Part 12 : Local Area Networks

First Ethernet
• 802.3
• 10 Mbps
• Coaxial cable Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE5

Ethernet Addresses
• Each Ethernet adapter has a unique address
• Ethernet Address format
• 48 bits addresses
• Source Address
• Destination address
• If high order bit is 0, host unicast address
• If high order bit is 1, host multicast address
• broadcast address = 111111..111
24 bits OUI
(adapter manufacturer)
24 bits
(identifier of adapter)
00

• Principle
• Two types of destination Ethernet addresses
• Physical addresses
• Logical addresses
• logical group of Ethernet destinations
• Transmission of multicast frames
• Reception of multicast frames
48 bits
0 : physical address (unicast)
1 : logical address (multicast)
OUI
LAN-level multicast

Ethernet
Frames
• DIX Format
• proposed by Digital, Intel and Xerox
Preamble
[8 bytes]
Destination
address
Type
[2 bytes]
CRC [32 bits]
Source address
Data
[46-1500 bytes
Used to mark the beginning of the frame
Allows the receiver to synchronise its
clock to the sender’s clock
Indication of the type of packet contained
inside the frame
Upper layer protocol must ensure that
the payload of the Ethernet frame is
at least 46 bytes and at most 1500 bytes

Ethernet Service
• An Ethernet network provides a
connectionless unreliable service
• Transmission modes
• unicast, multicast, broadcast
• Even if in theory the Ethernet service is
unreliable, a good Ethernet network should
• deliver frames to their destination with a very
hig probability of delivery
• not reorder the transmitted frames
• reordering is obviously impossible on a
bus

Ethernet hub
• A hub is a relay operating in the physical
layer
Host A Host B
Hub
Physical
Datalink Datalink
Physical

Hub
Larger Ethernet ?
Issue : maximum 51.2 microsec
delay between any pair of stations
Hub
Hub
Hub

Ethernet switch
• A switch is a relay operating in the datalink
layer
Host A Host B
Switch
Physical Phys. Phys.
Datalink
Network Network
Datalink
Physical

The Ethernet zoo
10BASE5 Thick coaxial cable, 500m
10BASE2 Thin coaxial cable, 185m
10BASE-T Two pairs of category 3+ UTP
10BASE-F 10 Mb/s over optical fiber
100BASE-TX Category 5 UTP or STP, 100 m maximum
100BASE-FX Two multimode optical fiber, 2 km maximum
1000BASE-CX Two pairs shielded twisted pair, 25m maximum
1000BASE-SX Two multimode or single mode optical fibers with lasers
10 Gbps optical fiber but also cat 6 twisted pair
40-100 Gbps being developed, standard expected in 2010, 40Gbps one meter
long for switch backplanes, 10 meters for copper cable and 100
meters for fiber optics

Some Ethernet cables
and plugs
Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE2,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_over_twisted_pair,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_6_cable,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_form-factor_pluggable_transceiver

Ethernet Switch
• Ethernet switch
• understands MAC addresses and filters
frames based on their addresses
Address Port
A West
B South
C East
Eth : A
Eth : B
Eth : C
Src:A Dst:B

Frame processing
Arrival of frame F on port P
src=F.Source_Address;
dst=F.Destination_Address;
UpdateTable(src, P); // src heard on port P
if (dst==broadcast) || (dst is multicast)
{
for(Port p!=P) // forward all ports
ForwardFrame(F,p);
}
else
{
if(dst isin AddressPortTable)
{
ForwardFrame(F,AddressPortTable(dst));
} else {
for(Port p!=P) // forward all ports
ForwardFrame(F,p);
}
}

Network redundancy
Address Port
A West
B South
C East
Eth : A
Eth : B
Eth : C
Src:A Dst:C
Address Port
A North
B South
C East
Address Port
A West
B South
C North
S1
S2
S3

Network redundancy (2)
Address Port
Eth : A
Eth : B
Eth : C
Src:A Dst:C
Address Port
Address Port
S1
S2
S3

Spanning tree
Switch 1
Switch 7
Switch 9
Switch 22
Switch 44
Switch 2
• Each switch has a unique identifier
• The switch with the lowest id is the root
• Disable frame forwarding on links that do not
belong to the spanning tree

Building spanning tree
• 802.1d uses Bridge PDUs (BPDUs) containing
• Root ID : identifier of the current root switch
• Cost : Cost of the shortest path between the
switch transmitting the BPDU and the root
switch
• Transmitting ID : identifier of the switch that
transmits the BPDU
• The BPDUs are sent by switches over their
attached LANs as multicast frames but they
are never forwarded
• switches that implement 802.1d listen to a
special Ethernet multicast group

Ordering for BPDUs
• BPDUs can be strictly ordered
• BPDU1[R=R1,C=C1, T=T1] is better than
BPDU2 [R=R2,C=C2, T=T2] if
• R1<R2
• R1=R2 and C1<C2
• R1=R2 and C1=C2 and T1<T2

BPDU format
• Simplified BPDU format
BPDU
Header
Root Id
Switch identifier
Root path cost
Protocol Identifier
Protocol version
Configuration BPDU or topology change
Flags
Identifier of the switch sending the BPDU
Port identifier : used when a switch has several
ports attached to the same LAN
Current root identifier
Port identifier
Message age
Max age
Hello time
Forward delay

802.1d : Root behavior
• root switch sends regularly BPDUs on all its
ports
• R=Root switch id, C=0, T= Current switch
id(Root)
• Bootstrap
• If a switch does not receive BPDUs, it
considers itself as root

Switch behaviour
• On each port, switch parses all the received
BPDUs and stores the best BPDU received on
each port
• By comparing all received BPDUs, each
switch can determine the root and its BPDU
• Switch BPDU [Root, SwitchId, Cost, Port]
• Cost : Cost of best BPDU + cost of link
• Switch sends its BPDU on its designated
ports

802.1d port states
• 802.1d port state based on received BPDUs
• Root port
• port on which best 802.1d BPDU received
• Designated port
• a port is designated if the switch's BPDU is
better than the best BPDU received on this
port
• Blocked port (only receives 802.1d BPDUs)
• A port is blocked is the switch's BPDU is
worse than the best BPDU on this port

Example network
• Switch 9 boots first
Switch 7
Switch 12 Switch 9
[R=9,C=0,T=9]
[R=9,C=0,T=9]
• Switch 12 boots
Switch 12
North: [R=9,C=0,T=9]
South : [R=9,C=0,T=9]
Cost:2
Cost:3
BPDU: [R=9,C=2,T=12]
Root
BPDU: [R=9,C=0,T=9]
Blocked
Designated
Designated

Example network
Switch 7
Switch 12 Switch 9
[R=7,C=0,T=7]
• Switch 7 boots
Switch 12
North: [R=9,C=0,T=9]
South : [R=9,C=0,T=9]
Cost:2
Cost:3
BPDU: [R=9,C=2,T=12]
Root
BPDU: [R=9,C=0,T=9]
Blocked
Designated
Designated
Switch 9
North: -
South : -
[R=7,C=0,T=7]
[R=7,C=2,T=12]
[R=7,C=0,T=7]
[R=7,C=2,T=9]
Root
[R=7,C=2,T=12]
Designated
[R=7,C=2,T=12]
[R=7,C=2,T=9]
[R=7,C=2,T=9]

Port activity
• Two possible port activities
• Active port
• Participates to data frame forwarding
• Port used for address/port table
• Inactive port
• The switch does not listen to frames
neither forward frames on this port

Port states and
activity
Receive
BPDUs
Transmit
BPDUs
Blocked yes no
Root yes no
Designated yes yes
Learn
Addresses
Forward Data
Frames
Inactive no no
Active yes yes

Behaviour of the ports
Receive
BPDUs
Transmit
BPDUs
Learn
Addresses
Forward
Data
Frames
Blocking yes no no no
Listening yes yes no no
Learning yes yes yes no
Forwarding yes yes yes yes

Influencing Spanning
Tree
• Switch identifiers
• High order bits : configurable
• Low order bits : unique identifier
• Link costs : Cost = 1000 / bandwidth
Bandwidth Recommended link
cost range
Recommended link
cost value
10 Mbps 50-600 100
100 Mbps 10-60 19
1000 Mbps 3-10 4

Impact of failures
• Failure (power-off) of the root switch
• A new root needs to be elected
• Failure of a designated switch
• Another switch should takeover
• Failure of a link
• Network must be redundant
• Failure of a link that disconnects the
network

Dealing with failures
• Failure detection mechanisms
• Root switch sends BPDU every Hello
sec
• Designated switches send own BPDUs
• BPDUs stored in the switches age and
are removed when they timeout
• This might cause a recomputation of
the tree

Another example
Switch 7
Switch 12
Switch 9
Switch 3
Switch 11
Designated Designated
Root Root
[R=3,C=0,T=3] [R=3,C=0,T=3]
[R=3,C=1,T=9]
[R=3,C=1,T=12]
[R=3,C=1,T=9]
Root
[R=3,C=2,T=7]
[R=3,C=2,T=11
]
Root
Blocked
Designated
Blocked

A failure
Switch 7
Switch 12
Switch 9
Switch 3
Switch 11
Root Root
[R=3,C=0,T=3]
[R=3,C=1,T=12]
[R=3,C=1,T=9]
Root
[R=3,C=2,T=7]
[R=3,C=2,T=11
]
Root
Blocked
Designated
Blocked
Timeout !!!
Root Designated
[R=3,C=3,T=9]
[R=3,C=3,T=11
]
Root Designated
Root
Blocked

Spanning Tree check
list
• In a network composed of Ethernet switches
• There is only one root switch
• A given Ethernet switch
• Has only one root port
• Point to point links are either
• Designated -> Root
• Designated->Blocked

Recomputing the
spanning tree
• Failure notification mechanism
• When a switch detects important
failure, it sends a topology change
BPDU to Root
• Root broadcasts TC
• All switches stop forwarding data
frames and recompute spanning tree

Congestion in Ethernet
switches
• How to solve this problem inside Ethernet ?
• Add buffers to switches and let TCP work
• Develop a new flow control mechanism
inside MAC layer
• Pause frame to slowdown transmission
S1 S2
Server
Client
10 Gbps Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Ethernet flow control
• PAUSE frame indicates how much time the
upstream should wait before transmitting
next frame
S1
server
Client
FastEthernet
(100 Mbps)
Ethernet
(10 Mbps)
PAUSE [2msec]
Frame1 [10000 bits]
Frame3 [10000 bits]
Frame2 [10000 bits]
100 nsec
Frame1 [10000 bits]
1 microsec
Frame2 [10000 bits]
Sender blocked

Virtual LANs
• Allows to build several logical networks on
top of a single physical network
S
A B
C
D
F
E
• Each port on each switch is
associated to a particular VLAN
• All the hosts that reside on the same
VLAN can exchange Ethernet frames
• A host on VLAN1 cannot send an Ethernet
frame towards another host that belongs
to VLAN2
• Broadcast and multicast frames are only
sent to the members of the VLAN
VLAN1 : A,E,F
VLAN2 : B,C,D

VLANs in campus
networks
S1
A B
C
D
F
E
VLAN1 : A,E,F
VLAN2 : B,C,D
S2
• Possible solutions
• Place on each switch a table
that maps each MAC address
on a VLAN id
• difficult to manage this table
• Change frame format used on inter-
switch links to include a VLAN
identifier
• new header added by first switch
• new header removed by last switch

VLAN frame format
• Used on inter-switch links
• Can also be used by trusted hosts (e.g.
servers) or routers
Destination
Address
Source
Address
Identifies the frame as containing VLANtag
Tag control information contains two types of
information :
- VLAN identifier (12 bits) : up to 4094 different
VLANs can be defined
- Priority (3 bits) : indicates the importance of
the frame and can be used by switches to
provide a better service for some frames (e.g.
Voice)
Type
CRC [32 bits]
Payload
VLAN
Protocol Id
0x8100
Tag Control Info

IPv6 over Ethernet
Eth : B
ND table
Empty
Eth : C
ND table
Empty
Eth : A
ND table
Empty
R1
Eth : R1-West
Eth : R1-East
ND table
Empty
H1 S2 R2
Hub
Router Switch Router
Eth : F
ND table
Empty
Eth : R2-West
Eth : R2-East
ND table
Empty
p1::AA/64 East
::/0 via p1::11
p1::CC/64
::/0 via p1::11
p1::11/64 West
p2::11/64 East
p3::/64 via p2::22
p1::/64 via p2::11
p2::22/64 West
p3::22/64 East
p2::BB/64
::/0 via p2::22
p3::FF/64
ND ? p1::CC
ND p1::CC=C

Agenda
• Local Area Networks
• Ethernet
• Wi-Fi

How to regulate
transmission of frames ?
• Medium Access Control
algorithms

ALOHA
N=1;
while ( N<= max) do
send frame;
wait for ack on return channel or timeout:
if ack on return channel
exit while;
else
/* timeout */
/* retransmission is needed */
wait for random time;
N=N+1;
end do
/* too many attempts */

CSMA
N=1;
while ( N<= max) do
wait until channel becomes free;
send frame immediately;
wait for ack or timeout:
if ack received
exit while;
else
/* timeout */
/* retransmission is needed */
N=N+1;
end do

CSMA/CA
• A MAC for wireless networks
• Improvements to CSMA
• Initial delay to transmit (EIFS)
• Min. delay between frames (DIFS)
• Delay between frame and ack (SIFS)

CSMA/CA : receiver
While (true)
{
Wait for data frame;
if not(duplicate)
{ deliver (frame) }
wait during SIFS;
send ack (frame) ;
}

CSMA/CA : sender
N=1;
while ( N<= max) do
if (previous frame corrupted)
{ wait until channel free during t>=EIFS; }
else
{ wait until endofframe;
wait until channel free during t>=DIFS; }
send data frame ;
if ack received
exit while;
else
/* timeout retransmission is needed */
N=N+1;
end do

Example
A B C
DIFS
Data frame
Busy
SIFS
ACK frame
DIFS
Data frame

Collisions
A B C
DIFS
DIFS
Data frame
Busy
Data frame
Busy
Timeout
Timeout
Data frame
Busy
Data frame

CSMA/CA : sender
N=1;
while ( N<= max) do
if (previous frame corruped)
{ wait until channel free during t>=EIFS; }
else
{ wait until endofframe;
wait until channel free during t>=DIFS; }
backoff_time = int(random[0,min(255,7*2N-1
)])*T
wait(channel free during backoff_time)
send data frame ;
if ack received
exit while;
else /* timeout retransmission is needed */
N=N+1; }
end do

Backoff
A B C
DIFS
DIFS
Backoff[0,7]
Backoff[0,7]
Busy
Channel busy!
Data frame
Data frame
SIFS
Ack frame
Remaining
backoff

Hidden station problem
A
B
C
Only hears B, not C Hears B, but not A
Hears A and C

Hidden station
• How to solve it ?
• Sender reserves time slot
• Receiver confirms the time reservation

RTS/CTS
A B C
DIFS+Backoff
Busy[
100microsec+
SIFS+
CTS+
SIFS+
ACK
]
RTS [100 microsec]
SIFS
CTS[100microsec]
Data [100 microsec]
SIFS
ACK frame
SIFS

The WiFi zoo
Standard Frequency Typical
throughput
Raw bandwidth Range in/out
(m)
802 .11 2.4 GHz 0.9 Mbps 2 Mbps 20 / 100
802 .11a 5 GHz 23 Mbps 54 Mbps 35 / 120
802 .11b 2.4 GHz 4.3 Mbps 11 Mbps 38 / 140
802 .11g 2.4 GHz 19 Mbps 54 Mbps 38 / 140
802 .11n 2.4 / 5 GHz 74 Mbps up to 600 Mbps 70 / 250
Source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11n

Home networks
• A WLAN can interfere with the neighbour’s
WLAN

WiFi channel
frequencies
• WiFi standards operate on several channels
• Usually about a dozen channels
• Why multiple channels ?
• Some channels may have interference
• Some frequencies reserved for specific
usage
• Allows frequency reuse when there are
multiple WiFi networks in the same area
• Unfortunately, many home access
points operate by default on the same

Enterprise networks
• What could be done to improve the
performance of WLANs ?
• Reduce interference as much as
possible
Recent deployments rely on centralised controllers and thin
access points

802.11 frame format
Frame control
[2 bytes]
Duration/Id
[2 bytes]
Address 2
[6 bytes]
Address 1
[6 bytes]
Standard header
- Protocol version [2 bits] : current version 0
- Type [2 bits] : control / data / management frame
- Subtype [2 bits] : specific subtype of frame
- to DS [1 bit] : frame is sent to distribution system
- from DS [1 bit] : frame is from distribution system
- more fragment [1 bit] : used when packets are fragmented
- Retry [1 bit] : retransmission
- Power Management [1 bit] : used for power management fct
- More data [1 bit] : indicates that there are other frames
for this station at the access point
- WEP [1 bit] : 1 if frame has been encrypted with WEP
- order [1 bit] : for strictly ordered class
Address 3
[6 bytes]
Sequence
control [2 bytes]
Frame body
[0-2312 bytes]
Frame Check
Sequence
Sequence number
- 12 bits frame sequence number
- 4 bits fragment number

802.11 control frames
Frame control
[2 bytes]
Duration
[2 bytes]
Receiver
address
[6 bytes]
Frame Check
Sequence
Frame control
[2 bytes]
Duration
[2 bytes]
Receiver
address
[6 bytes]
Frame Check
Sequence
Transmitter
address
[6 bytes]
Frame control
[2 bytes]
Duration
[2 bytes]
Receiver
address
[6 bytes]
Frame Check
Sequence
ACK frame
RTS frame
CTS frame

IP over 802.11
Frame control
Duration/Id
[2 bytes]
Address 2
[6 bytes]
Address 1
[6 bytes]
Address 3
[6 bytes]
Sequence
control [2 bytes]
IP packet
Frame Check
Sequence
LLC/SNAP
0x800
LLC/SNAP
- 4 bytes header
EtherType
- 0x800 for IP, 0x86DD for IPv6

Part 12 : Local Area Networks

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