Physics+revision+booklet+(higher)

PHYSICS
TRIPLE SCIENCE
REVISION BOOKLET

Paper 1 & 2
Higher

TRIPLE SCIENCE REVISION TRACKER HIGHER

1 Energy
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
R R A A G Speak to teacher

1.1 Energy Changes
1.1.1 Energy Stores
1.1.2 Calculating Changes in Energy
1.1.3 Energy Transfers
1.1.4 Mechanical Work Done
1.1.5 Electrical Work Done
Apply it! - 1.1 Energy Changes Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

1.2 Energy Losses & Efficiency
1.2.1 Energy Losses & Efficiency
1.2.2 Energy Losses & Efficiency 2
Apply it! - 1.2 Energy Losses & Efficiency Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

1.3 Energy Resources
1.3.1 Fossil Fuels & Geothermal Energy
1.3.2 Wind & Water Energy Sources
1.3.3 Nuclear & Solar Energy
1.3.4 Sustainability
1.3.5 Renewable Energy
Apply it! - 1.3 Energy Resources Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

2
Worle Science department


2 Electricity
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

2.1 Electric Charge
2.1.1 Current
2.1.2 Conductors
2.1.3 Potential Difference
Apply it! - 2.1 Electric Charge Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

2.2 Resistance & Electrical Work
2.2.1 Resistance
2.2.2 Electrical Work
2.2.3 Ohm
Apply it! - 2.2 Resistance & Electrical wo. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

2.3 Electric Circuits
2.3.1 Circuit Diagrams & Components
2.3.2 Diodes, LDRs & Thermistors
2.3.3 Series Circuits
2.3.4 Series Circuits 2
2.3.5 Parallel Circuits
2.3.6 Parallel Circuits 2
Apply it! - 2.3 Electric Circuits Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

2.4 Electricity in Homes
2.4.1 Domestic Uses
2.4.2 Domestic Uses 2
2.4.3 Electrical Safety
2.4.4 Electrical Safety 2
Apply it! - 2.4 Electricity in Homes Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8
3


2.5 Static Electricity
2.5.1 Static Electricity
2.5.2 Static Electricity 2
Apply it! - 2.5 Static Electricity Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

4


3 Particle Model of Matter
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

3.1 States of Matter
3.1.1 Atomic Structure
3.1.2 Atomic Structure 2
3.1.3 Density
3.1.4 Changes of State
Apply it! - 3.1 States of Matter Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

3.2 Heat
3.2.1 Internal Energy
3.2.2 Heat Capacities
3.2.3 Latent Heat
3.2.4 Latent Heat Experiments
Apply it! - 3.2 Heat Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

3.3 Particle Motion in Gases
3.3.1 Particle Motion in Gases
3.3.2 Particle Motion in Gases 2
Apply it! - 3.3 Particle Motion in Gases Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

5


4 Atoms & Radiation
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

4.1 Atoms
4.1.1 Atomic Model
4.1.2 Atomic Model 2
4.1.3 Atoms & Ions
4.1.4 Isotopes
Apply it! - 4.1 Atoms Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

4.2 Radiation
4.2.1 Radioactive Decay
4.2.2 Radioactive Decay 2
4.2.3 Types of Radioactive Emission
4.2.4 Fission & Fusion
4.2.5 Radioactive Decay Equations
4.2.6 Half Lives & Ionising Radiation
4.2.7 Uses & Dangers of Radiation
4.2.8 Uses & Dangers of Radiation 2
Apply it! - 4.2 Radiation Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

6


5 Forces
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

5.1 Basic of Motion
5.1.1 Basics of Motion
5.1.2 Basics of Motion 2
5.1.3 Basics of Motion 3
5.1.4 Distance & Speed-Time Graphs
Apply it! - 5.1 Basics of Motion Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

5.2 Forces
5.2.1 Gravity
5.2.2 Resultant Forces
5.2.3 Force Diagrams
5.2.4 Stretching a SPring
5.2.5 Hooke's Law
5.2.6 Elastic Potential Energy
Apply it! - 5.2 Forces Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

5.3 Effects of Forces
5.3.1 Acceleration
5.3.2 Acceleration 2
5.3.3 Momentum
5.3.4 Moments
5.3.5 Circular Motion
5.3.6 Levers & Gears
5.3.7 Stopping Distance
5.3.8 Deceleration
Apply it! - 5.3 Effects of Forces Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

7


5.4 Pressure
5.4.1 Pressure
5.4.2 Pressure Changes
Apply it! - 5.4 Pressure Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

8


6 Waves
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

6.1 Waves Basics
6.1.1 Basics & Formula
6.1.2 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
6.1.3 Describing Waves
6.1.4 Ripple Tank
Apply it! - 6.1 Waves Basics Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

6.2 Waves at a Boundary
6.2.1 Waves at a Boundary
6.2.2 Waves at a Boundary 2
Apply it! - 6.2 Waves at a Boundary Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

6.3 Sound Waves
6.3.1 Sound Waves
6.3.2 Sound Waves 2
6.3.3 Uses of Sound Waves
Apply it! - 6.3 Sound Waves Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

6.4 Electromagnetic Waves
6.4.1 Properties
6.4.2 Gamma, X-ray & UV Light
6.4.3 Infrared, Microwaves & Radiowaves
6.4.4 Properties 2
6.4.5 Visible Light
6.4.6 Visible Light 2
Apply it! - 6.4 Electromagnetic waves Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

9


6.5 Lenses
6.5.1 Lenses
6.5.2 Images & Ray Diagrams
Apply it! - 6.5 Lenses Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

6.6 Heat and Radiation
6.6.1 Infrared Radiation
6.6.2 Temperature
6.6.3 Greenhouse Effect
Apply it! - 6.6 Heat & Radiation Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

10


7 Magnetism
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

7.1 Magnetism Basics
7.1.1 Magnetic Materials
7.1.2 Magnetic Fields
Apply it! - 7.1 Magnetism Basics Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

7.2 Electromagnetism
7.2.1 Electromagnetism
7.2.2 Electromagnetism 2
7.2.3 Motor Effect
7.2.4 Motors
7.2.5 Induced Potential
7.2.6 Induced Potential 2
7.2.7 Generator Effect
7.2.8 Generator Effect 2
Apply it! - 7.2 Electromagnetism Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

7.3 Transformers
7.3.1 Transformers
7.3.2 Transformers 2
7.3.3 Transformers 3
Apply it! - 7.3 Transformers Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

11


8 Astrophysics
Review point RAG
Notes
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

8.1 Astrophysics
8.1.1 The Solar System
8.1.2 Orbits
8.1.3 Orbits HyperLearning
8.1.4 Life Cycle of a Star
8.1.5 The Universe
Apply it! - 8.1 Astrophysics Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8

12

Kinetic and Potential Energy Stores
Movement Energy
kinetic energy = ½ x mass × speed²
E = ½mv²
When something is off the ground, it has gravitational potential energy
gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational field strength x
height
E = mgh
Required Practical
Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
independent variable – material
dependent variable – specific heat capacity
control variables – insulating layer, initial temperature, time taken
∆E = m × c × ∆O
Method:
1. Using the balance, measure and record the mass of the copper
block in kg.
2. Wrap the insulation around the block.
3. Put the heater into the large hole in the block and the block onto
the heatproof mat.
4. Connect the power pack and ammeter in series and the voltmeter
across the power pack.
5. Using the pipette, put a drop of water into the small hole.
6. Put the thermometer into the small hole and measure the
temperature.
7. Switch the power pack to 12V and turn it on.
8. Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings – during
the experiment, they shouldn’t change.
9. Turn on the stop clock and record the temperature every minute
for 10 minutes.
10. Record the results in the table.
11. Calculate work done and plot a line graph of work done against
temperature.
Equations
E = ½mv²
E = mgh
E = ½ke²
∆E = m × c × ∆O
P = ¼
P = ¼
AQA Physics (Combined Science) Unit 6.1: Energy
When an object falls, it loses gravitational potential energy and gains
kinetic energy.
Stretching an object will give it elastic potential energy.
elastic potential energy = ½ × spring constant × extension²
E = ½ke²
Transferring Energy by Heating
Heating a material transfers the energy to its thermal energy store - the
temperature increases.
E.g. a kettle: energy is transferred to the thermal energy store of the
kettle. Energy is then transferred by heating to the waters thermal energy
store. The temperature of the water will then increase.
Some materials need more energy to increase their temperature than
others.
change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature
change
∆E = m × c × ∆OѲ
Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg of a material by 1˚C.
p
kinetic
energy, J
mass,
kg
0.5
(speed)²,
m/s
÷
÷
×
×
÷
gravitational
potential
energy, J
mass,
kg
height,
m
÷
÷
×
×
÷
gravitational
field
strength,
N/kg or m/s²
e
E
t
W
t
(J) (N)(m)
(J) (kg) (J/kg˚C) (˚C)
e
k
p
(J) (kg)(N/kg)(m)
(J) (kg)(m/s)
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Insulation – reduces the amount of heat lost. In your home, you can
prevent heat loss in a number of ways:
• thick walls;
• thermal insulation, such as:
• loft insulation (reducing convection);
• cavity walls (reduces conduction and convection);
• double glazing (reduces conduction).
Energy Stores and Systems
Energy can be transferred in the following ways:
mechanically – when work is done;
electrically – when moving charge does work;
heating – when energy is transferred from a hotter object to a colder
object.
Conservation of Energy
Energy can never be created or destroyed, just transferred from one form
to another. Some energy is transferred usefully and some energy gets
transferred into the environment. This is mostly wasted energy.
Power
Power is the rate of transfer of energy – the amount of work done in a
given time.
power = energy transferred ÷ time
P (W) = E (J) ÷ t (s)
power = work done ÷ time
P (W) = W (J) ÷ t (s)
Energy Transfer
Lubrication reduces the amount of friction. When an object moves, there
are frictional forces acting. Some energy is lost into the environment.
Lubricants, such as oil, can be used to reduce the friction between the
surfaces.
Conduction – when a solid is heated, the particles vibrate and collide
more, and the energy is transferred.
Convection – when a liquid or a gas is heated, the particles move faster.
This means the liquid or gas becomes less dense. The denser region will
rise above the cooler region. This is a convection current.
Energy Stores
kinetic Moving objects have kinetic
energy.
thermal All objects have thermal energy.
chemical Anything that can release energy
during a chemical reaction.
elastic potential Things that are stretched.
gravitational potential Anything that is raised.
electrostatic Charges that attract or repel.
magnetic Magnets that attract or repel.
nuclear The nucleus of an atom releases
energy.
work
done, J
÷
÷
×
water cools
hot
water
rises
cold
water
sinks
cold
water
sinks
energy
transferred, J
power, W time, s
÷
÷
×
power, W time, s
15%
windows
3% doors
33%
walls
8% floors
12%
ventilation &
draughts
26%
roof
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Efficiency
When energy is transferred, some energy is wasted. The less energy that
is wasted during the transfer, the more efficient the transfer.
There are two equations to calculate efficiency:
efficiency = useful output energy transfer
total input energy transfer
efficiency = useful power output
total power input
Some energy is always wasted. Nothing is 100% efficient.
Efficiency
Non-renewable – coal, oil, gas - they will all run out, they damage the environment, but provide most of the energy.
Renewable – they will never run out, can be unreliable and do not provide as much energy.
Trends in energy resources – most of our electricity is generated by burning fossil fuels and nuclear. The UK is trying to increase the amount of
renewable energy resources. The governments are aware that non-renewable energy resources are running out; targets of renewable resources have
been set. Electric and hybrid cars are also now on the market.
However, changing the fuels we use and building renewable power plants cost money. Many people are against the building of the plants near them
and do not want to pay the extra in their energy bills. Hybrid and electric cars are also quite expensive.
Energy Resource Advantages Disadvantages
solar – using sunlight Renewable, no pollution, in sunny countries it
is very reliable.
Lots of energy needed to build, only works
during the day, cannot increase power if
needed.
geothermal – using the energy of hot rocks Renewable and reliable as the rocks are
always hot. Power stations have a small
impact on environment.
May release some greenhouse gases and only
found in specific places.
wind – using turbines Renewable, no pollution, no lasting damage
to the environment, minimal running cost.
Not as reliable, do not work when there is no
wind, cannot increase supply if needed.
hydroelectric – uses a dam Renewable, no pollution, can increase supply
if needed.
A big impact on the environment. Animals
and plants may lose their habitats.
wave power – wave powered turbines Renewable, no pollution. Disturbs the seabed and habitats of animals.
Unreliable.
tidal barrages – big dams across rivers Renewable, very reliable, no pollution. Changes the habitats of wildlife, fish can be
killed in the turbines.
biofuels Renewable, reliable, carbon neutral. High costs, growing biofuels may cause a
problem with regards to space, clearance of
natural forests.
non-renewable – fossil fuels Reliable, enough to meet current demand,
can produce more energy when there is more
demand.
Running out, release CO₂, leading to global
warming, and also release SO₂ which causes
acid rain.
useful
power
output,
W or kW
efficiency
total power
input,
W or kW
÷
÷
×
useful
energy
output,
J or kJ
efficiency
total energy
input,
J or kJ
÷
÷
×
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Electricity – Separate Science
Required Practical
Investigating Resistance in a Wire
Independent variable: length of the wire.
Dependent variable: resistance.
Control variables: type of metal, diameter of the wire.
Conclusion: As the length of the wire increases, the
resistance of the wire also increases.
Investigating Series and Parallel Circuits with Resistors
Independent variable: circuit type (series, parallel).
Dependent variable: resistance.
Control variables: number of resistors, type of power
source.
Conclusion: Adding resistors in series increases the total
resistance of the circuit. In a parallel circuit, the more
resistors you add, the smaller the resistance.
Investigating I-V Relationships in Circuits (Using a
filament bulb, ohmic conductor, diode.)
Independent variable: potential difference/volts (V).
Dependent variable: current (A).
Control variable: number of components (e.g. 1 filament
bulb, 1 resistor), type of power source.
Set up the circuits as shown below and measure the
current and the potential difference.
Draw graphs of the results once collected.
Equations and Maths
Equations
Charge: Q = It
Potential difference: V = IR
Energy transferred: E = Pt
Energy transferred: E = QV
Power: P = VI
Power: P = I2
R
Resistance
voltage (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω)
V = IR
Graphs of I-V Characteristics for Components in a Circuit
Static
A build-up of static is caused by friction. When materials
are rubbed together, the electrons move from one to the
other. One material becomes positively charged and the
other is negatively charged. The positive charges do not
move.
Too much static can cause a spark. If the potential
difference is large enough, the electrons can jump across the
gap - this is the spark.
Electric charges create an electric field. The closer you get
to the object, the stronger the field. The electric field can
be shown by drawing field lines, they go from positive to
negative.
If a charged object is placed near the field, it will experience
a force. The force becomes stronger as the charged object
gets closer.
1. Ohmic conductor: the current is directly
proportional to the potential difference
- it is a straight line (at a constant
temperature).
2. Filament lamp: as the current increases, so
does the temperature. This makes it harder
for the current to flow. The graph becomes
less steep.
3. Diode: current only flows in one direction.
The resistance is very high in the other
direction which means no current can flow.
cell
closed
switch
fuse
resistor ammeter LDR
battery voltmeter LED
variable
resistor
bulb thermistor
open
switch diode
V
R
I ×
÷ ÷
A
V
A
V
100Ω
A
V
10Ω
Current and Circuit Symbols
Current: the flow of electrical charge.
Potential difference (voltage): the push of electrical charge.
Resistance: slows down the flow of electricity.
Maths
1kW = 1000W
0.5kW = 500W
50 000W = 50kW
repulsion attraction repulsion
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Electricity – Separate Science
Circuit Devices
LDR – Light
Dependent Resistor
An LDR is dependent on light
intensity. In bright light the
resistance falls and at night the
resistance is higher.
Uses of LDRs: outdoor night
lights, burglar detectors.
Thermistor
A thermistor is a temperature
dependent resistor. If it is hot,
then the resistance is less.
If it becomes cold, then the
resistance increases.
Uses of thermistors:
temperature detectors.
Series and Parallel Circuits Electricity in the Home
Live wire – provides the potential difference from the mains.
Neutral wire – completes the circuit.
Earth wire – protection. Stops the appliance from becoming live. Carries a current
if there is a fault.
Touching the live wire can cause the current to flow through your body. This
causes an electric shock.
Energy Transferred – this depends on how long the appliance is on for and its
power.
energy transferred (J) = power (W) × time (s) E = Pt
Energy is transferred around a circuit when the charge moves.
energy transferred (J) = charge flow (C) × potential difference (V) E = QV
power (W) = potential difference (V) × current (A) P = VI
power (W) = current2
(A) × resistance (Ω) P = I2
R
Series Circuits
Once one of the components is broken then all
the components will stop working.
Potential difference – the total p.d. of the supply is
shared between all the components.
Current – wherever the ammeter is placed in a series
circuit the reading is the same.
Resistance – In a series circuit, the resistance will
add up to make the total resistance.
Parallel Circuits
They are much more common - if one component stops
working, it will not affect the others. This means they
are more useful.
Potential Difference – this is the same for all components.
Current – the total current is the total of all the
currents through all the components.
Resistance – adding resistance reduces the total resistance.
AC – alternating current. Constantly changing direction - UK
mains supply is 230V and has a frequency of 50 hertz (Hz).
DC – direct current. Supplied by batteries and only flows in
one direction.
Cables – most have three wires: live, neutral and earth. They
are covered in plastic insulation for safety.
earth wire
neutral
wire
outer
insulation cable grip
fuse
live wire
The National Grid
The National Grid is a system of cables and transformers. They transfer electrical
power from the power station to where it is needed. Power stations are able
to change the amount of electricity that is produced to meet the demands. For
example, more energy may be needed in the evenings when people come home
from work or school. Electricity is transferred at a low current, but a high voltage
so less energy is being lost as it travels through the cables.
Step-up transformers – increase the voltage
as the electricity flows through the cables.
Step-down transformers – decrease the
potential difference to make it safe.
Vtotal = V1
+ V2
I1
= I2
= I3
Rtotal = R1
+ R2
V1
= V2
Itotal = I1
+ I2
+ I3
Electric current is the flow of electric charge. It only flows when the circuit
is complete.
The charge is the current flowing past a point in a given time. Charge is
measured in coulombs (C).
Calculating Charge
charge flow (C) =
current (A) × time (s)
Q = It
potential difference =
current x resistance
V (V) = I (A) × R (Ω)
V
R
I ×
÷ ÷
Q
t
I ×
÷ ÷
Charge
e
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Required Practical
Measuring the density of a regularly shaped object:
- Measure the mass using a balance.
- Measure the length, width and height using a ruler.
- Calculate the volume.
- Use the density (p = m/V) equation to calculate density.
Measuring the density of an irregularly-shaped object:
- Measure the mass using a balance.
- Fill a eureka can with water.
- Place the object in the water - the water displaced by the object will
transfer into a measuring cylinder.
- Measure the volume of the water. This equals the volume of the object.
- Use the density (p = m/V) equation to calculate density.
Particles
Solids have strong forces of attraction. They are held together very
closely in a fixed, regular arrangement. The particles do not have much
energy and can only vibrate.
Liquids have weaker forces of attraction. They are close together, but can
move past each other. They form irregular arrangements. They have more
energy than particles in a solid.
Gases have almost no forces of attraction between the particles.
They have the most energy and are free to move in random directions.
Particles
Gas particles can move around freely and will collide with other particles
and the walls of the container. This is the pressure of the gas.
If the temperature of the gas increases, then the pressure will also
increase. The hotter the temperature, the more kinetic energy the gas
particles have. They move faster, colliding with the sides of the container
more often.
Density
Density is a measure of how much mass there is in a given space.
Density (kg/m³) = mass (kg) ÷ volume (m³)
A more dense material will have more particles in the same volume
when compared to a less dense material.
Density
The density of an object is 8050kg/m³ and it has a volume of 3.4m³ -
what is its mass in kg?
8050 = mass ÷ 3.4
8050 × 3.4 = mass
27 370kg
AQA Physics (Combined Science) Unit 3: Particle Model of Matter
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AQA Physics (Combined Science) Unit 3: Particle Model of Matter
Internal Energy
Particles within a system have kinetic energy when they vibrate or
move around. The particles also have a potential energy store. The total
internal energy of a system is the kinetic and potential energy stores.
If the system is heated, the particles will gain more kinetic energy, so
increasing the internal energy.
Changing State
If a system gains more energy, it can lead to a change in temperature
or change in state. If the system is heated enough, then there will be
enough energy break bonds.
When something changes state, there is no chemical change, only
physical. No new substance is formed. The substance will change back
to its original form. The number of particles does not change and mass
is conserved.
Specific Latent Heat
Energy is being put in during melting and boiling. This increases the
amount of internal energy. The energy is being used to break the bonds,
so the temperature does not increase. This is shown by the parts of the
graph that are flat.
When a substance is condensing or freezing, the energy put in is used
to form the bonds. This releases energy. The internal energy decreases,
but the temperature does not go down.
The energy needed to change the state of a substance is called the
latent heat.
Specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change 1kg of a
substance from one state to another without changing the temperature.
Specific latent heat will be different for different materials.
• solid liquid - specific latent heat of fusion
• liquid gas - specific latent heat of vaporisation
Specific Latent Heat Equation
The amount of energy needed/released when a substance of mass
changes state.
energy (E) = mass (m) × specific latent heat (L)
E = mL
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Atomic Structure Knowledge Organiser – Foundation and Higher
Developing the Model of the Atom Isotopes
An isotope is an element with the same
number of protons but a different number
of neutrons. They have the same atomic
number, but different mass numbers.
Some isotopes are unstable and, as a result,
decay and give out radiation. Ionising
radiation is radiation that can knock
electrons off atoms. Just how ionising this
radiation is, depends on how readily it can
do that.
Beta
Beta radiation is a fast moving electron that
can be stopped by a piece of aluminium. Beta
radiation is emitted by an atom when a neutron
splits into a proton and an electron.
Alpha
Alpha radiation is an alpha particle emitted
from the nucleus of a radioactive nuclei. It
is made from two protons and two neutrons.
They can’t travel too far in the air and are the
least penetrating – stopped by skin and paper.
However, they are highly ionising because of
their size.
Gamma
A gamma wave is a wave of radiation and is
the most penetrating – stopped by thick lead
and concrete.
Scientist Time Contribution
John Dalton Start of 19th century Atoms were first described as solid spheres.
JJ Thomson 1897 Thomson suggested the plum
pudding model – the atom is a
ball of charge with electrons
scattered within it.
Ernest Rutherford 1909 Alpha Scattering experiment –
Rutherford discovered that
the mass is concentrated at
the centre and the nucleus
is charged. Most of the mass
is in the nucleus. Most atoms
are empty space.
Niels Bohr Around 1911 Bohr theorised that the
electrons were in shells
orbiting the nucleus.
James Chadwick Around 1940 Chadwick discovered neutrons in the nucleus.
Isotope Protons Electrons Neutrons
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 2
H
H
H
1
3
1
2
1
1
0
-1
e
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Atomic Structure Knowledge Organiser – Foundation and Higher
Half-life
The half-life is the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei in an isotope to
halve.
Radioactivity is a random process – you will not know which nuclei will decay.
Radioactive decay is measured in becquerels Bq. 1 Bq is one decay per second.
Radioactive substances give out radiation from their nucleus.
A graph of half-life can be used to calculate the half-life of a material and will always
have this shape:
Judging from the graph, the radioactive material has a half-life of two days.
Alpha Decay Equations
An alpha particle is made of two protons and two
neutrons. The atomic number goes down by two and its
mass number decreases by four.
Beta Decay Equations
A neutron turns into a proton and releases a an
electron. The mass of the nucleus does not change
but the number of protons increases.
Gamma rays
There is no change to the nucleus when a radioactive
source emits gamma radiation. It is the nucleus getting
rid of excess energy.
Alpha radiation is more dangerous inside
the body. It is highly ionising and able to
cause a lot of damage. Outside the body
it is less dangerous because it cannot
penetrate the skin.
Beta radiation is less dangerous inside
the body as some of the radiation is able
to escape. Outside the body it is more
dangerous as it can penetrate the skin.
Gamma radiation is the least dangerous
inside the body as most will pass out and
it is the least ionising. Gamma is more
dangerous outside the body as it can
penetrate the skin.
Contamination
When unwanted radioactive atoms get onto
an object, it is possible for the radioactive
particles to get inside the body.
Protective clothing should be worn when
handling radioactive material.
Irradiation
Irradiation occurs when materials are near a radioactive source. The source is sometimes
placed inside a lead-lined box to avoid this.
People who work with radioactive sources will sometimes stand behind a lead barrier,
be in a different room or use a remote-controlled arm when handling radioactive
substances.
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Page 2 of 2

AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 5: Forces
Scalar and Vector Quantities
A scalar quantity has magnitude only. Examples include temperature or mass.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples include velocity.
Speed is the scalar magnitude of velocity.
A vector quantity can be shown using an arrow. The size of the arrow is relative
to the magnitude of the quantity and the direction shows the associated direction.
Gravity
Gravity is the natural phenomenon by which any object with mass or energy is drawn together.
• The mass of an object is a scalar measure of how much matter the object is made up of. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
• The weight of an object is a vector measure of how gravity is acting on the mass. Weight is measured in newtons (N).
weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)
(The gravitational field strength will be given for any calculations. On earth, it is approximately 9.8N/kg).
An object’s centre of mass is the point at which the weight of the object is considered to be acting. It does not necessarily occur at the
centre of the object.
The mass of an object and its weight are directly proportional. As the mass is increased, so is the weight. Weight is measured using a
spring-balance (or newton metre) and is measured in newtons (N).
Resultant Forces
Contact and Non-Contact Forces
Forces either push or pull on an object. This is as a result of its interaction with
another object.
Forces are categorised into two groups:
Contact forces – the objects are touching e.g. friction, air resistance, tension and
contact force.
Non-contact forces – the objects are not touching e.g. gravitational, electrostatic
and magnetic forces.
Forces are calculated by the equation: force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²)
Forces are another example of a vector quantity and so they can also be
represented by an arrow.
A resultant force is a single force which replaces several other forces. It has the same effect acting on the object as the combination of the
other forces it has replaced.
The forces acting on this object are represented in a free body diagram.
The arrows are relative to the magnitude and direction of the force.
The car is being pushed to the left by a force of 30N. It is also being pushed
to the right by a force of 50N.
The resultant force is 50N – 30N = 20N
The 20N resultant force is pushing to the right, so the car will move right.
When a resultant force is not zero, an object will change speed (accelerate or decelerate)
or change direction (or both).
When an object is stationary, there are still forces acting upon it.
In this case, the resultant force is 30N – 30N = 0N.
The forces are in equilibrium and are balanced.
When forces are balanced, an object will either remain stationary or if it is moving, it
will continue to move at a constant speed.
swimmer’s force (thrust)
(water) resistance
50 N
30 N
30 N
30 N
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Page 1 of 9

Resultant Forces Work Done and Energy Transfer
When a force acts on an object and makes it move, there is work done on the
object. This movement requires energy. The input energy could be from fuel,
food or electricity for example.
The energy is transferred to a different type of energy when the work is
done. Not all the energy transfers are useful, sometimes energy is wasted.
For example, when car brakes are applied, some energy is wastefully transferred
as heat to the surroundings. Work done against the force of friction always
causes a temperature rise in the object.
Work done is calculated by this equation:
work done [energy transferred] (J) = force (N) × distance moved (in the direction of the force) (m)
A man’s car has broken down and he is pushing it to the side of the road.
He pushes the car with a force of 160N and the car is moved a total of 8m.
Calculate the energy transferred.
E = F × d
E = 160 × 8
E = 1280J
1 joule of energy is transferred for every 1 newton of force moving an object by
a distance of 1 metre.
1J = 1Nm
Measure the size of the arrows and make sure you draw your resultant
force arrow to the correct scale so it represents the resultant force
size.
A horse-drawn carriage is pulled by two horses at 400N each. One
of the horses is pulling in a different direction to the other horse.
Show the resultant force and direction of the horse-drawn carriage.
As before, you will need to draw construction lines from the end
of each force arrow and parallel to the other one. The intercept
represents the direction of the resultant force. The resultant force is
the sum of the individual forces so in this example, it is 800N.
Worked example 1:
Worked example 2:
A scale vector diagram can be used to calculate resultant forces
that are not acting directly opposite of one another, on a straight
line.
A boat is being pulled
toward the harbour by
two winch motors. Each
motor is pulling with a
force of 100N and they
are working at right
angles to one another.
To find the resultant
force, you would first
draw construction lines
from the end of each
arrow parallel to the
other force arrow.
Remember that the
size of the arrow is
representative of the
size of the force being
exerted.
Where the construction
lines intercept indicates
the direction of the
resultant force: from the centre of mass through the intercept.
The resultant force is the sum of the forces acting so in this example,
that is 200N.
Worked example
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Required Practical Investigation Activity 6: Investigate the Relationship Between Force and Extension for a Spring Spring Constant and Hooke’s Law
Forces and Elasticity
When work is done on an elastic object,
such as a spring, the energy is stored as
elastic potential energy.
When the force is applied, the
object changes shape and stretches.
The energy is stored as elastic
potential and when the force is no
longer applied, the object returns to
its original shape. The stored elastic
potential energy is transferred as
kinetic energy and the object recoils
and goes back to its original shape.
Hooke’s Law describes that
the extension of an elastic
object is proportional to
the force applied to the
object. However, there is a
maximum applied force for
which the extension will still
increase proportionally. If
the limit of proportionality
is exceeded, then the object
becomes permanently
deformed and can no longer
return to its original shape.
This can be identified on a
graph of extension against
force when the gradient stops being linear (a straight line) and begins to plateau.
The limit is shown on the graph above and this is the specific object’s elastic limit.
F = k × e
force applied (N) = spring constant (N/m) × extension (m)
You should be familiar with the equation above and the required
practical shown to the right.
The spring constant is a value which describes the elasticity of a
material. It is specific to each material. You can carry out a practical
investigation and use your results to find the spring constant of a
material.
1. Set up the equipment as shown.
2. Measure the original length of the elastic object, e.g. a spring,
and record this.
3. Attach a mass hanger (remember the hanger itself has a
weight). Record the new length of the spring.
4. Continue to add masses to the hanger in regular intervals and record the length each time.
Once you have your results, you can find the extension for each
mass using this formula: spring length – original length
The data collected is continuous so you would plot a line graph
using the x-axis for extension (m) and the y-axis for force (N).
As a result of Hooke’s Law, you should have a linear graph.
The gradient of the graph is equal to the spring constant. You can
calculate it by rearranging the formula above or by calculating
the gradient from your graph.
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Work Done: Elastic Objects
Work is done on elastic objects to stretch or
compress them.
To calculate the work done (elastic potential
energy transferred), use this equation:
E (J) = 0.5 × k × e²
(elastic potential energy = 0.5 × spring constant ×
extension²)
You might need to use this equation also: F = k × e
A bungee jumper jumps from a bridge with a
weight of 800N. The elastic cord is stretched by
25m. Calculate the work done.
Step 1: find the spring constant using F = k × e
Rearrange to k = F ÷ e
800 ÷ 25 = 32N/m
Step 2: use the value for k to find the
elastic potential energy (work done) using
E (J) = 0.5 × k × e²
0.5 × 32 × 25²
E = 10 000J
Moments, Levers and Gears
A moment is the turning effect produced by a force. To find the size of a moment, use
the equation:
moment (Nm) = force (N) × distance (m)
Remember that the distance is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of
action of the force.
Worked example:
Worked example:
Worked example:
spanner wheelbarrow pair of scissors
A crowbar is being used to lift
a manhole cover. Calculate the
moment produced.
M = F × d
M = 10 × 0.4
m = 40Nm
To increase the turning affect
achieved without increasing the amount of force applied, you would need to
increase the distance between the force and the pivot.
For example, if the crowbar in the example above was 0.5m, then the moment
would be:
M = F × d
M = 10 × 0.5
M = 50Nm
Levers can be used to increase the effect of a force applied, acting as a force
multiplier. Some everyday examples include:
A force multiplier makes it easier to do work because the same force applied
at a greater distance from the pivot increases the moment produced.
A gear is a wheel which has ‘teeth’ around the circumference.
The teeth of different gears lock
together and the gear can turn on
an axle, turning the other gears it
is connected to. Where the teeth
meet, they must move in the same
direction. This means that the
gears rotate in opposite directions.
If one gear is turning clockwise,
it will turn the connected gear
anticlockwise.
When gears are connected, the same force is applied to each; however, if they
are different sizes, they will produce different moments. This is because the
moment is calculated using the distance from the pivot (the radius of the
gear) and if the gear is smaller, it will move a shorter distance. If the gear is
larger, it will move a greater distance.
A gear has a radius of 0.25m. It turns a second gear with a radius of 1.5m.
The moment of the smallest gear is 30Nm. Calculate the moment of the
largest gear.
Step 1: calculate the force using M = F × d
Rearrange to F = M ÷ d
F = 30 ÷ 0.25
F = 120N
Step 2: use the force to calculate the moment of the larger gear.
M = F × d
M = 120 × 1.5
M = 180Nm
Driver Gear
(10 teeth) Driven Gear
(30 teeth)
force applied
10 N
distance = 0.4m
pivot
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Balanced Moments
When the anticlockwise moment on an object is equal to the clockwise moment,
the resultant moment is zero and the object does not move or turn.
To balance moments: total anticlockwise moments = total clockwise moments
An elephant sits on a seesaw. It has a weight of 750N and is sat 2.5m from the
pivot. A mouse with a weight of 60N is sitting on the other side of the seesaw.
The seesaw is balanced.
What distance is the mouse from the pivot?
Pressure and Pressure Difference in Fluids
A fluid is any material in a state of matter which flows; it is a liquid or a gas.
The pressure in a fluid causes a force at a right angle (normal) to the surface.
The pressure is calculated using the equation:
pressure (Pa) = force (N)
surface area (m²)
Find the pressure exerted by an elephant on a frozen pond. The force exerted by
the elephant is 4500N and the area of the pond is 30m².
p = 4500 ÷ 30
p = 150Pa
Pressure in Fluids
Atmospheric Pressure
Surrounding the earth is a layer of air called the atmosphere. Compared to the size of
the planet, this layer is relatively thin. The air becomes less dense the farther from the
planet’s surface you are (with increasing altitude).
When the air molecules collide with the surface of the earth, pressure is exerted and
this is called atmospheric pressure. The amount of air molecules above a surface
decreases with altitude and so the pressure exerted also decreases with increasing
height.
Velocity
Velocity is a vector quantity. It is the speed of an
object in a given direction.
Circular Motion (Higher tier only)
Objects moving in a circular path don’t go off
in a straight line because of a centripetal force
caused by another force acting on the object.
For example, a car driving around a corner has
a centripetal force caused by friction acting
between the surface of the road and the tyres.
When the Earth orbits around the Sun, it is held
in orbit by gravity which causes the centripetal
force.
When an object is moving in a circular motion,
its speed is constant. Its direction changes
constantly and because direction is related to
velocity, this means that the velocity of the
object is constantly changing too. The changes
in velocity mean that the object is accelerating,
even though it travels at a constant speed.
The acceleration occurs because there is a
resultant force acting on the object. In this case,
the resultant force is the velocity, which is greater
than the centripetal force acting.
You can find the pressure produced by a column of liquid using the equation:
pressure (Pa) = height of column (m) × density of liquid (kg/m³) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)
The more water above an object, then the greater the force applied and the greater
the pressure exerted. Scuba divers have to monitor the pressure as they dive to ensure
they are not endangering their lives by going too deep.
This can be demonstrated by placing holes in a bucket or other container of water at
two different heights.
Water leaking from the hole higher up the
bucket will be at a lower pressure than water
leaking from the hole lower in the bucket.
When an object is submerged partially,
it will have a greater pressure on the bottom
surface than on the top surface (there is more
water behind the force acting upwards).
This creates an upwards resultant force called
upthrust and this is what causes an object
to float.
Worked example:
Worked example:
Step 1:
Calculate the
anticlockwise
moment.
M = F × d
= 750N × 2.5m
= 1875Nm
Step 2:
total anticlockwise
moments = total
clockwise moments
1875Nm = 1875Nm
Step 3:
Use the value calculated
for the moment to find
the distance on the
clockwise side.
rearrange: d = M ÷ F
d = 1875 ÷ 60
d = 31.25m
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Forces and Motion: Distance vs Displacement Distance-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs
Speed
You should be able to recall the typical speed of different transportation
methods.
These values are average only. The speed of a moving object is rarely
constant and always fluctuating.
speed = distance ÷ time
You should be able to use this equation and rearrange
it to find the distance or time.
John runs 5km. It takes him 25 minutes. Find his
average speed in metres per second.
Step 1: convert the units
km m (×1000) = 5000m
min s (×60) = 1500s
Step 2: calculate s = d ÷ t
s = 5000 ÷ 1500
s = 3.33m/s
Zi Xin has driven along the motorway. Her average
speed is 65mph. She has travelled 15 miles.
How long has her journey taken? Give your answer
in minutes.
Step 1: calculate t = d ÷ s
t = 15 ÷ 65
t = 0.23 (hours)
Step 2: convert units
hr min (×60) = 13.8 minutes
Distance is a scalar quantity. It measures how far something has
moved and does not have any associated direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity. It measures how far something has
moved and is measured in relation to the direction of a straight line
between the starting and end
points.
E.g. A dog is tethered to a post.
It runs 360˚ around the post
three times. Each 360˚ lap is 8m
distance = 8 × 3 = 24m
displacement = 0m (The dog is
in the same position as when it
started.)
When an object travels in a straight line, we can show the distance which has been covered
in a distance-time graph.
You should be able to understand what the features of the two types of graph can tell you
about the motion of an object.
Activity Typical Value
walking 1.5m/s
running 3m/s
cycling 6m/s
driving a car 25mph (40km/h)
train travel 60mph (95km/h)
aeroplane travel 550mph (885km/h)
speed of sound 330m/s
Worked example:
.
Worked example 2:
Graph Feature Distance-Time Graph Velocity-Time Graph
x-axis time time
y-axis distance velocity
gradient speed acceleration (or
deceleration)
plateau stationary (stopped) constant speed
uphill straight line steady speed moving away from start
point
acceleration
downhill straight
line
steady speed returning to the start
point
deceleration
uphill curve acceleration increasing acceleration
downhill curve deceleration increasing deceleration
area below graph distance travelled
circumference 8cm
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Changing Speed on a D-T graph
When the graph is a straight line, it is representing a constant speed. A
curve represents a changing speed, either acceleration or deceleration.
The speed at any given point can be calculated by drawing a tangent
from the curve and finding the gradient of the tangent.
Acceleration
Acceleration can be calculated using the equation:
acceleration (m/s²) = change in velocity (m/s)
time taken (s)
A dog is sitting, waiting for a stick to be thrown. After the stick is thrown, the dog is running
at a speed of 4m/s. It has taken the dog 16s to reach this velocity. Calculate the acceleration of
the dog.
a = ∆v ÷ t
a = (4-0) ÷ 16
A = 0.25m/s²
Changes in velocity due to acceleration can be calculated using the equation below. This equation
of motion can be applied to any moving object which is travelling in a straight line with a
uniform acceleration.
Final velocity² (m/s) – initial velocity² (m/s) = 2 × acceleration (m/s²) × displacement (m)
or
v² – u² = 2as
A bus has an initial velocity of 2m/s and accelerates at 1.5m/s² over a distance of 50m. Calculate
the final velocity of the bus.
Step 1: rearrange the equation: v² – u² = 2as
v² = 2as + u²
Step 2: insert known values and solve
v² = (2 × 1.5 × 50) + 2²
v² = (150) + 4
v² = 154
v = √154
v = 12.41m/s
Terminal Velocity
When an object begins moving, the force accelerating the object is
much greater than the force resisting the movement. A resistant force
might be air resistance or friction, for example.
As the velocity of the object increases, the force resisting the movement
also increases. This causes the acceleration of the object to be reduced
gradually until the forces become equal and are balanced. This doesn’t
cause the object to stop moving. As the object is already in motion,
balanced forces mean it will continue to move at a steady speed. This
steady speed is the maximum that the object can achieve and is called
the terminal velocity.
The terminal velocity of an object depends on
its shape and weight. The shape of the object
determines the amount of resistant force which
can act on it. For example, an object with a
large surface area will have a greater amount of
resistance acting on it.
Consider a skydiver and his parachute. When
the skydiver first jumps from the aeroplane,
hehasasmallareawheretheairresistancecanact.
He will fall until he reaches a terminal velocity of
approximately 120mph.
After the skydiver releases his parachute, the
shape and area has been changed and so the
amount of air resistance acting is increased.
This causes him to decelerate and his terminal
velocity is reduced to about 15mph. This makes
it a much safer speed to land on the ground.
Worked example:
Worked example:
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Momentum
momentum (N) = mass (kg) × velocity (m/s)
The law of conservation of mass (in a closed system)
states that the total momentum before an event is
equal to the total momentum after an event.
Calculate the momentum of a 85kg cyclist travelling
at 7m/s.
p = m × v
p = 85kg × 7m/s
p = 595kg m/s
A lorry with a mass of 12 000kg, travelling at 20m/s,
collides with a stationary car with a mass of 1500kg.
After the collision, the vehicles move off together.
Calculate their velocity.
Step 1: find the momentum of each vehicle before
the collision.
Calculate the momentum of the lorry:
p = m × v
p = 12 000 × 20 = 240 000kg m/s
Calculate the momentum of the car:
p = m × v
p = 1500 × 0 = 0kg m/s
Worked example: 2
Worked example:
Stopping Distance
The stopping distance of a vehicle is calculated by:
stopping distance = thinking distance + braking
distance
Reaction time is the time taken for the driver to
respond to a hazard. It varies from 0.2s to 0.9s
between most people.
Reaction time is affected by:
• tiredness
• drugs
• alcohol
• distractions
You can measure human reaction time in the lab
using simple equipment: a metre ruler and stopwatch
can be used to see how quickly a person reacts
and catches the metre ruler. The data collected is
quantitative and you should collect repeat readings
and calculate an average result.
Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s First Law
If the resultant force acting on an object is zero…
• a stationary object will remain stationary.
• a moving object will continue at a steady speed
and in the same direction.
Inertia – the tendency of an object to continue in
a state of rest or uniform motion (same speed and
direction).
Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s Third Law
When two objects interact, the forces acting on one
another are always equal and opposite.
For example, a book laid on a table is being acted
upon by at least two forces: the downward pull of
gravity and the upward reaction force from the table
surface. The forces are equal and opposite so the
book does not move. We describe the forces as being
balanced.
Newton’s Laws of Motion: Newton’s Second Law
The acceleration of an object is proportional to
the resultant force acting on it and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object
resultant force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²)
Inertial mass – how difficult it is to change an
objects velocity. It is defined as the ratio of force over
acceleration.
Braking Distance
The braking distance is the distance travelled by a vehicle once the brakes are applied and until it
reaches a full stop.
Braking distance is affected by:
• adverse weather conditions (wet or icy)
• poor vehicle condition (brakes or tyres)
When force is applied to the brakes, work is done by the friction between the car wheels and the brakes.
The work done reduces the kinetic energy and it is transferred as heat energy, increasing the temperature
of the brakes.
increased speed = increased force required to stop the vehicle
increased braking force = increased deceleration
Large decelerations can cause a huge increase in temperature and may lead to the brakes overheating and the driver losing control over the vehicle
100N resistance
(friction and air)
100N thrust
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Required Practical Investigation 7
Aim: investigate the effect of varying the force on the acceleration of an object of constant mass, and the effect
of varying the mass of an object on the acceleration produced by a constant force.
You may be given any of the following apparatus set-ups to conduct these investigations:
Something is a fair test when only the independent variable has been allowed to affect the dependent variable.
The independent variable was force.
The dependent variable was acceleration.
The control variables were:
• same total mass
• same surface/glider/string/pulley (friction)
• same gradient if you used a ramp
Car Safety Features
When people are travelling in a moving car, they
have momentum. If the car were to crash and
become stationary all of a sudden, the passengers
would lose all their momentum. This would result in
a large force being exerted; therefore, it is important
to change the momentum gradually.
This is done by the seatbelts and the air bags which
are fitted into vehicles.
An airbag is also designed to reduce the momentum.
The air bag is filled with air as is it deployed and
has a small hole inside. As the person makes contact
with the airbag, the air is slowly released from the
hole and the person is slowed down more gradually.
The force exerted on the passenger is reduced because
the time taken to slow them down is increased.
Changes in Momentum
When a force acts on a moving or moveable object
there is a change of momentum.
The equations for calculating force and acceleration
can be combined:
F = m × a and a = (v – u) ÷ t
To give:
force(N) = change in momentum (kg m/s) ÷ time taken (s)
or
F = 𝒎𝒕
This equation tells you that the force is equal to the
rate of change of momentum in the object.
Step 2: find the total momentum before the collision.
total momentum before = 240 000 + 0 = 240 000kg
m/s
Step 3: use the law of conservation of momentum
and rearrange the equation.
total momentum before collision = total momentum
after collision
= v
240 000kg m/s ÷ (12 000 + 1500) = 17.78m/s.
A cannon fires a 5kg cannonball at a velocity of
90m/s. The cannon recoils at a velocity of 2m/s after
the explosion. Calculate the mass of the cannon.
Step 1: find the total momentum before the explosion.
p = m × v (for the cannonball)
p = 5 × 90 = 450kg m/s
Although you don’t have all the information to
calculate the momentum of the cannon, you know
it is zero because it is stationary and therefore has a
velocity of zero. Since momentum is mass × velocity,
you know the momentum will be zero regardless of
the mass.
total momentum before = 450kg m/s
Step 2: use the law of conservation of momentum
and rearrange the equation.
total momentum before explosion = total momentum
after explosion
𝑝 = m
450kg m/s ÷ 2m/s = 225kg
Worked example: 3
m
p
m ∆v
∆t
v
p
or
or
Bench
Pulley
Weight
Stack
Light
Gates
Glider and Card String
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Page 9 of 9

AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
Transverse and Longitudinal Waves Properties of Waves
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves which pass a given point
every second.
time period (s) = 1 ÷ frequency (Hz)
t = 1 ÷ f
The wave speed is how quickly the energy is transferred through a medium
(how quickly the wave travels).
wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m)
v = f × λ
The speed of sound waves travelling through air can be measured by a
simple method. One person stands a measured distance from a large flat
wall, e.g. 100m. The person then claps and another person measures the
time taken to hear the echo. The speed of the sound can then be
calculated using the equation
speed = distance × time.
Remember the distance will be double because the wave has travelled to
the wall and back again. It is important to take several measurements and
calculate the average to reduce the likelihood of human error.
Sound Waves in Different Medium
How quickly sound waves can travel through a medium is determined by the
density of the medium (material).
Sound waves will travel faster through a solid than a liquid as the spaces
between the particles are smaller. This means that the vibrations and energy
can be passed along the particles more quickly. In a gas, the transmission of
sound is even slower as the space between the particles is greater.
The speed of sound in air is 330m/s.
Aim: make observations and identify the suitability of apparatus to measure
the frequency, wavelength and speed of waves in a ripple tank and waves in
a solid, and take appropriate
measurements.
The ripple tank apparatus
shown is the most commonly
used for this investigation. It is
likely you will work in groups
or observe the investigation
as a demonstration by your
teacher.
Method (assuming the
apparatus is already set-up):
Turn on the power and observe the waves. Make any necessary adjustments
to the equipment so that the waves are clear to observe (alter the voltage
supplying the motor). N.B. The lowest frequency setting on the motor will
ensure that the waves measurements can be made more easily.
To measure the wavelength, use the metre ruler and make an estimate quickly.
You may want to use a stroboscope and freeze the wave patterns to make
measurements.
Record 10 wavelengths and calculate the average value.
Waves can be either transverse or longitudinal.
In a transverse wave, the vibrations are at a right angle
(perpendicular) to the direction of the energy transfer. The
wave has peaks (or crests) and troughs. Examples include
water waves and light waves.
In a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are in the same
direction (parallel) as the energy transfer. The wave has
areas of compression and rarefaction. Examples of this type
of wave are sound waves.
When a wave travels, energy is transferred but the matter
itself does not move. Particles of water or air vibrate and
transfer energy but do not move with the wave.
This can be shown by placing
a cork in a tank of water and
generating ripples across the
surface. The cork will bob up and
down on the oscillations of the
wave but will not travel across
the tank.
Lamphouse
Water
Straight wave dipper
Eccentric motor
White screen
To battery
& rheostat
Rubber
band
one wavelength
Transverse waves
Compression Rarefaction
Longitudinal waves
Wave
direction
Hand
motion
Hand
motion
one wavelength
direction of wave movement
amplitude
trough
crest amplitude
direction
of the
transverse
wave
oscillation
frequency
in Hz
= oscillasions
per second
frequency
in Hz
= waves passing a
given point per second
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Page 1 of 7

Required Practical Investigation 8 (continued)
Aim: investigate the reflection of light by different types of surface and the
refraction of light by different substances.
Method:
1. In a darkened room, set up the ray box on a flat surface and insert the filter
to produce a single ray of light.
2. Place a glass block in the centre of a piece of plain A3 paper.
3. Draw a line around the glass block.
4. Draw a line at 90°C to the glass block and label the line normal, as shown
in the diagram.
5. Position the ray box so the ray of light hits the glass at an angle.
6. Using a pencil, draw the incidence, reflected and emergent rays as shown in
the diagram.
7. Remove the glass block and draw the refracted ray going through the block.
To measure the wave frequency, mark a given point onto the white paper and
count the number of waves which pass the point within 10 seconds. Divide your
answer by 10 to find the number of waves per second.
Record 10 frequencies and calculate the average value.
To calculate the wave speed, use
this formula:
speed = frequency × wavelength
Remember: the wavelength is
the distance between one peak
(or crest) of a wave and the
next peak.
8. Using a protractor, measure the angles of incidence, reflection and refraction.
Record your results.
9. Repeat the experiment by placing a clear acrylic block on the A3 paper in the
same position as the glass block.
10. The incident ray must follow the same line as before. Draw the reflected and
refracted rays and measure using a protractor.
11. Collect four sets of results from other members of the class.
The law of reflection states:
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Risk assessment:
The ray box will become hot during use and may cause minor burns.
To prevent this, you should not touch the lamp and ensure you allow time for the
ray box to cool after use.
You will be working in a semi-dark environment which means there is a higher
risk of trips or falls. You should ensure your working space is clear of bags and
coats, and that stools are tucked under desks before you start your investigation.
Aim: investigate how the amount of infrared
radiation absorbed or radiated by a surface depends
on the nature of that surface.
In this investigation, you are finding out which
type of surface emits the most infrared radiation:
• dark and matt
• dark and shiny
• light and matt
• light and shiny
Method:
1. Place the Leslie cube on a heatproof mat.
2. Once the kettle has boiled, fill the Leslie cube
with hot water.
3. Ensuring that the thermometer or the
infrared detector is an equal distance
from each of the surfaces (in turn) on the
Leslie cube, measure the amount of infrared
radiation emitted.
4. Repeat the experiment twice more to collect
three results for each surface.
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Page 2 of 7

Reflection of Waves
When a wave comes into contact with a
surface or a boundary between two media
(different materials), it can be reflected or
it can be absorbed.
What happens depends on the properties of
the surface the wave hits.
Specular reflection occurs when a wave
is reflected in a single direction from a
perfectly smooth surface.
angle of incidence = angle of reflection (i = r)
Diffuse reflection occurs when a wave is
reflected in many directions and happens
at a rough or uneven surface.
A sound wave can travel through a solid
material. This is because the space between
the particles is so small (almost non-
existent) and the vibrations are transmitted
more quickly than in liquids or gases.
The speed of sound in air is about 330m/s.
As the majority of space is a vacuum (no
particles), sound waves do not travel in
space.
Sound waves within the range of 20Hz
to 20kHz can usually be detected by the
human ear.
Vibrations are passed along air particles
down the ear canal and to the ear drum.
The ear drum vibrates and transmits this
to the small ear bones and then along the
cochlea. The cochlea carries the vibrations
to the auditory nerve which carries the
sound wave as an electrical impulse to the
brain.
Sound Waves (Higher tier only)
When an object vibrates, it can cause a sound wave.
Remember, a sound wave is a longitudinal wave:
Waves for Detection and Exploration (Higher tier only)
Waves can be used to detect objects underwater, in the earth
and even inside the human body.
Sonar systems used to explore deep seas use high-frequency
sound waves. A sound wave is sent out from the device
through the water and the time taken for the pulse to
reflect from the surface is measured. The time taken with
the speed of sound in water is used to find the distance of
the object.
The equation used is:
distance (m) = speed (of sound) (m/s) × time (s)
Characteristics of a sound wave can be identified from
an oscilloscope trace of the sound wave. The trace shows
oscillations and wavelength of the sound wave. A shorter
wavelength results in a high-pitched (high frequency) sound.
A greater height of oscillations indicates a higher amplitude
(volume) of the sound wave.
Refraction occurs when a wave changes direction, usually at the
boundary or two different materials. The density of the material
affects the speed at which the wave can travel through it. When a
wave passes from a more dense material to a less dense material,
it speeds up and so will bend.
Imagine a car travelling across a muddy river at an angle. As it
approaches the bank of the river, one of the wheels will be on the
dry bank while the other is still in the mud. The wheel on the dry
bank will move faster than the one still in the mud and it will
change direction.
high frequency,
high amplitude
Apparent
position
of fish
Real position
of fish
air
water
low frequency,
high amplitude
low frequency,
low amplitude
high frequency,
low amplitude
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Page 3 of 7

Volcanoes, earthquakes and explosions cause seismic waves
to travel through the earth. There are two different types of
seismic waves: S-waves and P-waves.
• P-waves are longitudinal waves which travel relatively
quickly through solids and liquids.
• S-waves are transverse waves and they travel slower and
only in solids.
Seismic waves can change direction when they are reflected
or refracted at the boundary of different media (solid, liquid
or gas). The epicentre of an earthquake can be found by
calculating the difference in time taken for S- and P-waves to
reach a certain point. Since the waves can change direction,
at least three points are used to triangulate the data and
pinpoint the source (where they all intercept).
The study of seismic waves has given scientists new evidence
about the structure of the earth in parts which are not visible
for direct observations.
Ultrasound waves are sound waves which have a higher
frequency than the range which is detectable by the human
ear. When the waves reach a boundary between different
media, they are partially reflected and a detector is used to
measure the time taken and calculate the distance. Ultrasound
is used for medical and industrial imaging.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from a source to an absorber as transverse waves. The different waves are grouped depending on their frequency and
form a continuous spectrum known as the electromagnetic spectrum. Each of the frequencies of waves travel at the same velocity and can pass through a
vacuum as well as air.
You can remember the order of the electromagnetic spectrum easily with the phrase:
Roman men invented very unusual X-ray guns.
Frequency Wave Use Other Information
Low
High
radio waves Communication via television and radio, and
satellite communications.
Easily transmitted through air and can be reflected to change their
direction. Harmless if absorbed by the human body. Are reflected back off
the atmosphere and cannot pass through into space.
microwaves Communications including satellite
communications and cooking food.
When the molecules absorb microwaves, their internal energy increases.
This can be harmful when internal body cells become heated by over
exposure to microwaves. Can pass through the atmosphere and into space.
infrared Short-range communications (remote controls),
electrical heaters, cooking food, optical fibres,
security systems and thermal imaging cameras.
It can cause burns to skin.
visible light Used for lighting, photography and fibre optics. Frequency range that is detectable by the human eye.
ultraviolet Sterilising water and killing bacteria. Detecting
forged bank notes.
Causes skin tanning and can lead to burns or skin cancer.
X-rays Medical imaging and airport security scanners. Very little energy is absorbed by body tissues. Instead, it is transmitted
through the body.
These waves can lead to gene mutation and cancer.
gamma rays Sterilising medical equipment or food and
treatment for some cancers.
Photo courtesy of (@wikimedia.org) - granted under
creative commons licence – attribution
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Page 4 of 7

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves Radio Waves (Higher tier only)
Oscillations in electrical circuits can produce radio waves which when absorbed by a conductor, produce an
alternating current.
The alternating current has the same frequency as the radio wave and so information can be coded for
transmission. This is how television and radio are broadcast.
Visible Light
The colours of the visible spectrum can be remembered with the rhyme Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain
(red – orange – yellow – green – blue – indigo – violet).
These are all the wavelengths which are visible and detectable by the human eye. Each colour has a narrow
range of wavelength and frequency within the spectrum.
White light is the combination (full spectrum) of wavelengths in the visible light region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Temperature of the Earth (Higher tier only)
The temperature of the earth depends on:
• The rate at which light radiation and infrared radiation are absorbed by the earth’s surface and atmosphere.
• The rate at which light radiation and infrared radiation are emitted by the earth’s surface and atmosphere.
Light and infrared radiation absorbed by the earth cause the internal energy of the planet to increase and in
turn, the surface of the earth increases in temperature.
Energy from the surface of the earth can be transferred to the atmosphere by conduction and convection.
The infrared radiation emitted from the earth’s surface will either travel through the atmosphere and back
into space or it will be absorbed (and reflected) by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere.
You should be able to complete or construct a ray diagram to show how a wave is refracted at the boundary
of a different medium.
As the wave moves to a more dense medium (e.g.
from gas to solid), it slows down and bends so
that the angle from the normal becomes smaller.
The angle of incidence is larger than the angle of
refraction.
As the wave moves from a more dense medium
(e.g. from solid to gas), it speeds up and bends so
that the angle from the normal becomes larger.
The angle of refraction is larger than the angle of
incidence.
The angle at which a wave enters the glass block is
equal to the angle that it leaves the glass block (when entering and leaving the same medium); however, if
a wave crosses a boundary between two mediums at an angle of 90˚C, then it will not change direction but
instead carry on in a straight line.
Gamma rays occur as the result of changes to the nuclei of atoms and atoms themselves. It is a form of
radiation and the waves can be generated and absorbed across a wide range of frequencies.
UV, X-rays and gamma are all types of radiation and can be harmful to human health; they cause damage
to human body tissues. The severity of the damage caused depends on the dose of radiation a tissue or cell is
exposed to. Radiographers and dentists who routinely carry out X-ray examinations wear a device to monitor
the amount of exposure and ensure they are within a safe limit.
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising and can cause mutations to genes which may result in cancer.
UV waves can cause the skin to burn and age prematurely. UV exposure also increases the risk of developing
skin cancer.
R O Y G B I V
air
air
glass block
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Page 5 of 7

Black Body Radiation
All objects emit and absorb infrared radiation. The hotter an object is, the greater the amount of radiation
emitted.
An object which absorbs all the radiation it is exposed to is called a perfect black body. No radiation is
reflected from or transmitted through it. A perfect black body would be the most effective emitter as an object
which is a good absorber is also a good emitter.
(Higher tier only)
A colour filter absorbs some wavelengths and only transmits certain wavelength(s). This means that a filter
will absorb some colours and transmit others.
For example, a red filter absorbs all other colours in the spectrum except red, which it transmits.
An object which is transparent (see-through) or translucent (partially see-through) can transmit light.
Opaque objects reflect and absorb light. The wavelengths which are reflected or absorbed determine the colour
which the object is perceived.
For example, an object which absorbs all wavelengths will appear black. An object which reflects all
wavelengths will appear white. An object which reflects only green colour wavelengths and absorbs the others
will appear green.
An object absorbing and emitting
infrared radiation at the same
rate has a constant temperature.
An object emitting more than
it is absorbing will decrease in
temperature.
An object absorbing more than
it is emitting will increase in
temperature.
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Page 6 of 7

Lenses
Lenses use refraction in order to work. Projectors, microscopes and
telescopes all use lenses to allow an object or image to be enlarged or viewed
more easily.
The human eye contains a lens which enables us to see objects at a range of
distances.
Depending on the type of lens, the light waves will be refracted differently to
produce a different image.
The two main lenses are convex lenses and concave lenses. The table below
compares them briefly.
A real image is when light reflected from an object converges to form an
image on a surface. For example, on the retina of the human eye.
A virtual image occurs when the light waves are diverging and so appears to
be coming from a different place. A virtual image cannot be projected onto a
screen. For example, a mirror produces a virtual image.
A magnifying glass uses a converging (convex) lens. It produces a virtual
image which appears larger than the actual object. The magnification can be
calculated using the equation:
magnification =
An imaginary horizontal line through the middle of the lines is called the axis and this is where the principal focus forms.
In a convex lens, the light rays enter the lens parallel to one another and then converge at the principal focus after the lens.
In a concave lens, the light rays enter the lens parallel to one another and then diverge. The principal focus is the virtual source of the
diverging rays before the lens.
power (D) =
• D stands for dioptres which is the unit of measurement for lens power.
• In a converging lens the power is a positive value.
• In a diverging lens the power is a negative value.
Focal length depends on two factors: the refractive index of a material and how curved the surfaces of the lenses are. A higher refractive index
makes the lens flatter in shape. To make a powerful lens thinner, a material with a higher refractive index can be used.
Objects which are a distance greater than one focal length away from a converging lens will produce a real image. Objects which are closer
than one focal length from the converging lens will produce a virtual image.
The lens equation can be used to show the relationship between focal length, position of the object and position of the image:
This equation can also be written as:
1 1 1
f u v
convex lens Lens concave lens
Ray Diagram
Illustration
Causes parallel waves
to converge at the
principal focus.
Action
Causes parallel waves
to diverge from the
principal focus.
real or virtual Type of Image always virtual
1
focal length (m)
1 1 1
focal length distance between lens and object distance between lens and image
=
= +
+
image height (mm)
object height (mm)
concave lens
principal focus
focal
length
focal
length
focal point
convex lens
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Page 7 of 7

AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 7: Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Poles of a Magnet
A magnet has two ends called poles: the north
pole and the south pole. The magnetic forces
of the magnet are strongest at the poles.
When two magnets are brought close together,
they will attract or repel, depending on which
poles are brought together:
• Like poles will repel one another e.g. N-N
or S-S.
• Opposite poles will attract e.g. N-S.
The forces exerted between the poles of two
magnets are a type of non-contact force: the
magnets do not have to be touching for the
effect to be observed.
Remember that only iron, cobalt and nickel (or
alloys containing these metals) are magnetic.
A permanent magnet is one with its own
magnetic field. The magnetism cannot
be turned on or off e.g. a bar magnet or a
horseshoe magnet.
An induced magnet is a material which
becomes magnetic only when placed within a
magnetic field. Induced magnets only attract
other materials and lose most (if not all) of
their magnetism when removed from the
magnetic field e.g. iron filings.
Plotting Magnetic Field Lines
Electromagnetism
Magnetic Fields
The magnetic field is the area surrounding a magnet where the force
is acting on another magnet or magnetic material. It can be observed
using a compass placed at different points around a bar magnet.
The field lines can be drawn by using the compass to mark the direction at
a range of points.
A magnet always causes a magnetic material to be attracted. The strength
of the magnetic field is determined by the proximity to the magnet.
When looking at a diagram of magnetic field lines, the force is strongest
where the lines are closest together. The magnetic field of the magnet is strongest at the poles. The direction
of the magnetic field shows the direction the force would act on another north pole.
As a result, magnetic field lines always come away from the north pole (like
poles repel) and towards the south pole (unlike poles attract).
The earth produces a magnetic field and a magnetic compass uses this to help
aid navigation. The core of the earth is made of iron (a magnetic material). A
compass contains a small bar magnet shaped as a needle, which points in the
direction of the earth’s magnetic field.
A circular magnetic field is produced when a current is
passed through a conducting wire. This produces an induced
magnet.
Switching off the current causes the magnetism to be lost.
The strength of the magnetic field can be increased by
increasing the current flowing through the wire. The strength
of the magnetic field is stronger closer to the wire.
Coiling the wire to form a solenoid will also increase the
strength of the magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic
field created by a solenoid is strong and uniform throughout.
To increase the strength of the magnetic field around a
solenoid you can…
• add an iron core;
• increase the number of coils in the wire;
• increase the current passing through the wire.
An electromagnet is a solenoid with an
iron core. Electromagnets are induced
magnets and can be turned on and off.
Electric motors, loudspeakers, electric
bells and remotely controlled door
locks all use electromagnets.
A magnetic compass can be used to plot and draw the magnetic field lines around a magnet.
You should be able to describe this method for a bar magnet.
1. Place the bar magnet in the centre of a sheet of plain paper.
2. Using a magnetic compass, position it on the paper somewhere around
the magnet.
3. Observe the direction of the needle and carefully draw a dot at the
circumference of the magnet, in line with each end of the needle.
Make sure you include an arrow to indicate the direction of north.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for several positions around the magnet.
5. Join the arrows to complete the magnetic field lines and whole pattern.
Current
out
Current
in
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Page 1 of 4

The Motor Effect and Flemings Left-Hand Rule Electric Motors
When the wire carrying the current is coiled, the motor effect acting on it
causes the wire to rotate. This is how an electric motor works.
As the current flows (from negative to positive), the force produced in each side
of the coil acts in opposite directions, causing the coil to rotate overall.
When the coil reaches a vertical position, the force produced is now parallel
to the magnetic field line and so would be zero. This would cause the motor to
stop rotating.
To maintain the rotation of the coiled wire, a split ring commutator is used to
supply the current to the wire. The DC supply reaches the split ring via graphite
or metal brushes which maintain the connection while allowing it to rotate
freely on the axle.
The two halves of the split ring commutator ensure that the current supplied
to the wire changes direction each half-turn (or that the current supplied is the
same direction on each side of the motor) and as a result, the force produced
maintains a constant rotation in one direction overall.
When a wire carrying a current is exposed to the magnetic field of another magnet, then a force is produced on the wire at a right angle
to the direction of the magnetic field produced.
This is called the motor effect.
The force produced by the motor effect can be calculated using this equation:
force (N) = magnetic flux density (T) × current (A) × length (m)
For example:
A current of 8A is flowing through a wire that is 75cm long. The magnetic field
acting at a right angle on the wire is 0.5T. Calculate the force.
F = B × I × l
Remember: the equation uses length measured in m. The question gives you the length in cm so you need to convert it before you calculate
your answer.
F = 0.5 × 8 × 0.75
F = 3N
From the equation we can see that the force acting on a given length of wire (e.g.
1m) will be increased if the current increases or the magnetic flux density increases.
If the current flowing through a wire is parallel to the magnetic field, then no force is
produced – there is no motor effect.
You might be shown a diagram and asked to indicate the direction of the force produced.
Fleming’s left-hand rule can help you do this because it represents the relative
orientation of the force produced by the motor effect.
Remember:
• Use your left hand!
• The angle between your index finger and middle finger should be a right angle on the horizontal plane.
• The angle between your index finger and thumb should be a right angle on the vertical plane.
• Your thumb represents the direction of the force.
• Your index finger represents the direction of the magnetic field.
• Your middle finger represents the direction of the current flowing through the wire.
Coil Rotating in
Arrow Direction
Current
Current
force
Current
Graphite Brush
Lamp
magnetic
field
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Page 2 of 4

Headphones and Loudspeakers
Headphones work because they contain small loudspeakers inside them. A loudspeaker makes use of the motor
effect to produce sound. Variations in the AC electric current supplied to the device causes variations in the
magnetic field produced. These variations cause the cone in the loudspeaker to move and the vibrations are
transferred to the air particles and generate a sound wave.
• An alternating current is supplied through a coil of wire in the loudspeaker.
• This produces an electromagnetic field around the wire.
• The electromagnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the surrounding permanent magnetic and a
force is produced (the motor effect).
• The force produced pushes the cone in the loudspeakers outwards.
• The current is reversed and the force changes direction, pulling the cone back inwards.
• The vibrations of the cone moving in and out creates vibrations in the air particles, which are transferred as
sound waves.
• The sound waves produced match the electrical signals supplied.
Transformers
Induced Potential and the Generator Effect
Induced potential or electromagnetic induction is when a potential difference (voltage) is created across a
conductor (e.g. a wire) due to a change in the magnetic field.
If the conductor is connected in a closed circuit, then it will cause a current to flow.
Induced potential can be produced by either…
• moving a magnet in a coil of wire;
• moving an electrical conductor (wire) through magnetic field lines;
• moving a coil of wire in and out of a magnetic field.
Moving the conductor in the opposite direction or reversing the polarity of the magnet will cause the
potential difference to reverse and the current will flow in the opposite direction.
Continuously moving the magnet or conductor to repeatedly change the direction of the potential difference
is how an alternating current is produced.
A generator uses an induced potential to produce an alternating current.
A magnet on an axle is positioned in a coil of wire. The poles of the
magnet are on the outer edges as the magnet is spun on the axle. Every
half-turn on the axle rotation, the poles are reversed (swap sides in
the coil) and this causes the induced potential to change direction.
This produces an alternating current in the conducting wire.
To increase the voltage of a induced potential you can…
1. increase the strength of the magnet used;
2. increase the number of turns in the conducting coil of wire;
3. increase the area of the coil;
4. increase the speed of the movement (of the magnet or conductor).
Turning the magnet more quickly will not only increase the voltage, but also increase the frequency.
A transformer changes the voltage using an induced potential (electromagnetic induction).
Transformers only work for an alternating current potential difference. A transformer is simply two coils of
wire (primary coil and secondary coil) connected by an iron core.
There are two main types:
Step-up transformers: increase (step-up) the
voltage. There are fewer primary coils than there
are secondary coils.
Step-down transformers: decrease (step-down)
the voltage. There are more primary coils than
there are secondary coils.
Conducter
(wire)
axle
coil
magnet
primary
winding
secondary
winding
primary
winding
secondary
winding
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Page 3 of 4

Microphones
Essentially, a microphone works like a loudspeaker but
uses the generator effect in reverse. Instead of using the
alternating current to produce a changing magnetic
field and cause movement in the cone, a microphone
uses movement in a diaphragm to produce a changing
magnetic field and create an alternating current.
• The sound wave vibrations in the air particles are
transferred to the flexible diaphragm.
• This causes the diaphragm to move, vibrating the
coil.
• The coil moves through the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet and an induced potential is
created.
• The induced potential causes a current to flow in
the closed circuit which the coil is attached to.
• The induced potential changes to match the
vibrations of the sound waves, which results in the
current changing to match the induced potential,
transferring the sound wave.
Transformers (continued)
A current doesn’t flow through the iron core. The role of the iron core is to transfer the changing magnetic field between the two coils only.
When an alternating current is supplied to the primary coil, it produces a magnetic field with the iron core. The magnetic field in the iron core constantly changes
direction due to the alternating current.
The voltage of the induced potential in the secondary coil depends on the ratio of turns between the primary and secondary coils:
• If there are more turns in the secondary coil, the potential difference will be greater (a step-up transformer).
• If there are fewer turns in the secondary coil, the potential difference will be less (a step-down transformer).
Remember: an induced potential can only be produced by a changing magnetic field so it only works with an alternating current (AC) and not a direct current (DC).
The power supplied by a transformer can be calculated using the equations:
power (W) = potential difference (V) × current (A)
Transformers are almost 100% efficient:
electrical power in = electrical power out
So…
potential difference across primary coil × current in the primary coil = potential difference across secondary coil × current in the secondary coil
This can also be written simply as:
V I = V I
Worked example:
Shannon is using her hair straighteners on holiday in Europe. A travel adaptor transforms the 110V AC mains supply to 230V. The current in the hair straighteners
is 6A. Assuming the transformer is 100% effiecient, calculate the current draw by the adaptor from the mains supply (in the primary coil). Give your answer to two
decimal places.
V I = V I
110 × I = 230 × 6
110 × I = 1380
I =
I = 12.55A
p
p
s
s
p
p
p
p
p
p
s
s
1380
110
diaphragm
support
magnet
movinig
coil
electrical
signal
output
electrical
leads
sound
waves
flexible
diaphragm
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Page 4 of 4

AQA Physics Unit 8: Space Physics
Formation of a Star
The Solar System
The solar system is part of the Milky Way galaxy and is made up
of the Sun and anything that goes round it (orbit). There are 8
planets and some dwarf planets, including Pluto.
Planets are objects that orbit a star (the Sun). A dwarf planet will
orbit a star but will be too small to be a planet, or not quite fit the
pattern of a normal planet. Pluto is an example of a dwarf planet.
Moons orbit planets and are also known as natural satellites.
Planets are natural satellites of the Sun. Artificial satellites are
satellites that humans have built and they mostly orbit the Earth.
Formation of a Star
1. Stars are made from a cloud
of dust and gas – a nebula.
Gravity pulls the dust and gas
together, forming a protostar.
2. The more dense the star, the
hotter it becomes. Fusion of
the hydrogen nuclei starts,
emitting a lot of energy.
3. The next stage is the main
sequence star. This stage will
last for a few billion years.
This is a stable phase as the
force of gravity and fusion
of hydrogen are balanced.
Hydrogen is fused and forms
helium; as this happens,
energy is released.
4. Hydrogen begins to run out,
turning the star into a red
giant (like the Sun) or a red
super giant, depending on the
size of the star.
5. A red giant will become a
white dwarf by getting rid of
the outer layers of dust and
gas. It will then cool down
and become a black dwarf.
6. Red super giants will initially
glow brightly. Then, they will
explode into a supernova. The
supernova will get rid of its
outer layer of dust and gas
and will form a black hole.
Orbits
Gravity is a force that causes planets and satellites to circle
an object. It acts towards the centre of the orbit. This occurs
in both natural and artificial satellites.
The Expanding Universe
Evidence suggests that the universe is expanding (getting
bigger). Galaxies are moving further away from each
other. The redshift provides us with some evidence for the
expanding universe and the big bang theory.
When we see light coming from galaxies that are far away
from us, the wavelength has increased. The light has shifted
towards the red end of the spectrum (redshift) and is moving
away from us. Galaxies that are more distant have a greater
redshift which means they are moving away more quickly.
If you imagine dots on a balloon moving away from each
other as the balloon is being blown up, this helps to visualise
the expanding universe.
The Big Bang
The big bang is a theory about how the universe
began.
In the beginning, matter in the universe took up
a very small amount of space. This space was very
dense and so became hot. This caused an explosion
13.7 billion years ago – the big bang. After the big
bang, space then continued to expand as it is now.
Observations of supernovae since 1998 suggest
that distant galaxies are moving away faster.
The big bang is a theory and is the best theory that
we have at the moment.
Dark Mass and Energy
There is so much about the universe that scientists
do not fully understand.
Scientists have discovered dark mass and dark
energy but they do not know much about it.
Higher Tier Only
When an object is in orbit around something, it is
constantly changing velocity as the direction constantly
changes.
The speed, however, will stay the same.
Examples of satellites include the planets orbiting the
Sun and the Moon orbiting Earth.
Remaining in Orbit
For an orbit to remain stable, the radius must change if
the speed changes.
The closer something is to an object, the quicker it has to
travel in order to keep in orbit.
If the force is stronger, then the object will have to travel
quicker to remain in orbit.
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