![Outline of the Significance of the
Study
Other environmental concerns of Boracay would be beach erosion, and there would be scouring in times of active wave activity like storm surges. The
locals, however, say that it is only natural for sand to be eroded but then it will return during the habagat monsoon season. The provincial government is
studying the possibility of beach nourishment activities as are being done in Florida, but it has never been done. There were concerns that the beach sand
that will be used to replace eroded beachfronts will not be as white as the existing sand (Govt_JKA, 2013).
The Diniwid beach area is where the beach erosion has been severe, near Microtel after the grotto after passing Station 1. The DENR said that the
bagging of sand and the illegal embankments that were constructed have caused more erosion as it impeded the flow of sand. However, it is counter-
intuitive as the southwest monsoons have eroded much of the beach in that part of the area. The sloping beach has become a sudden drop where the water
gets deep so close to shore (Resident&TourismBiz_JDT&JCT, 2013).
Tourism business operators are easy targets for the provincial government, which accuses most resort owners of violating environmental laws. That is,
tourism urbanisation is blamed for exacerbating erosion. The provincial government thus places responsibility for uncontrolled growth near the high
water mark of the beach on the Malay municipality, which has land use and tourism oversight of the island. One of the managers of a resort mentions
that: There has been a big discussion related to the 25+5 meter rule [easement] as the sea seems to be ‘getting the sand’, where the sand is really removed
from the beachfront, especially in Diniwid. They say that because the resorts are putting sandbags, fences, or illegal structures that beach erosion has been
more prevalent (TourismBiz_RA, 2013).
The concentration of both locals and migrant workers on the island, together with tourist visitors, compared to the rest of Malay municipality has made
Boracay one of the most densely populated areas in the municipality. Despite Boracay’s reputation as an island idyll, two of the island’s three barangays
(villages or districts) are now considered urban. Although Malay town on the mainland is the municipal capital, Boracay today accounts for three-fifths of
Malay’s population and wields tremendous political and economic power over the rest of the municipality. Yet densely populated small islands are also
particularly prone to conflicts over land use (Salvacion & Magcale-Macandog, 2015). Such is the importance of the island that the municipal government
has field offices on Boracay, with major officials regularly commuting from the town hall on the mainland. This tourism-driven upsetting of traditional
island-mainland centre-periphery relationships (Grydehøj, 2014; Grydehøj et al., 2015) can render governance more complex.
Stakeholders who have been intimately familiar with the island since the 1980s and 1990s have also witnessed the social changes brought by tourism,
which have been experienced by similar island resorts (Picornell, 2014). The increasing number of tourism establishments and subsequent urbanisation
has contributed to congestion and crowding: In the early ’90s when I first came here, it wasn't that congested with establishments. There were no
multinational firms engaged in the tourism businesses, mostly local businesses. There are now more clubs, and I’ve seen prostitution openly. A lot has
changed. It’s just like Ermita and Makati with sand. I’m not a fan of the island already, we’re just here because we’re organising the tournament for my
cousin, who’s based abroad, and we’re not spending our trip here (Visitor_PJS&ADR, 2013).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/politicalecologyislandtourismplanningand-230413093444-10d4d31f/85/Political-Ecology-Island-Tourism-Planning-and-pptx-4-320.jpg)
Political Ecology, Island Tourism Planning, and.pptx
- 1. Political Ecology, Island Tourism Planning, and climate change Adaptation on Boracay, Philippines Abigail L. Castanos MDM, ET
- 2. Introduction This research paper presents a case study of the island of Boracay, Philippines, utilising a political ecology approach to climate change adaptation. The research finds that the island’s political ecology, especially the relationships among stakeholders, is strained. This creates challenges for various urban planning processes that require good working relationships. Climate change is expected to highlight these divisions as interactions among stakeholders (fulfilling zoning ordinance obligations, climate change adaptation- compliant land use plans, etc.) are dependent on good stakeholder relations. The present paper focuses on Boracay Island (Malay municipality, Aklan province) in the Philippines. Boracay is a major and well-documented tourism destination. Boracay has been an overwhelming success in terms of the tourism industry, and its visitor arrivals outnumber all other Philippine small island destinations according to Department of Tourism statistics. However, current development on the island, which has been subject to rapid tourism urbanisation, points to a stagnation stage in the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) model, with massive intervention needed to avoid environmental, infrastructural, and visitor experience degradation (Smith et al., 2011). On the basis of research undertaken on Boracay, this paper presents the intimate political ecology dynamics of an urbanised tourist island in the context of climate change adaptation. The adaptive capacity of the agents, systems, and institutions internal and external to the islands’ tourism system with respect to climate change is dependent upon various factors, one of which is how these agents or actors perceive their roles and participation in the culture of tourism, climate change adaptation, and governance. Unravelling these factors and perceptions is best done by applying the theoretical and methodological political ecology approach set out in the previous paper (Maguigad, King, & Cottrell, 2015).
- 3. Theory / Diagram or the Conceptual Framework The theoretical and methodological foundations for the research described in this paper are set out in detail in Maguigad, King, and Cottrell (2015). In this previous paper, we discussed how global climate change phenomena are experienced locally in diverse ways, despite being widely identified as a threat to coastal and island communities, including the Philippines. Similarly, we discussed how tourism has been identified as a vital economic activity in many developing economies, including the Philippines, despite also being identified as a contributor to climate change (Broderick, 2009; Dubois et al., 2011). Climate change and tourism thus have a tense relationship in a country such as the Philippines, which is experiencing the economic benefits of strong tourism growth (DOT, 2012; Arnaldo, 2012) alongside a recognition that it is highly vulnerable to climate change (Harmeling, 2011) and that its urban populations are exceptionally at risk from rising sea levels (Dasgupta et al., 2012; Nicholls et al., 2007). Indeed, although Boracay is frequently portrayed as a tourism gem, it is cited in the literature as an example of tourism gone wrong, with a myriad of environmental and social problems (Carter, 2004; Ong et al., 2011). As early as 1997, researchers sounded the alarm on the need to remain within physical, tourist, resident, transport, and governance carrying capacity thresholds if Boracay was to continue as a sustainable destination (Trousdale, 1997, 1999). The growth since the 1990s has so far resulted in a situation characterised by ad hoc coastal tourism development, emphasis on improvement and cleanliness of the ‘visual environment’ but lacking in social and cultural sustainability, and mutual adjustment among various stakeholders (Carter, 2004; Ong et al., 2011). The island is deemed very important to the Philippines’ tourism, and its challenges are currently co- managed by the national government through the Department of Tourism (DOT), Department of Environment & Natural Resources (DENR), and the local government of Malay, thereby going against the spirit of local government devolution. Nevertheless, the Malay municipal planning and development officer Alma Belejerdo (2012) acknowledges the municipality’s challenges and admits that the municipality needs all the help it can get from both the national government and the private sector.
- 4. Outline of the Significance of the Study Other environmental concerns of Boracay would be beach erosion, and there would be scouring in times of active wave activity like storm surges. The locals, however, say that it is only natural for sand to be eroded but then it will return during the habagat monsoon season. The provincial government is studying the possibility of beach nourishment activities as are being done in Florida, but it has never been done. There were concerns that the beach sand that will be used to replace eroded beachfronts will not be as white as the existing sand (Govt_JKA, 2013). The Diniwid beach area is where the beach erosion has been severe, near Microtel after the grotto after passing Station 1. The DENR said that the bagging of sand and the illegal embankments that were constructed have caused more erosion as it impeded the flow of sand. However, it is counter- intuitive as the southwest monsoons have eroded much of the beach in that part of the area. The sloping beach has become a sudden drop where the water gets deep so close to shore (Resident&TourismBiz_JDT&JCT, 2013). Tourism business operators are easy targets for the provincial government, which accuses most resort owners of violating environmental laws. That is, tourism urbanisation is blamed for exacerbating erosion. The provincial government thus places responsibility for uncontrolled growth near the high water mark of the beach on the Malay municipality, which has land use and tourism oversight of the island. One of the managers of a resort mentions that: There has been a big discussion related to the 25+5 meter rule [easement] as the sea seems to be ‘getting the sand’, where the sand is really removed from the beachfront, especially in Diniwid. They say that because the resorts are putting sandbags, fences, or illegal structures that beach erosion has been more prevalent (TourismBiz_RA, 2013). The concentration of both locals and migrant workers on the island, together with tourist visitors, compared to the rest of Malay municipality has made Boracay one of the most densely populated areas in the municipality. Despite Boracay’s reputation as an island idyll, two of the island’s three barangays (villages or districts) are now considered urban. Although Malay town on the mainland is the municipal capital, Boracay today accounts for three-fifths of Malay’s population and wields tremendous political and economic power over the rest of the municipality. Yet densely populated small islands are also particularly prone to conflicts over land use (Salvacion & Magcale-Macandog, 2015). Such is the importance of the island that the municipal government has field offices on Boracay, with major officials regularly commuting from the town hall on the mainland. This tourism-driven upsetting of traditional island-mainland centre-periphery relationships (Grydehøj, 2014; Grydehøj et al., 2015) can render governance more complex. Stakeholders who have been intimately familiar with the island since the 1980s and 1990s have also witnessed the social changes brought by tourism, which have been experienced by similar island resorts (Picornell, 2014). The increasing number of tourism establishments and subsequent urbanisation has contributed to congestion and crowding: In the early ’90s when I first came here, it wasn't that congested with establishments. There were no multinational firms engaged in the tourism businesses, mostly local businesses. There are now more clubs, and I’ve seen prostitution openly. A lot has changed. It’s just like Ermita and Makati with sand. I’m not a fan of the island already, we’re just here because we’re organising the tournament for my cousin, who’s based abroad, and we’re not spending our trip here (Visitor_PJS&ADR, 2013).
- 5. Terms to Define Climate Change- threatens people with food and water scarcity, increased flooding, extreme heat, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can be a result. The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Adaptation- a modification of an organism or its parts that makes it more fit for existence. An adaptation is passed from generation to generation. behavioral adaptation. noun. way an organism acts in order to survive or thrive in its environment. Philiippines- officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and consists of around 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Tourism Development- is the process of establishing and maintaining a tourism industry in a particular location. At its most fundamental level, tourism development can be defined as the process of developing strategies and plans to increase/develop/encourage tourism in a particular destination. Politcal ecology- is a field within environmental studies focusing on power relations as well as the coproduction of nature and society. Theoretical inspirations are taken from different sources such as political economy, poststructuralism, and peasant studies. Tourism Urbanization- refers to the process. whereby urban areas, particularly large. cities, are specially developed for the. production, sale, and consumption of goods. and services providing pleasure.
- 6. Review of Related Literature Outline This research has demonstrated the novel use of political ecology in tourism and climate change adaptation as a means of improving planning processes in the Philippines. The use of this approach considers a very important aspect of environmental planning – that planning processes are not only inherently the domain of technical experts working in an apolitical environment but also that they are inherently political. This is not hard to implement as existing local government codes require intensive, if not honest, stakeholder participation. This approach will ensure proper responses, which will benefit not only islands with tourism industries but also other local government units with similar tourism potentials. The planning process to mainstream climate change adaptation into the island’s tourism sector is challenged by various factors aside from the existing quality of the stakeholders’ relationship, their political ecology. First, the comprehensive land use plan (CLUP) for Malay has not passed the muster of evaluation by the Aklan Provincial Land Use Committee. CLUPs are the core plans upon which all sectoral plans (including tourism, climate change adaptation, and disaster risk reduction plans) are ultimately based. This is the most vital process that must be accomplished and requires an honest engagement with the stakeholders, not just the kind of tokenistic public consultation that many stakeholders report having experienced (cf. Pugh, 2013; Grove & Pugh, 2015). Climate change and climate-related disasters will impact the livelihoods of many who are dependent on the tourism industry. Beach erosion is already occurring on parts of the island and is expected to become more pronounced with the effects of sea-level rises, compounded by seasonal typhoon and monsoon seasons. These and other manifestations of climate change will bring challenges and opportunities that can only be adequately addressed when the existing political ecology is integrated into the planning process.
- 7. Research Design, Locale of the Study Map Nvivo is a tool that has made qualitative research more systematic and taps into the technology to gather, record, transcribe, visualise, organise, and quantify qualitative data previously believed to be too unwieldy and ‘messy’ to handle using traditional methods (Welsh, 2002). Notwithstanding the debates and discussions that such an approach stirs in academic circles (Brown et al., 1990), we believe that Nvivo enhances rather than interferes with the capabilities of any researcher undertaking this type of research. We used Nvivo’s Pearson’s correlation functionality to measure similarity between pairs of nodes (the resulting themes) as well as the sources of the transcripts (stakeholder grouping). To form cluster diagrams, Nvivo first builds a table in which the 103 resulting nodes (themes) are paired with one another to calculate the degree to which they are related using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (PMCCC), more simply known as Pearson correlation coefficient. This is a measure of correlation or dependence between two variables, which is scaled from +1 (total positive correlation) to -1 (total negative correlation), with a value of zero indicating no correlation (NVIVO, 2014). The correlation analysis was carried out between two themes or nodes, between two stakeholder groups, and between a theme and a stakeholder group.
- 9. Research Methodology Fieldwork was undertaken on Boracay during three distinct periods: August 2012 for preliminary preparatory fieldwork, including securing permissions from the Malay local government to undertake the research; July-August 2013 for the main fieldwork, including interviews and small group meetings; and April 2014, including final interviews and opportunities to react to preliminary results of the 2013 interviews, which were made available to selected key stakeholders. Human ethics and fieldwork methodology approvals were obtained from James Cook University prior to the commencement of the fieldwork.
- 10. Research Respondents The respondents of this research are the government official of Malay Public and Private sectors and Non Government Official. Stakeholder groups are indicated in capital letters while the resulting interview themes are listed in normal letters. The researchers use a non-probability sampling method to determine the sample size.Using the combination of purposive and snowball sampling, the researchers aim to cater to a total of 5 respondents who will be contacted through Facebook messenger and answer the questionnaire through Google forms. The inclusion criteria for this study were for government official, public and private sector and NGOs
- 11. ResearchInstrument Survey Questionnaire Our operation has successful implement; A. Water -saving methods B. Waste water reduction and management C. Reduction of water pollution D. Prevention of beach erosion E. Recycling practice F. Reduction of rubbish on the beach G. Tourism has significantly helped to improve environment protection
- 12. Data Gathering The researcher observed the following procedures in the gathering of data: 1. Asking for Permission to conduct the study. The researcher asked permission from the local government of Malay, Aklan 2. Distribution and Retrieval of the Questionnaire. Distribuation of questionnaire to the respondents. 3. Collation and Tabulation of Data. Gathered and tabulated answer.