are very specific. One enzyme catalyse one type of reaction.
- Enzymes are sensitive to temperature. They work best at 40oC. Too high or too
low temperatures destroy enzymes.
- Enzymes are sensitive to pH. They function within narrow range of pH.

Electrons in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
Oxidation is the loss of electrons by a substance
Reduction is the gain of electrons by a substance

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Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts

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Industrial uses of enzymes:
- They are added to detergents from bacteria, and also to make tough meat tender.
These enzymes can be found in papaya fruit.
- Yeast convert sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide by fermentation. Beer, wine
and soy sauce are made this way.
- Fungical enzymes can be used to make antibiotics such as penicillin.
6.2 Redox
Oxygen in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
Oxidation is the gain of oxygen by a substance
Reduction is the loss of oxygen by a substance

Oxidation State in Reduction-Oxidation reaction
Oxidation State is the charge an atom would have if it existed as an ion
To work out oxidation state, the rules are:
- Free elements have oxidation state zero, e.g. Cu, Fe, N2
- Oxidation of an ion is the charge of the ion, e.g. Na+ = +1, Cu2+=+2, O2- = -2

Pb(s) + Ag2O (aq) → PbO(aq) + 2Ag (aq)
Pb is oxidized as it gains oxygen from Ag2O to form PbO. Ag2O is oxidizing agent.
Ag2O is reduced as it loses oxygen to Pb to form Ag. Pb is reducing agent.
Oxidizing agent is a substance which causes oxidation of another substance
Reducing agent is a substance which causes reducation of another substance

- The oxidation state of some elements in their compounds is fixed, e.g.
Group I Elements = +1
Group II Elements = +2
Hydrogen in most compounds = +1
Iron or copper can have either +1, +2, +3, so it’s not fixed
- Oxidation states of the elements in a compound adds up to zero, e.g.

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NaCl: (+1) + (-1) = 0
K2O: (+1) x 2 + (-2) = 0
Al2O3: (+3) x 2 + (+2) x 3 = 0

Some compounds with possible variable oxidation states have roman numeral as a
guide about their oxidation state, e.g.
- Iron(II) chloride has formula FeCl2 and iron oxidation state +2
- Potassium(VI) dichromate has formula K2Cr2O7 and potassium oxidation state +6
- Manganese(IV) oxide has formula MnO2 and manganese oxidation state +4

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- Sum of oxidation states of elements in an ion is equal to charge on the ion, e.g.
OH-: (-2) + (+1) = -1
Examples:
Work out the oxidation states of the underlined elements in these compounds:
(a) CO2
(oxidation state of C) + (-2) x 2 = 0
(oxidation state of C) + (-4) = 0
Oxidation state of C = +4

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Oxidation is the increase of oxidation state by a substance
Reduction is the decrease of oxidation state by a substance

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Note:
- Losing electrons means gain in oxidation state
- Gaining electrons means loss in oxidation state

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Examples:
Metals with acids

(b) KMnO4
(+1) + (oxidation state of Mn) + (-2) x 4 = 0
(oxidation state of Mn) + (+1) + (-8) = 0
(oxidation state of Mn) + (-7) =0
Oxidation state of Mn = +7

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Cu(s) + HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Cu is oxidized as it gains oxidation state from 0 to +2. Cu is reducing agent
+
H ions in HCl reduced as it loses oxidation state from +1 to 0. H+ions are oxidising agent

Oxidation
state
Manganese
Chromium
Iron
Sulphur
Carbon

-2

FeS

-1

0
Mn
Cr
Fe
S
C

+1

+2
MnCl2
CrCl2
FeCl2
CO

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(c) Fe(NO3)2
(oxidation state of Fe) + (-1) x 2 = 0
(oxidation state of Fe) + (-2) = 0
Oxidation state of Fe = +2
Note: Transition metals and some common elements may have different oxidation
states in different compounds.
Examples of elements with variable oxidation states
+3

+4

+5

+6

MnO2
CrCl3
FeCl3

KMnO4
K2Cr2O7

SO2
CaCO3

+7

H2SO4

Halide (Halogen) Displacement Reactions
Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
I ions in KI oxidized as it gains oxidation state from -1 to 0. I-ions is reducing agent
Cl2 is reduced as it loses oxidation state from 0 to -1. Cl2 is oxidizing agent
Test for Oxidising/Reducing Agents
Name of compound
Potassium dichromate(VI)
Potassium manganate(VII)
Chlorine

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Oxidizing agents
Formula
Applications
Test for reducing agent; orange K2Cr2O7
K2Cr2O7
reduces to green Cr3+ ions
Test for reducing agent; purple KMnO4
KMnO4
reduces to colourless Mn2+ ions
Oxidizes Br- to Br2 and I- to I2; greenCl2
yellow Cl2 reduces to colourless Cl- ions


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Not Redox!
- Decomposition of carbonates by heat: CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s)
The oxidation state of each element don’t change. This is not a redox reaction.
- Neutralization: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
The oxidation state of each element don’t change. This is not a redox reaction.
- Precipitaion reactions: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
The oxidation numbers of silver and chloride ions unchanged. This is not redox.

When we remove the products, it will also encourage forward reaction as the
reaction would try to achieve equilibrium. Similar thing happens when we remove
the reactants, that the decomposition of products is encouraged to reach the point

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Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen
Sulfur dioxide
Metals (highly reactive)

Dynamic equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium is the state when the rate of forward reaction is the same as
the rate of backward reaction. Both reactants are reacted and products decompose
at the same rate. Hence, there is no overall change in the amounts of reactants and
products.

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Potassium Iodide

Reducing agents
Formula
Applications
Test for oxidizing agent; colourless I- ions
KI
oxidizes to brown I2
CO
Reduces metal oxide to metal in heat
H2
Reduces copper(II) oxide to copper
SO4
used as bleach and preservative
Na, Mg, etc. Displaces less reactive metals

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Name of compound

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6.3 Reversible Reactions
Reversible reactions are denoted by the sign “⇌” where the arrow  denotes
forward reaction, where reactants react to form products, and the arrow 
denotes backward reaction where products decompose to reform reactants. The
reactions occur at the same time. E.g. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Effect of Temperature on Reversible Reactions
With higher temperature, the condition is now favored to break the bonds of the
product formed (The bonding of products requires low temperatures). Thus, the
products decompose to its constituents, leading to backward reaction.
Effect of Pressure on Reversible Reactions
Increase in pressure encourages forward reaction because the higher pressure the
more reactants collide to react.

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END OF CHAPTER 6



34
- Acids react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates (bicarbonates)
Carbon dioxide is to be formed. To test this, the gas produced is bubbled into
limewater which forms a white precipitate.
Carbonates:
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Bicarbontes:
NaHCO3(s or aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

Laboratory acids: 3 common laboratory acids
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
 Nitric acid (HNO3)
Dilute acids – solution containing small amount of acid dissolved in water
Concentration acids – solution containing large amount of acid dissolved in water

Storage of Acids
Acids are stored in claypots, glass or plastic containers as sand, glass and plastic do
not react with acids. If it’s stored in metal container, metal would react with acids

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CHAPTER 7 - THE CHEMISTRY AND USES OF ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
7.1 The Characteristics of Acids and Bases
Common Acids
Acids in daily life:
 Ethanoic acid – found in vinegar and tomato juice
 Citric acid – found in citrus foods like lemons, oranges and grapefruit
 Lactic acid – found in sour milk and yoghurt, and in muscle respiration
 Tartaric acid – found in grapes
 Tannic acid – found in tea and ant’s body
 Formic acid – found in bee stings
 Hydrochloric acid – found in stomach juices

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- Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides
Metal oxides & hydroxides react slowly with warm dilute acid to form salt+water
Cu(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)

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Properties of Dilute Acids
- Acids have a sour taste

Uses of Acids
 Sulphuric Acid - Used in car batteries
- Manufacture of ammonium sulphate for fertilisers
- Manufacture of detergents, paints, dyes, artificial fibres &
plastics
 Hydrochloric acid can remove rust (iron(III) oxide) which dissolves in acids

- Acids are hazardous
acids are irritants (they cause skin to redden and blister)

 Acids are used in preservation of foods (e.g. ethanoic acid)

- Acids change the colour of indicators
Acids turn common indicator litmus – blue litmus to red

- Acids react with metals
Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas. The gas is tested with a
burning splint which shows hydrogen burns with a ‘pop’ sound.
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

7.2 Acids and Hydrogen Ions
The Need for Water in Acids
Acids are covalent compounds and do not behave as acids in the absence of water
as water reacts with acids to produce H+ ions, responsible for its acidic properties.
e.g. Citric acid crystals doesn’t react with metals and doesn’t change colours of
indicators; citric acid in water reacts with metals and change turns litmus red.

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Weak Acids - acids that partially ionise in water. The remaining molecules remain
unchanged as acids. Their reactions are reversible. E.g. CH3COOH, H2CO3, H3PO4
H3PO4(aq) ⇌ 3H+(aq) + PO42-(aq)
Weak acids react slowly with metals than strong acids – hydrogen gas bubbles are
produced slowly.

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Hydrogen Ions
Hydrogen gas is formed by acids as H+(aq) ions are present in acid solutions
- This means when a solid/gas acid dissolved in water, they produce H+ ions in it
Chemical eqation:
HCl(s) water HCl(aq)
Ionic Equation:
HCl(s) water H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
*Note that for ionic equation only aqueous solutions are ionised*
- However when dissolved in organic solutions, they don’t show acidic properties
When metals react with acids, only the hydrogen ions react with metals, e.g.:
Chemical equation:
Ionic equation:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)

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Comparing Strong and Weak Acids with Concentrated and Dilute Acids
CONCENTRATION
STRENGTH
Is the amount of solute (acids or alkalis) Is how much ions can be disassociated
dissolved in 1 dm3 of a solution
into from acid or alkali
It can be diluted by adding more water
to solution or concentrated by adding The strength cannot be changed
more solute to solution

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Basicity of an acid is maximum number of H+ ions produced by a molecule of acid
Some Acids With Their Basicity
Acids
Reaction with water
Basicity
Hydrochloric acid
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
monobasic
Nitric acid
HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
monobasic
Ethanoic acid
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
monobasic
+
2Sulphuric acid
H2SO4(aq) → 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
dibasic
The fizz of drinks
Soft drink tablets contains solid acid (e.g. citric acid, C6H8O7) & sodium bicarbonate
- When tablet is added to water, citric acid ionises and the H+ produced reacts with
sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide gas, making them fizz

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Strong and Weak Acids
Strong Acid - acid that completely ionises in water. Their reactions are irreversible.
E.g. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl
H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
In above H2SO4 has completely been ionized in water, forming 3 kinds of particles:
- H+ ions
- SO42- ions
- H2O molecules
Strong acids react more vigorously with metals than weak acids – hydrogen gas
bubbles are produced rapidly

Comparing 10 mol/dm3 and 0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acids and 10 mol/dm3 and
0.1 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acids
- 10 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acid solution is a concentrated solution of weak acid
- 0.1 mol/dm3 of ethanoic acid solution is a dilute solution of weak acid
- 10 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution is a concentrated solution of strong acid
- 0.1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution is a dilute solution of strong acid
Bases and Alkalis
Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals
Alkalis are bases which are soluble in water
Laboratory Alkalis
- Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH
- Aqueous Ammonia, NH4OH
- Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
All alkalis produces hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. Hydroxide ions
give the properties of alkalis. They don’t behave as acids in absence of water.
Alkalis are therefore substances that produce hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), in water.

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36
 Floor and oven cleaners contain NaOH (strong alkalis)
 Ammonia (mild alkalis) is used in liquids to remove dirt and grease from glass

- Alkalis are hazardous
 Dilute alkalis are irritants
 Concentrated alkalis are corrosive and burn skin (caustic(i.e. burning) alkalis)

Indicators and pH
Indicators are substances that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions
Common indicators:
Litmus
Methyl orange
Phenolphtalein
The table shows the change of colours made by some indicators
Indicator
Colour in acids colour changes at pH Colour in alkalis
Phenolphtalein
Colourless
9
Pink
Methyl orange
Red
4
Yellow
Litmus
Red
7
Blue
Screened methyl orange
Red
4
Green
Bromothymol blue
Yellow
7
Blue
The pH Scale
A measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution is known as pH
 pH 7 is neutral – in pure water
 solutions of less than pH 7 are acidic. The solutions contain hydrogen ions. The
smaller pH, the more acidic the solution is and more hydrogen ions it contains.
 solutions of more than pH 7 are alkaline. The solution contains hydroxide ions.
The biger pH, the more alkaline the solution and more hydroxide ions it contains.

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Properties of Alkalis
- Alkalis have a slippery feel

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- Alkalis change the colour of indicators
Alkalis turn common indicator litmus – red litmus to blue

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- Alkalis react with ammonium compounds
They react with heated solid ammonium compounds to produce ammonia gas
(NH4)2SO4(s) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l)

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- Alkalis react with acids
The reaction is called neutralisation

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- Alkalis react with solutions of metal ions
Barium sulphate, BaSO4(aq), contains Ba2+(aq) ions
Ca(OH)2(aq) + BaSO4(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + CaSO4(aq)
The solid formed is precipitate – the reaction is called precipitate reaction

Strong and Weak Alkalis
Strong Alkalis - base that completely ionises in water to form OH-(aq) ions. Their
reactions are irreversible. E.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Weak Alkalis - base that partially ionise in water. The remaining molecules remain
unchanged as base. Their reactions are reversible. E.g. NH3
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Uses of Alkalis
 Alkalis neutralise acids in teeth (toothpaste) and stomach (indigestion)
 Soap and detergents contain weak alkalis to dissolve grease

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Reaction Between Soluble Ionic Compounds and Acids
e.g. Reaction of sodium hydrogencarbonate with hydrochloric acid
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Its ionic equation is:
Na+(aq) + H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Since Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:
H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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3. pH sensor and computer
A probe is dipped into solution and will be sent to computer through interface
used to measure pH of solution. The pH reading is displayed on computer screen.

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2. pH meter
A hand-held pH probe is dipped into solution and meter will show the pH digitally
or by a scale. Measures pH water in lakes, water, and streams accurately

Reaction Between Metals and Acids
For example, reaction of sodium with hydrochloric acid
Its ionic equation is written as:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g)
Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, they’re not involved in reaction. As ionic equation
is used to show changes in reactions, we omit Cl-(aq) ions. So we’re left with:
2Na(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + H2(g)

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Measuring pH of a Solution
1. Universal indicators
It can be in paper or solution form. Universal paper can be dipped into a solution
then pH found is matched with the colour chart. It gives approximate pH value.

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pH Around Us
- Substances in body involved in good digestion have different pH values
- Blood to heart and lungs contains CO2 making blood slightly acidic
- Acids are used in food preservations (ethanoic acid to preserve vegetables;
benzoic acid used in fruit juices, jams and oyster sauce)
- pH affects plant growth – some plants grow in acidic soil; some need alkaline soil
- When hair is cleaned with shampoo which is alkali to dissolve grease, hair can be
damaged unless it’s rinsed or acid conditioner is used to neutalise excess alkali

Ionic Equations
Ionic equation is equation involving ions in aqueous solution, showing formation
and changes of ions during the reaction
Rule to make ionic equations:
- Only formulae of ions that change is included; ions don’t change = omitted
- Only aqueous solutions are written as ions; liquids, solids and gases written in full

Reaction Between Insoluble Ionic Compounds and Acids
e.g. Reaction between iron(II) oxide and sulphuric acid
FeO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2O(g)
FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2O(g)
Note: FeO is written in full as it’s solid (although it’s an ionic compound)
Since SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit SO42- ions, leaving:
FeO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + H2O(g)
E.g. Reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Since 2 Cl-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit Cl- ions, leaving:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

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38

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Neutralization is the reaction between acid and base to form salt and water only.
From ionic equation, we know that the reaction only involves H+ ions from acids
with OH- ions from alkali to form water .
E.g. NaOH + H2SO4 forms Na2SO4 + H2O
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(g)
Ionic equation is:
+
H (aq) + OH-(aq)→ H2O(g)
Plants don’t grow well in acidic soil. Quicklime (calcium hydroxide) is added to
neutralise the acidity of soil according to equation:
Acid(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  Ca(acid anion)(aq) + H2O(g)

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Basic Oxide
Oxides of metals,
usually solid which
reacts with water
to produce alkalis,
e.g. CaO, K2O, BaO

Amphoteric Oxide
Oxides of transition
metals, usually solid,
which reacts with
acids/alkalis to form
salt and water, e.g.
Al2O3, FeO, PbO

Neutral Oxide
Oxides that don’t
react with either
acids/alkalis, hence
do not form salts,
e.g. H2O, CO, NO

7.3 Preparation of Salts
Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Soluble
Insoluble
All Nitrates
All Supates
BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4
All Chlorides
PbCl, AgCl
Potassium, Sodium, Ammonium salts
K2CO3, Na2CO3, NH4CO3
All Carbonates
K2O, Na2O
All Oxides
Preparation of Insoluble Salts
Insoluble salts, e.g. BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4, PbCl, AgCl and most carbonates, can be
prepared by reacting compound containing the wanted cation with another
compound containing the wanted anion. This is precipitation reaction.
E.g. Preparation of BaSO4
First BaCl, since it contains wanted barium ion, is reacted with H2SO4, since it
contains wanted sulphate ion, to produce solid BaSO4 & aqueous KCl. BaSO4 then
separated from KCl by filtration, leaving filtrate KCl & BaSO4 left on filter paper.
Salt is washed with water to completely remove KCl & filter paper is squeezed with
another filter paper to dry BaSO4.

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Displacement Reactions
E.g. Reactions between magnesium with zinc sulphate
Mg(s) + ZnSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Zn(s)
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Zn(s)
Since SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:
Mg(s) + Zn2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Zn(s)

OXIDES
Acidic Oxide
Oxides of non-metals,
usually gases which
reacts with water to
produce acids, e.g.
CO2, NO3, P4O10, SO2

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Reactions Producing Precipitate
E.g. Reaction between calcium hydroxide and barium sulphate
Ca(OH)2(aq) + BaSO4(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + CaSO4(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) + Ca2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Since Ca2+(aq) and SO42-(aq) ions don’t change, we omit them, leaving:
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s)

Reaction between Base and Ammonium Salts
E.g. Reaction between NaOH and NH4OH
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(g)
Ionic equation:
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(g)

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39
Only metals like zinc and magnesium, which moderately react with dilute acids, are
used.
E.g. Reacting Zn with H2SO4 to prepare ZnSO4
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn is added to H2SO4 until in excess to ensure no more H2SO4 is present. Then the
mixture is filtered off to separate Zn from ZnSO4. The filtrate (ZnSO4) is then placed
in evaporating dish to evaporate most of water then it’s cooled after ZnSO4 crystals
are formed. The crystals then filtered and squeezed between filter papers to dry.

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Preparation of Soluble Salts
By Neutralization
25.0cm3 acid, as standard solution, is placed in conical flask using pipette. Add few
drops of indicator & titrate with alkali from burette until indicator changes colour,
showing all acid has just reacted. Volume of alkali added is measured. Prepare new
25.0cm3 acid again with pipette & add same volume of alkali as before to prevent
excess alkali/acid because both reactant & product are aqueous. Next, the product
is evaporated to dryness to obtain the salt.

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By Reacting Metal with Acid

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By Reacting Insoluble Base with Acid
E.g. Reacting MgO with Acids
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
The same method as reaction of acid with metal is used, so refer to diagram and
above explanation, substituting reactants and products.
By Reacting Carbonate with Acid
E.g. Reacting CaCO3 with Acids
K2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  K2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The same process is used as reaction of acid with metal, just that carbon dioxide is
produced. Carbon dioxide can be tested by bubbling it into limewater which will
turn limewater colourless to milky.
7.4 Properties and Uses of Ammonia
Ammonia and its Uses
Are produced from nitrogen reacted with hydrogen
For producing: fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes, cleaners and dry cell
The Manufacture of Ammonia: The Haber Process
The Process
Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed together in ratio 1:3, where nitrogen is obtained
from air and hydrogen is obtained from natural gas, and passed over iron catalyst.

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40

Water pollution results from runoff of fertilizer use, leaching from septic tanks,
sewage and erosion of natural deposits.

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But in practice, we use lower pressure of 200 atm and
higher temperature of 450oC. This is because:
- Using low temperature is too slow to reach equilibrium
- Using high pressure involves safety risk and higher cost

When excess fertilizers washed away by rain, nitrate ions in it gets into rivers and
helps aquatic plants like algae to grow swiftly. When too much algae, water turns
murky and sunlight would not penetrate into water to help their growth which in
turn lead to deaths of algae. Decay of this organic matter uses up oxygen, hence
killing aquatic animals. Then even more algae dies and even more animals die

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Conditions for Manufacturing Ammonia
Graph shows that to have high yield of ammonia we
should have:
1. Higher pressure
2. Lower temperature

Problems with Ammonia
Eutrophication is the inrease in organic content of water when fertilizers leach into
soil and washed into rivers and streams.

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Since the reaction is reversible so H2 and O2, reproduced from decomposition of
produced NH3, are passed over the catalyst again to produce ammonia.

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Ammonia as Fertilizers
Plants need nitrogen as one of component for growth and ammonium fertilizers
contain Nitrogen for that.

Nitrate ions from nitrogen in soil leaches down the soil into groundwater due to its
solubility. Since groundwater is our drink source, when humans drink this water,
they will get seriously ill and babies may suffer breathlessness to death.

% mass =
(NH4)2SO4 =
=
=

(

)

(

)

x 100

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% content of nitrogen in ammonium fertilizers
E.g. Ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, and urea, (NH2)2CO, are 2 kinds of fertilizers.
Deduce, in terms of nitrogen content, which of these fertilizers best for plants.
x 100

x 100
x 100

(NH2)2CO =

=
=

(

(

x 100

)

)

x 100

x 100

= 21.2% of N
= 46.7% of N
Therefore, (NH2)2CO is a better fertilizer since it contains more nitrogen

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41

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Uses of Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is a colourless, toxic gas with suffocating smell, denser than the air
and dissolves in water. Sulphur dioxide is emitted from electric power plants and
smelting operations to produce copper, zinc, lead and nickel from sulfide ores and
it’s a major contributor to acid rain. It is used:
- In sulfite manufacturing used in digestion & bleaching wood pulp to make paper
- As food preservatives such as dried fruit and fruit juices. It’s not used to preserve
meat as it destroys vitamin B1
- To bleach straw
END OF CHAPTER 7

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1. Sulphur is reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2
S(g) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
2. SO2 gas is purified from impurities by passing it through dust settlers and washed
with water then dried with concentrated H2SO4. If there’s impurities, the catalyst
will be “poisoned” and the reaction will be less effective.
3. Sulphur dioxide is further reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
Since this is a reversible reaction, low temperature and high pressure is needed to
enhance forward reaction.
According to graph:
- Low temperatures yields high percentage of sulphur
trioxide at equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium is the state when forward and
backward reaction occurs at same speed and the
concentration of reactant and product is equal. The
reactions do not stop and some reactants and products
always remain.
Although lower temperature is required for high yield, 450oC is instead used in the
process as the reaction will be too slow with low temperatures.
Pressure of 2-3 atm is used in practice.
A catalyst vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, is used to increase the yield of sulphur
trioxide. Platinum can catalyse more efficiently but it is too expensive.

Uses of Sulphuric Acid
- Making of fertilizers such as superphosphate and ammonium sulphate
- Making detergents
- Cleaning surfaces of iron and steel surface before galvanization or electroplating
- To manufacture plastics and fibres
- As electrolyte in car batteries
- In refining of petroleum
- In production of dyes, drugs, explosives, paints, etc.

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7.4 Sulphuric Acid
About Sulphuric Acid
It is a colourless oily liquid with density slightly higher than water and high boiling
point of 338oC. It’s soluble in water and emits heat when dissolved.
The Contact Process

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4. Sulphur trioxide is cooled & reacted in concentrated H2SO4 to produce oleum,
H2S2O7. SO3 is not reacted with water right now as mist forms at this temperature.
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
5. Oleum is diluted with water to produce sulphuric acid.
Contact: 0323
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

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4) Metals and Non-metals
Metals
Non-metals
On the left side of periodic table
On the right side of periodic table
Have fewer ( 4) valence electrons
Have more (>4) valence electrons
From left to right, elements gradually change from metal to non-metal
Elements close to dividing line in periodic table in back part of the note (in bold)
are called metalloids having properties of metals and non-metals.

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CHAPTER 8 – THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Progenitor Periodic Table
First periodic table made by Dimitri Mendeleev in 1869.
The Modern Periodic Table
Differences to Mendeleev’s:
- 115 elements while for Mendeleev’s is 69.
- Mendeleev arranged the elements according to relative atomic mass while
today we arrange according proton number.
Period – horizontal row of elements in periodic table
Group – vertical column of elements in periodic table numbered from I to 0
Elements between Group II and Group III – transition metals

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5) Changes in Group
- Proton number increase going down the group
- On each sides of periodic table, the change of the proton number small & gradual
- In transition metals, the gradual change is larger

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8.1 Patterns in the Periodic Table
1) Electronic Structure
Elements in same group has the same number of valence shell electrons which the
amount is the same as the group number.
e.g. Group II has elements with valency of 2 electrons.

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2) Charges on Ions
The charges relates to the group number and number of valence electrons.
- Elements on left side periodic table lose ions to form cation.
- Elements on right side periodic table lose ions to form anion.
- Elements in Group IV can lose or gain electrons depending on reacting
element.
- Transition metals may form variable cation of 2+ or 3+
Group Number
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
0
Formula of ion
+1
+2
+3 varies
-3
-2
-1
stable
3) Bonding
Elements in same group form same type and number of bonds due to the same
number of valence electrons.
e.g. Sodium in Group I forms NaCl, so other elements in Group I does the same.
(RbCl, KCl, LiCl, CsCl)
Contact:

Using the Periodic Table
Predicting Properties
1) Formula and Structures
Given chlorine, iodine and bromine of Group VII forms molecules of Cl2, I2 and
Br2 respectively, predict the molecular formula of Fluorine.
F2
From example, we know elements in same group form same formula.
2) Properties of Elements
Properties of element changes down the group.
i.e. given list of Group 7 elements, predict the properties of astatine.
Element
Proton Number Melting Point (oC) Boiling Point (oC)
Fluorine
9
-220
-118
Chlorine
17
-101
-35
Bromine
35
-7
59
Iodine
53
114
184
Astatine
85
> 114
> 184

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Fluorine
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine

Molecular
formula
F2
Cl2
Br2
I2

Melting
Boiling
point (oC) point (oC)
-220
-189
-101
-35
-7
59
114
184

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Element

State at
r.t.p.
gas
gas
liquid
solid

Colour
Pale yellow
Greenish yellow
Reddish brown
Shiny black

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Compounds of the Halogens
Halogens gives a charge of –1, so they give similar formulae, eg: NaBr, NaI
Reactions of the Halogens
- reacts vigorously with metals to form ionic salts for the equation:
2K + Br2  2KBr
- halogens become less reactive down the group

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8.2 Group Properties
Group I Elements – The Alkali Metals
These are metals which react with water to form alkaline solutions. The solutions
turn red litmus paper blue.
- most reactive metals in periodic table
- have one outer shell electrons
- shiny, silvery solids
- soft, easily cut with scalpel
- low densities & melting points. These increases down the group
- reacts easily in air. So they’re kept in oil
- reacts vigorously (may catch fire or explode) with cold water
- they make ionic compounds of +1 charge. They have similar formulae
- they become more reactive down the group
Name
Symbol
Density (g/cm3)
Melting point
(oC)
Lithium
Li
0.53
180
Sodium
Na
0.97
98
Potassium
K
0.86
64
Rubidium
Rb
1.5
39
Caesium
Cs
1.9
29
Element
Chloride
Nitrate
Sulphate
Oxide
Lithium
LiCl
LiNO3
Li2SO4
Li2O
Sodium
NaCl
NaNO3
Na2SO4
Na2O
Potassium
KCl
KNO3
K2SO4
K2O
Table 12.1: The physical properties and formulae of Group I metals

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Group VII Elements – The Halogens
These are elements which reacts with most metals to form salts
- very reactive elements
- have seven outer shell electrons
- each molecule in the element is diatomic (contains two atoms, eg F2)
- elements become darker and solidify down the group
- they have low melting and boiling points which increases down the group
- all halogens are poisonous
Contact:

More reactive halogen displaces less reactive halogen
eg: aqueous fluorine was added into sodium bromide solution. State the chemical
equation of the reaction.
F2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq)  2NaF + Br2
Group 0 Elements – The Noble Gases
Are least reactive elements in the state of gas. They do not form bonds
- have stable electronic configuration with full electrons on their shells
- coloured gases consisting of single atoms (monoatomic)
- low melting and boiling points
Uses of the Noble Gases
- argon used in light bulbs as it wouldn’t react with the hot filament
- neon used in neon advertising strip lights
- helium used in small and weather balloons, and airships for less density

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CHAPTER 9 –METALS
9.1 Properties of Metals
Physical properties
- Ductile (can be stretched to form wires)
- Malleable (can be bent and beaten into different shapes)
- Good conductors of electricity and heat
- Shiny
- High melting points and boiling points (except mercury and sodium)
- High density (except sodium)
- Strong

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ALLOYS
Alloy – a mixture of metallic elements or metallic with non-metallic.
Pure metals are weak as the layers of atoms slide over each other easily.
 in alloy of 2 metals, they have different sizes of atoms so this distrupts the
orderly layer of atoms making it difficult for atoms to slide over.

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Uses of Transition Elements
Most transition elements and their compounds act as catalysts which speed up
chemical reactions
- Iron is used in Haber Process for manufacture of ammonia
- Vanadium(V) oxide is used in contact process to manufacture sulphuric acid
- Nickel is used in hydrogenation of alkenes to form saturated fats (e.g. margarine)

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8.3 Transition Elements
Properties
- First transition series are all metals
- Transition elements have high melting points
- They have high density
- They have variable oxidation state, e.g. Iron (Fe) appear as Fe2+ or Fe3+
- They form coloured compounds, e.g. CuSO4 is blue, FeSO4 is green
- They form complex ions, e.g. MnO4-, Manganate(VII) ions
- They act as catalysts

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END OF CHAPTER 8

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Advantages
- Since transition elements speed up chemical processes in industries, they saves
time in manufacture
- Less energy is needed for manufacture in industries, hence lower cost
- Since less energy is needed, more energy resources can be conserved, e.g. oil to
generate electricity in producing iron.

Uses of Alloy:
- Steel (mixture of iron, little carbon and trace elements)
- Brass (copper and zinc) – tough and corrosive-resistant
- Coin metals (copper with other metals e.g. nickel) – tough, resistant and
stand up to wear
Uses of Stainless Steel
is an alloy of iron containing chromium or nickel. Is the most expensive way
Applications for:
- Cutleries
- Medical instruments for hospital operations
- Kitchen sinks
- Steel objects in chemical factories and oil refineries

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45
E.g. Displacement from metal oxides
Metal higher in reactivity series displaces oxides of metals lower in reactivity series.
When Ca burns with Ag2O, Ca displaces Ag to produce CaO and Ag.
Ca(s) + Ag2O(s)  CaO(s) + 2Ag(s)
This is called thermit reaction large amount of heat is produced.

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9.2 Reactivity Series
Reaction of Metals with Water
Pottasium, Sodium, and Calcium reacts with cold water to form:
M(s) + 2H2O(l) 
MOH(aq)
+ H2(g)
Metal + Water  Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
Magnesium, Zinc, Iron reacts with steam to form:
M(s) + 2H2O(g) 
MO(s) + H2(g)
Metal + Water  Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
Iron does not react with water
Copper and Gold have no reaction with water and steam

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Reaction of Metals with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
Pottasium, Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc and Iron reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form:
M(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Metal + Acid  Metal Chloride + Hydrogen
Lead reacts with warm hydrochloric acid slowly
Copper and Gold have no reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid

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Reaction of Metal Oxides with Carbon
The lower the position of metal in reactivity series, the easier for carbon to remove
oxygen from metal oxide by heating. At higher position, stronger heat is needed.
E.g. CuO reacts with C can be reduced by bunsen burner flame temperature
CuO(s) + C(s)  Cu(s) + CO2(g)
For iron oxide to be reduced, it needs very high temperature.

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Displacement reaction is the displacement of ions of metal from compounds of
metals lower in reactivity series by metals higher in reactivity series.
E.g. Magnesium displaces copper(II) chloride
Mg(s) + CuCl2(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
For observation, we’ll see silver magnesium metal coated with brown copper metal
Displacement is due to Mg atoms transfer electrons to Cu2+ ions forming Cu atoms.
Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2eCu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Loss of electrons is due to it’s less reactive as less reactive metal has higher chance
of losing electrons. That’s why when Mg is placed in KCl, no reaction occurs.
Mg(s) + KCl2(aq)  No reaction

Reaction of Metal Oxides with Hydrogen
The lower position of metal in reactivity series, the easier hydrogen remove oxygen
from metal oxide by heating. At higher position, stronger heat is needed.
E.g. PbO reacts with H2 can be reduced by bunsen burner flame temperature
PbO(s) + H2(g)  Pb(s) + H2O(l)
Decomposition of Metal Carbonates
The lower position of metal in reactivity series, the easier hydrogen remove oxygen
from metal oxide by heating. At higher position, stronger heat is needed.
E.g. CuCO3 reacts decomposes by heat of bunsen burner flame temperature
CuCO3(s)  Cu(s) + CO2(g)

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9.3 Extraction of Metals
Metals from Rocks
Minerals – elements/compounds that make up rocks
Metal ore – rock containing metal

The Extraction of Metals

Copper

Chalcopyrite

Mercury

Cinnabar

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Formula
NaCl
CaCO3
MgCO3
Al2O3
ZnS
Fe2O3
Fe3O4
SnO2
PbS
CuFeS2
(CuS + FeS)
HgS

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Tin
Lead

Iron

Chemical name
Sodium chloride
Calcium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate
Aluminium oxide
Zinc sulphide
Iron(III) oxide
Iron(II),(III) oxide
Tin(IV) oxide
Lead(II) sulphide
Copper(II) sulphide +
Iron sulphide
Mercury(II) sulphide

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Some important metal ores:
Name of ore
Rock salt
Limestone
Magnesite
Bauxite
Zinc Blende
Haematite
Magnetite
Cassiterite
Galena

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Most Reactive – hardest to extract – strong bonds in compounds; by electrolysis –
decomposing compounds with electricity.
Uses of Metals
The choice of metals over another depends on 3 factors:
1. Physical properties (e.g. melting point, strength, density, conductivity)
2. Chemical properties (e.g. resists corrosion)
3. Cost
The Uses of Some Metals and Their Reasons
Metal
Uses
Reason for the choice
- Drink cans
- Low density, non-toxic, cheap
Aluminium
- Window frames
- Resists corrosion, strong
- Electrical wires
- Ductile, good conductor of electricity
Copper
- Water pipes
- Strong, malleable, resists corrosion
- Jewellery
- Shiny and attractive, very malleable
Gold
- Protective coating - Good reflector of heat and light
- Supersonic aircraft
Titanium
- Light but strong, resists corrosion
- Spacecraft
Recycling of Metals
How Much is Left?
There are many iron on the surface but copper and tin are seriously reducing.

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Occurrence of Metals
Metal ores are compounds, usually as:
- Metal oxides – metal + oxygen, eg: Al2O3
- Metal sulphides – metal + sulphur, eg: HgS
- Metal carbonates – metal + carbon + oxygen, eg: MgCO3

Mineral Metal
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc

Less Rective – harder to extract than least reactive; by blast furnace; usually occur
as compounds of oxides or sulphides.

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Extracting these metals
- Metal ores are removed from ground.
- The ores contain useful and unwanted materials. Unwanted materials are
separated to obtain concentrated mineral.
- Metal is extracted from the mineral.

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Least Reactive – easiest to extract; extracted by physical methods

Contact:

If you say you have only mined the surface, why don’t you mine deeper for more?
High temperatures and pressures and greater depth increases hazards that prevent
0323mining up to the lower part of crust, although there are more metals further down
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- Recycling metals can damage the environment by smelting process which sends a
lot of fumes into the air
- Cost to separate metals from waste is high. E.g. separat metals in alloys is hard
- Transport costs for collecting scrap metal is high, e.g. trucks should be used
- People are not interested in depositing their used materials in recycling bins

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Conservation of metals- Recycling
- Use alternative materials to replace the use of iron (e.g. use of plastic pipes
instead of iron, use of glass bottles for soft drinks instead of aluminium)
- Recycle unused metals by melting them to produce new blocks of clean metal
How aluminium cans are recycled?

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9.4 Iron
Iron is extracted from the iron ore haematite, Fe2O3
Iron is extracted from the oxide in a blast furnace (next page)

The Blast Furnace

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The Recycling Circle

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Benefits of Recycling
- Recyling helps conserving metals, especially valuables such as gold and platinum.
E.g. used computer parts processed to extract gold used for electrical contacts of
processors and memory chips
- Recycling saves the cost of extracting new metals
- Recycling benefits environment, e.g. if there is a car wasteland, it causes eyesore

1. Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:
2. Carbon dioxide produced in 1 reacts with more coke to produce carbon monoxide

Problems with Recycling
- Metals are recycle if the cost is cheaper than extraction. E.g. Iron, a cheap metal,
is more expensive to recycle than to extract new iron

3. The carbon monoxide reacts with iron(III) oxide to produce molten iron, which runs
down to the bottom of the furnace
4. The limestone decomposed by heat to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide

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48

5. Iron ore contains many impurities (silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.) Sand, SiO2,
reacts with calcium oxide to produce slag (calcium silicate). Slag runs down to the
bottom of the furnace, floating on top of molten iron
6. Molten iron & slag tapped off separately in furnace. Slag is for road construction.
7. Referring to equation, not all iron(III) oxide reacted with carbon, only small amount
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO3 (g)

Rusting
Rusting – corrosion of iron and steel
Rust – brown solid product formed during rusting
Rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 xH2O where water molecules varies.

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Conditions for Rusting

Tubes
A
B
C
After a few days, only nail in tube A rust. This shows that air and water is needed
for rust. In boiled water, the nail doesn’t rust in B as boiled water removes
dissolved air while in C, CaCl keeps air dry so there’s no water.
Other factor  dissolved salt

Making Steel:
- Impurities of iron is removed by blowing oxygen into molten iron to change the
impurities into oxides. They are then combined with CaO and removed as slag.
- Carbon and other metals are added in certain amount to make steel.

Preventing Rusting
- Surface protection
- Sacrificial protection
- Use of stainless steel

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Steel
Iron made from blast furnace is not good as:
- it contains impurities which makes it brittle (can break easily)
- it cannot be bent or stretched
Most iron is converted into steel which is an alloy of iron and carbon with small
amounts of other elements. Advantages of steel:
- it is strong and tough
- it can be bent and stretched without shattering

Different Types of Steel:
- Mild steel – is a low carbon steel with 0.25% carbon
 It is strong and quite malleable. It is used for car bodies, ships, railway lines and
steel rods to reinforce concrete
- Hard steel – is a high-carbon steel with about 1% carbon
 It is harder than mild steel and less malleable. It is used to make tools
- Stainless steel – is iron with large amounts of chromium and nickel
 It is hard, shiny and doesn’t rust. It is used to make cutleries, medical
instrument and pipes in chemical industries.

Surface Protection – covers metal with a layer of substance
1) Paint
2) Grease or oil (also help to lubricate)
3) Plastic
4) Metal Plating – covering metal with thin layer of another metal (e.g. tin,
chromium, silver)
Advantage – These methods are cheap (except metal plating)
Disadvantage – If the layer is broken, air and water an reach metal to rust

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Percentage Composition of Oxygen in Air

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END OF CHAPTER 9

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Applications:
1) Galvanised Iron – is steel coated with zinc, usually used on roofs.
2) Protecting ships – blocks of zinc are attached to hulls to corrode instead of
steel which is the ship metal.
3) Underground steel pipes – these are attached to magnesium block using
insulated copper cables. Magnesium corrodes first than steel.

CHAPTER 10 – ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT
10.1 Air
The atmosphere is a layer of air containing mixture of
several gases. This mixture composition varies according to
time and place. The composition of water vapour varies
from 0-5%, depending on the humidity of air.

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Sacrificial Protection
is to sacrifice more reactive metal to corrode with water and air by layering it over
less reactive metal (e.g. iron covered by magnesium). If layer is broken, water & air
reach underneath layer, overlying metal still protect it.

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A known volume of air is passed through tube with burning copper powder and
oxygen in air will react with hot copper powder to produce black copper oxide:
2Cu(s) + O2(g)  2CuO(s)
If oxygen is depleted, the readings on both syringes will be steady and the reaction
has completed. Hence, to find the volume of oxygen in air collected in syringe:
Volume of O2 = Initial volume of air – Final volume of air
For instance, the initial volume of air in one syringe is 80cm3 and the final volume is
64cm3. Hence, the percentage volume of O2 in air is:
% Volume of O2 =
=

x 100%
x 100%

= 20%
Liquefaction of Air
First, CO2 is removed by passing air through NaOH. Then, the air is cooled to -25oC
to freeze water vapour to be removed and the remaining air is cooled and
compressed to become liquid which is then separated into its singular constituents
by fractional distillation as each constituent has different boiling point.

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A Test for Combustion

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What hazard it brings?
Combines with haemoglobin when inhaled, which produces carboxyhaemoglobin
that reduces efficiency of haemoglobin to transport oxygen. Cells then die.
How to prevent this?
- Install catalytic converters in cars
- Reduce number of cars on road
- Create efficient engines in cars to ensure complete hydrocarbon combustion

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When air hole is closed, air cannot enter
supplying oxygen, and hence soot (unburnt
carbon) and CO is produced from incomplete
hydrocarbon gas combustion. As a result, flame
is yellow due to glowing specks of hot soot in
heat and the flame is not hot. When air hole is
opened, air supplies plenty of oxygen, allowing
complete combustion.

The main air pollutants are:
1. Carbon monoxide
Where it comes from?
Unburnt hydrocarbons; exhaust fumes; forest fires

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OXYGEN – THEY’RE AROUND US!
Oxygen Reaction – Combustion
MOST substances react with O2 to in exothermic reaction, which is called
combustion. If flames are produced during combustion, it’s called burning.
ALL carbon compounds burn in O2 to produce CO2 while ALL hydrogen containing
compounds burn in O2 to produce H2O.
When adequate supply of oxygen is available during burning, it will create a
complete combustion. If otherwise, the combustion is incomplete.
E.g. CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g), makes up a complete combustion

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Significance of Oxygen
- As rocket fuel
- In steel making, to burn off impurities
- In oxy-acetyline cutting and welding
- In oxygen tanks for deep sea divers and mountain climbers to provide oxygen
- For respiration for most animals
- Used as oxygen tents in hospital to aid patients with respiratory problems
Air Pollution
Pollutants are substances in atmosphere which are harmful for living things and
environment, for contributing to air pollution.
From nature, pollutant sources are volcanoes, forest fires, decay of dead matter,
etc. but from humans, they’re exhaust fumes, power stations, oil and gas, etc.

2. Sulphur dioxide
Combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur impurities; volcanic eruptions
Lung irritant, eye irritant, acid rain
- Prevent using fuels containing sulphur impurities, e.g. coal
- Reduce the sulphur impurities inside fossil fuels
- Spray exhaust gases from factories with water/hydrated CaO/alkalis to absorb
sulphur dioxide before it’s released into the atmosphere
- Add CaO to soil and rivers to neutralize acid rain
3. Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2, ...)
Lightning activity; forest fires; internal combustion engines (as nitrogen oxides
are formed by oxygen and nitrogen under high temperature); power stations

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Eutrophication, lung damage, acid rain

4. Methane
Decomposition of vegetable matter; rice field; cattle ranching; natural gas; mines

- Design car engines which run at lower temperatures

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- Cattle and other ruminant animals should be given improved diet
- Animal manure and rotting vegetation can be used as biomass fuel
5. Unburnt hydrocarbons
Internal combustion engunes; incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons

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Chemistry around us: ACID RAIN
Acid rain is formed by 2 main constituents – SO2 and NO2
Sulphur dioxide/nitrogen dioxide, both react with oxygen and water to form
sulphuric acid/nitric acid. This is called hydrolysis.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) + H2O(l)  2H2SO4(aq)
4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)  4HNO3(aq)
Effects of Acid Rain
- The acid corrodes buildings, CaCO3 materials and metal statues.
- Acid rain damages trees
- Acid rain increases acidity of soil, making soil unsuitable for plant growth
- Fish cannot survive in acidic water
- Aggravates respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and asthma

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It is highly flammable, greenhouse gas

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Tackling Acid Rain
- Remove sulphur dioxide from flue gases by desulphurization
- Add Ca(OH)2 to soil to neutralize acid from acid rain
- Burn fuels with less sulphur

Desulphurization
It is the removal of sulphur dioxide from flue (waste) gases. The product is CO2,
which is non-polluting gas, and calcium sulphite.
CaCO3(s) + SO2(g)  CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
To increase profit, calcium sulphite further oxidized to produced gypsum to be sold
2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) CaSO4.2H2O(g)

Carcinogenic, forms photochemical smog

6. Ozone
It is an allotrope (two/three different forms of a pure element) of oxygen having
structural formula O3 having characteristic odour. It’s created by reaction of
nitrogen oxides with volatile organic compounds in presence of UV radiation.
- It reacts with unburnt hydrocarbons to form photochemical smog that causes
headache, eye, nose and throat irritation.

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- Don’t use CFCs/replace it with HCFCs which destroys faster.
Chemistry around us: PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
It is a hazy brown air, which is a mixture of fog and smog,that reduces visibility,
causes eye irritation and breathing difficulties. It is produced by reaction between
NO2 and O2 in the oresence of sunlight to form NO, O and O2. This reaction is called
photochemical reaction.
NO2(g) + 2O2(g)  NO(g) + O + O2(g)
The oxygen atom is reacted with the oxygen molecules formed to form ozone, O3.
O2(g) + O  O3(g)
Ozone can react with unburnt hydrocarbons to produce eye-irritating substances.
Chemistry around us: DESTRUCTION OF OZONE LAYER

How is it depleted?
Ozone layer absorbs some UV radiation and reflects some back to space. CFCs,
found in coolants in refrigerator and air conditioners, propellants in aerosols and
blowing agents, are released into the atmosphere. In the presence of light, CFC
decompose into Cl2 at the stratosphere where ozone is located.
CFCl3(g)  CFCl2(g)+ Cl
CFCl2 further decomposes to produce more chlorine atoms, Cl, and CFCl
CFCl2(g)  CFCl(g)+ Cl
As a result, the Cl atoms produced react with O3 molecules to form chlorine oxide,
ClO, and oxygen, O2.
Cl + O3(g)  ClO(g) + O2(g)
The reaction uses up ozone which covers the earth and hence creating a hole in the
layer. Harmful UV rays from sun can now reach Earth through these holes.

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- It corrodes and kills plants and trees

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Use of ozone layer in stratosphere:
It blocks UV rays from sun which causes skin cancer; acts as blanket to block out
high sun energy radiation and prevent it from penetrating into Earth’s surface.

Tackling Depletion of ozone layer:
- Don’t use CFCs/replace it with HCFCs which destroys faster.
Chemistry around us: GLOBAL WARMING
Greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat from sun by greenhouse gases to
regulate Earth temperature so that not all heat is reradiated back to space.
However, increased industrialization releases more greenhouse gases to
atmosphere, contributing to Global Warming (increase in temperature of Earth’s
atmosphere due to trapping of heat by greenhouse gases).
EXAMPLES OF GREENHOUSE GASES ARE:
1. Carbon Dioxide which is naturally occuring or by combustion of hydrocarbons.
2. Methane which occur naturally or emitted during production of fuels or from
decaying vegetable matter.
3. Nitrous Oxide is produced by industrial and agricultural activities,and by
incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
Hazards of Global Warming
It melts polar icebergs, floods low lying areas and coastal regions, alter the climatic
conditions of certain places, alter crop yield, and evaporation of water supply.

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Animals:
When herbivores and omnivores eat plants, they gain carbon from them to grow
and develop. Carnivores eating these animals also gain the carbon. When animals
respire, they release carbon dioxide. When they die and decay due to
microorganism, they release carbon dioxide which is later taken in by plants.

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WHAT NON-LIVING THINGS DID
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are released from electric power plants,
exhaust fumes and factory emissions. Man burns fossil fuels, which needs millions
of years to form, that takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. This makes man
depleting natural resource as they use them rapidly than the time needed to
reform, damages natural environment and upsetting balance of carbon cycle.
Balancing Chemicals in Nature: CATALYTIC CONVERTERS

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TACKLING GLOBAL WARMING
- Reduce the use of fossil fuels
- Use alternative forms of energy such as wind, tidal and hydroelectric power
- Use more electric vehicles
Chemistry around us: CARBON CYCLE
0.03% of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide and this is kept constant by the process
carbon cycle. Carbon cycle is the removal of carbon dioxide by plants by
photosynthesis and the replacement of these carbon molecules by combustion,
respiration and natural processes. In the past the rate of absorption of carbon
dioxide balances the rate of production of carbon dioxide. Man upset this balance.

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WHAT LIVING THINGS DID
Plants:
Plants use carbon dioxide from atmosphere, sunlight and chlorophyll for
photosynthesis of sugars. Some carbon is used up in plants for growth and
development, while some others are released to atmosphere during respiration.
When plants die & decomposed by microorganisms, CO2 released to atmosphere.

First, nitrogen oxides reacts with carbon monoxide as they pass a platinum catalyst.
2NO(g) + CO(g)  N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
In second half of converter, unburnt hydrocarbons (e.g. octane, C8H18) reacts with
more air to form CO2 and H2O.
2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g)  16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
CO2, H2O and N2 are all non-pollutants. These reactions are all redox.

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7. Lead compounds
- Combustion of leaded petrol in car engines

- Needed for growth of aquatic plants to make food and produce oxygen for
aquatic organisms.

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Harmful Stuff
Acid
- Kills aquatic organisms and plants
- Makes water acidic and corrosive – unsafe to drink

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10.2 Water
Water is most available liquid on Earth covering 70% of the planet surface.
We use water at home for: drinking, cooking, washing and bathing
While in industries, we use as: heat exchanger, raw material for food and drinks,
as a solvent, cleaning and purification, irrigation, dyeing and bleaching process.
Inside that Water
Naturally Occuring Substances
- Mineral salts – aluminium, calcium, potassium, etc.
- Dissolved oxygen given out by aquatic animals by photosynthesis
- Organic matter (living/dead plants, animals, microorganisms)
Pollutants
- Metal compounds such as cadmium, iron, manganese, etc. from waste discharge
- Phosphates from fertilizers, detergents or sewage treatment plants
- Nitrates from fertilizers or sewage treatment plants
- Sewage from sewage treatment plants or septic systems
- Harmful microbes from sewage treatment plants, septic systems, naturally
occuring in water or growing in abundance due to pollution
- Acid from industrial discharges
- Oil spills from oil tankers

Organic matter
- Needed for growth of aquatic organisms

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- Causes lead poisoning which leads to brain damage.

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Dissolved oxygen
- Needed for respiration and growth of aquatic life. Water without O2 is stagnant.

Important or Silent Killer?
Beneficial Stuff
Mineral salts
- Needed for basic functions of human body such as bone growth, fluid regulation,
normalize nerve and muscle functionality, metabolism control, growth, etc.

Nitrates
- Causes eutrophication which deprives marine organisms of oxygen
- Nitrate ions may cause breathlessness or kill babies when consumed
Phosphates
- Can cause eutrophication as it encourages the growth of algae, hence killing
aquatic organisms when they die and takes away oxygen
Heavy metal ions
- These are carcinogenics that can cause skin cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, etc.
Sewage
- Contains pathogens which when consumed carries diseases such as diarrhoea.
Oil
- Traps bird’s feathers and kills them eventually
- Depletes oxygen as air cannot mix with water to provide sufficient oxygen

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CHAPTER 11 – ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Compounds from Living Things
Organic Compounds – compounds found in living organisms
Examples: sugar, fats, plant oils, urea
Charecteristics of Organic Compounds
- All contain carbon element
- Most come with hydrogen
- Others with oxygen, nitrogen, or a halogen

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Tackling Water Pollution
- Proper disposal of rubbish to prevent more water pollution
- Prohibit activities potentially causing water pollution near rivers/reservoirs such
as camping or swimming.
- Dispatch monitor ships to prevent accidents between ships so oil will not spill
Purification – Taking care of those harmful stuffs

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Uses of Organic Compounds
Fuels, plastic, rubber, detergents, insecticides, most medicines

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1. Water from rain and river downstream is collected in reservoir.
2. Water is transported via pipe to a flocculation tank where alum, Al2(SO4)3, and
lime, Ca(OH)2 are added to water so that small solid clay particles join together
into large lumps of solid (coagulation).
3. Water is moved to sedimentation tank where the lumps of solid settles to the
bottom of the tank. This is called sedimentation. Carbon, in form of activated
charcoal, is added to remove the taste and smell of water.
4. Water is filtered off in filtration tank, where there are sand particles filter which
traps the remaining solid particles in water.
5. Chlorine and fluorine are added in chlorination tank. This is called chlorination.
Chlorine is used to kill bacteria while fluorine is used to strengthen teeth.
Desalination
Ocean is vast source of water. Salts in seawater must be removed so it’s drinkable.
Desalination is the process where seawater is distilled until it becomes steam (free
of salt) which is then cooled and condensed into drinking water.
END OF CHAPTER 10

Classifying Organic Compounds
Homologeous series – a family of organic compounds with a general formula and a
similar chemical properties
All homologous series has:

Functional Groups
- Is the special group of atoms available in homologous series compunds which
responsibles for the chemical properties of the compound

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All compounds in homologous series have functional group except alkanes.
Examples of functional group homologous series: alcohol

Production of Organic Compounds
From crude oil refinery:
Crude oil is a mixture of complex hydrocarbons with varying boiling points,
depending on the number of carbon atoms and how they are arranged. Fractional
distillation uses this property to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil.

• example: propane has three carbon atom, thus n=3. Then the formula of
propane is C3H8
- Ends with suffix –ane
- Next alkane formula differ by –CH2 atoms. Eg: methane: CH4, ethane: C2H6

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Structure of Alkanes
Shows how all atoms in a molecule joined together by drawing lines between
atoms to represent the bonds
Example: butane has a formula of C4H10, therefore the structural formula is:

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It has 4 carbon atoms bonded together with 10 hydrogen atoms

Crude oil is mostly used as fuel, though some allocated for chemical feedstock. As
oil reserves deplete, competition between 2 main uses of oil will be more intense.

Organic compound containing only single bond is saturated. Eg: methane
All alkanes are saturated. All alkenes are unsaturated

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From naphtha:
Naphtha fraction is used for production of petrochemicals, such as medicines,
plastics and synthetic fibres, aside from fuels. When naphtha is treated, not only it
becomes a better fuel, it also contain more aromatic hydrocarbons, alkene and
cyclic hydrocarbons which are important for petrochemical industry.

Physical Properties of Alkanes

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Saturated or Unsaturated?
Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the
carbon atoms is as fully used as possible in bonding with hydrogen atoms. They
only have single bond (–) only.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons which the combining capacity of the
carbon atoms is not fully used, e.g. only 2 or 3 hydrogen are attached to a carbon
atom. This is usually indicated by double bond (=) or triple bond () with another
carbon atoms.
11.1 Alkanes
- Usually in fuels, examples: natural gas, petrol, diesel
- Are homologous series
- Have a formula of CnH2n+2

From the table,

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- Melting points and boiling points increase as the bonds become larger and
heavier which increases the forces of attraction between molecules so more
energy (from heat) is needed to separate them with the increase of strength of
forces of attraction

Substitution reaction – the reaction in which one or more atoms replace other
atoms in a molecule
Light is needed to break covalent bond between chlorine moleculeatoms

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- Alkanes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as
tetrachloromethane as alkanes are organic compounds

- Alkanes become less flammable down the series as B.P. becomes larger

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- Alkanes are unreactive with either metals, water, acids or bases because the C – C
and C – H covalent bonds are harder to break
Reaction of Alkanes
Have same chemical properties – they don’t react with most chemicals

Combustion
Alkanes burn in air to ALWAYS form carbon dioxide and water. When there is
insufficient oxygen, the product is ALWAYS carbon monoxide and unburnt carbon.
Example: Butane is commonly used camping gas. State the chemical equation of
combustion of butane in air.
2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g)  8 CO2(g) +10 H2O (l)

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- Alkanes become more viscous (uneasily flow) going down the series as the longer
molecules tangles together when it flows

11.2 Alkenes
- have general formula CnH2n.
- all alkene names end with –ene.
- the formula of one alkene differs from the next by –CH2.
- have similar properties like alkane going down the series.
No. of
Molecular
C
Name
Structural formula
formula
atoms

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- Alkane density increases down the series; all alkenes are less than 1g/cm3

Condensed
structural
formula

2

ethene

C2H4

CH2 = CH2

3

propene

C3H6

CH3CH2 = CH2

4

butene

C4H8

CH3CH2CH = CH2

Table 25.3 First three alkenes; they appear as gas
Structure of Alkenes
Is organic compound containing C = C double bond, said to be unsaturated
Reason: not all C atoms are bonded to the maximum no. of 4 other atoms

High alkanes burn less completely and gives soot (unburnt carbon) and CO
Reaction with Chlorine/Other Halogens (Alkyl Halides)
Chlorine molecule replaces alkane hydrogen atom with chlorine atom

The Importance of Ethene
Ethanol – solvent & fuel
Ethanoic acid – vinegar

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- Addition of water
Alkene reacts with water, in the form of steam, to produce alcohol. Alkene + steam
is passed over phosphoric acid (H3PO4) catalyst and temperature of 300oC. H2O
molecule adds to C = C bonds to form alcohol.
C2H4(g)
+
H2O(g)
 C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH (l)

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Reactions of Alkenes
Combustion
Burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water
Example: Ethene burns in air. Write the balanced equation for the reaction
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O (l)
Incomplete combustion forms soot and CO. It’s produced more than alkane

+

H–H



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+

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Nomenclature
Product’s an ALKANE with name according to number of carbon atoms it contain.

Br – Br

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- Addition of bromine
Bromine adds to C = C double bond of alkane molecules. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4),
high temperature of 300oC and 60-70 atm pressure are needed as catalyst.
Eg: ethene to 1,2 – dibromoethene
C2H4(g)
+
Br2(g)

C2H4Br2(l)
+

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Nomenclature
(alkene name) + (-ol)
E.g. in above, the alkene ethane (C2H4) reacts with steam to form ETHANOL (alkene
name – ETHAN + OL group of alcohol)

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- Addition of hydrogen
Alkenes react with hydrogen to form alkanes, called hydrogenation. Must use
nickel as catalyst and heat.
C2H4(g)
+
H2(g)

C2H6(g)



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Addition Reaction
Is the reaction of 2 or more molecules to form a single product

H–O–H



Nomenclature
(n) + (bromo) + (alkene name), where n is the number of bromine atoms.
E.g. Above, Ethene reacts with 2 bromine atoms producing DI(2)BROMO(Bromine)
ETHENE(alkene name). Hence we call the product DIBROMOETHENE.

- Polymerization
The joining of several identical alkene molecules to form a big molecule
Eg: Ethene  poly(ethene)
Testing for Unsaturated Compounds
Mix bromine solution with alkene (for liquid alkenes – shake). Reddish-brown
colour of bromine disappears. This shows that the compound is an alkene.
Characteristics of a Homologous Series
- All members of homologous series have same general formula
- Formula of each member differs by –CH2 group
- Physical properties changes gradually in the increase of carbon atoms
- The members have similar chemical properties
Foods and Unsaturated Compounds
The Manufacture of Margarine
Polyunsaturated food – food containing C=C bond in their molecules
Eg: Vegetable oil

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To produce margarine:

Hey, I’m
C6H14!

Isomers

No, you poser!
I’M C6H14!

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Isomers are compounds with same molecular formula but different structural
formula. Due to different chain length, they have different physical properties (e.g.
boiling point). Isomerism can occur in both alkanes and alkenes.
We therefore can’t just say that C6H14 is simply hexane because there are more
variations of C6H14 and each variation has its own name. The figure below shows
the nomenclature (i.e. how to name) these isomers.

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Hydrogen is reacted with vegetable oil with presence of nickel catalyst and heat,
which adds to C=C bond, increasing the molecular mass of the compound
- With increase in mass, the compound has higher boiling point. Therefore,
margarine is solid at room temperature.
- Since only some C=C bonds react with hydrogen, margarine is partially
hydrogenated and each has different hardness, depending on the number of C=C
bonds.

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Look at the figure above and count the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in
each case. You will end up with the same C6H14. We can’t deny that they have the
same molecular formula. However, their structures are different. Therefore:

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The Cracking of Alkanes
Alkanes can be cracked into shorter chain hydrocarbons because of the higher
value it has that it can create more variety of products in petrochemical industries.

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We crack alkane by catalytic cracking, which is, using catalyst to break alkane into
simpler hydrocarbons. We crack alkane to get more valuable hydrocarbons. The
total number of carbon and hydrogen atoms from products should equal to the
total number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in cracked alkane.
E.g. Octane can be cracked into simpler hydrocarbons such as the reaction below.
Suggest the possible identity of product x.
C8H18(l)  C2H4(g) + x + CH4(g)
Number of C atoms in x = 8 – 2 – 1
=5
Number of H atoms in x = 18 – 4 – 4
= 10
 Product x is C5H10

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- Note that the second number is 3 while in fact, the position closest to the end of
isomer is 2. This is to avoid confusion that the isomer would be that of figure
12(b)(i) and figure 12(b)(ii). In this case, we put the number as the POSITION THE
SECOND NEAREST TO THE END OF THE ISOMER, that is, 3.

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Figure 12(a) is the full long chained isomer of C6H14: hexane. This is so not useful.

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Figure 12(b)(i) is another isomer called 2,2-dimethylbutane.
- Note that the first number 2 indicates the position of methyl group (CH3)
attached to a carbon atom from the nearest end. There are 2 possible numbers:
2 or 3. Since 2 is closer, we put 2 in place. The second number 2 indicates the
position of the second methyl group attached to carbon atom. Since it’s attached
to the same carbon atom as the first methyl group, we put the same number 2.

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- Also note that the name is now “butane”. This comes from the number of carbon
atoms in the STRAIGHT chain only. The turns leading to methyl is ignored.
- Bear in mind that “di” in “dimethyl” indicates the number of methyl groups in the
isomer (“di” means two). One methyl has no prefix, if it’s three is “tri” and so on.
Figure 12(b)(ii) is another variation of the isomer 2,2-dimethylbutane
- Students often misinterpret this as 1,2,2-trimethylpropane while in fact, we don’t
take the last bend in the chain as another methyl group. Instead, we consider it
as PART OF THE STRAIGHT CHAIN.
Figure 12(c)(i) and Figure 12(b)(ii) is another isomer called 2,3-dimethylbutane
- See that we can flip the positions of methyl group without changing formula
Contact:

For isomerism in alkene in Figure 13(c), we apply the same theory as isomerism in
alkane, and just to only add a double bond indication.
For alkene, double bond position can be changed. In Figure 13(a), it’s hept-1-ene,
can be called heptene, can be changed to hept-2-ene in Figure 13(b), where the
number in between indicates position of double bond from nearest isomer end.

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2. Alcohol can be oxidized when left in air with bacterial enzymes as catalyst. The
products are carboxylic acid and water.
E.g. ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid when left in air.
C2H5OH(aq) + O2(g)  2CH3COOH(aq) + 3H2O(l)

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Making Ethanol
- Fermentation of sugars with yeast
- Reacting ethene with steam

Oxidation
1. Alcohol can be prepared in laboratory by warming alcohol with oxidizing agent
(e.g. acidified potassium chromate(VI)). The product is carboxylic acid and water.
E.g. oxidation of ethanol produces water and ethanoic acid
C2H5OH(aq) + 2[O]{from oxidizing agent}  2CH3COOH(g) + 3H2O(l)

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First three members of the series (so that you’d have idea on the next)
 Methanol, CH3OH
 Ethanol, C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH
 Propanol, C3H7OH or CH3CH2CH2OH
For alcohol, the –OH is not of hydroxide ion, OH-, but is covalent bond between
oxygen and hydrogen, O – H

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REACTIONS OF ALCOHOL
Combustion
Alcohols burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
E.g. combustion of ethanol
C2H5OH(aq) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

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11.3 Alcohols
Are homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1OH
- They have –OH functional group (hydroxyl group)
- All alcohols end with suffix -ol

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Fermenting glucose
Fermentation is breakdown of sugars into smaller molecules by microorganisms.
C6H12O6(aq)  2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
Temperature is kept constant at 37oC to prevent destruction of yeast at higher
temperatures. Oxygen is removed by limewater and carbon dioxide is produced
during fermentation. Alcohol is separated from solution by fractional distillation.
Reacting Ethene with Steam
Ethene and steam are passed over phosphoric acid H3PO4 (as a catalyst) under high
temperature of 300oC and pressure of 65 atm.
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ C2H5OH(aq)
Since this is reversible reaction, both ethene and water are produced aside from
ethanol. The ethanol is separated by fractional distillation.

Esterification
This will be discussed in Chapter 11.4
11.4 Carboxylic Acids
homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1COOH (first serie, n = 0, ascending)
- They have –COOH functional group (carboxyl group)
- All carboxylic acids end with suffix –oic acid
First three members of the series (so that you’d have idea on the next)
 Methanoic acid, HCOOH
 Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
 Propanoic acid, C2H5COOH

Uses of Alcohol
As organic solvent; alcoholic drink; preservatives; vehicle fuel

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PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1. From natural gas
Natural gas is passed over air and catalyst to form ethanoic acid and water.
E.g. production of ethanoic acid from methane
2CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CH3COOH(aq) + 2H2O(l)

PROPERATIES OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
- Carboxylic acids are weak acids (partially ionises in water)
- Carboxylic acids react with metals to form metal ethanoate (salt) and hydrogen
E.g. Reaction between calcium and ethanoic acid forming calcium ethanoate
and hydrogen
Ca(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq)  Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)

11.5 Synthetic Macromolecules
Macromolecule is a large molecule made by joining together many small molecules
Polymer is a long-chain macromolecule made by joining together many monomers
Polymerisation is the addition of monomers to make one large polymer

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2. Oxidation (explained in Chapter 11.3)

ESTER NOMENCLATURE:
Ester name is [alcohol]yl [carboxylic acid]oate. For instance, example above is butyl
propanoate, where “butyl” is from butanol; “propanoate” is from propanoic acid.

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- Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salt and water (neutralization)
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and
water.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)  CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(g)

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- Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to form salt, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen.
E.g. Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium ethanoate and
water.
2CH3COOH(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
ESTERIFICATION
Ester is organic compound made from carboxylic acid and alcohol with the removal
of one molecule of water. Sulfuric acid is added as catalyst then heat mixture.
The next page shows the reaction between an alcohol and carboxylic acid.
The reaction is reversible. We can add sodium hydroxide and heat mixture to
obtain carboxylic acid and alcohol from ester. This is HYDROLYSIS.

ADDITION POLYMERISATION
Addition polymerisation is which small molecules (monomers) join together to
form one molecule as the only product.
From monomer to polymer
Example: Formation of poly(ethene) from ethene
Ethene has double bond. Another ethene molecules add to this unsaturated
compound during polymerisation to form bigger compound.

Repeat unit is the simplest part of the polymer which is repeated many times to
form the polymer. We take the repeat unit to write the simplified formula of the
polymer, where n is a large number. From this repeat unit, to find the monomer
formula, we add double bond between C – C and remove the bonds on each of
their sides.

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Some plastic variations and their uses are shown:

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
Condensation Polymerisation is the joining of monomers together to form
polymers along with the elimination of water molecules.
Nylon
Dicarboxylic acid and diamine undergo condensation polymerisation to form nylon.

The linkage between monomers in nylon is called amide linkage. Therefore we can
also call nylon as polyamide.
Today, we use nylon as:
- a replacement of stockings and manufacture of garments to replace silk
- make tents and parachutes due to strength
- fishing lines
- rugs and carpets
Terylene
Dicarboxylic acid (acid with 2 –COOH groups) and diol (alcohol with 2 –OH groups)
undergo condensation polymerisation to form terylene

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11.6 Natural Macromolecules
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen & oxygen. General formula is Cn(H2O)n.
The simplest carbohydrate is C6H12O6 (glucose).

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Glucose polymerise each other to form starch.

The overall reaction is:
nC6H12O6  (C5H10O5)n + nH2O
Starch can also be broken down into glucose by heating with sulfuric acid. This is
HYDROLYSIS.

Today, we use terylene in fabrics as it’s strong, resists stretching and sinking and
doesn’t crumple when washed.

PROTEINS
Proteins have similar linkage to that of a nylon. Only that their monomers are only
amino acids joined together. They are formed by condensation polymerisation.

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The linkage between the monomers in terylene is called ester linkage. Therefore
we can call this polymer as polyester.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PLASTICS
- Plastics are non-biodegradable – they cannot be decomposed by bacteria.
Therefore, many plastic waste will pollute the Earth
- Plastics produce toxic gas (such as hydrogen chloride) when burnt and this
contributes to acid rain.
- Plastics produce carbon dioxide when burnt – increases global warming.
- Plastics that require CFC during production may contribute to global warming
when the CFC is allowed to escape.

Proteins can be called as polyamide as it has amide linkage. Proteins can also be
broken down into amino acids by boiling protein with sulfuric acid. This adds
water molecule into the polymer.

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HYDROLYSIS OF FATS

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POLYMERISATION OF FATS

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FATS
Fats have similar linkage to that of a terylene (ester linkage). Only that their
monomers consists of glycerol and fatty acids; different from terylene.
END OF SYLLABUS CODE 5070

Fats can also be broken down to sodium salts of fatty acids and glycerol by boiling
it with an acid or alkali. This is HYDROLYSIS.
The reactions are given on the page on the right.

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GOOD LUCK IN YOUR EXAMINATIONS!


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*Periodic table and qualitative analysis notes are reproduced with permission from Cambridge

International Examination Syndicate which itself is a subordinate of University of Cambridge. The
information published should not be reproduced for other intent other than creation of this notes.

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O'Levels Chemistry Notes (GCE and IGCSE)

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