Power quality notes unit 1

Power Quality Material Unit-I
Dept of EEE, KVSW, Kurnool Page 1
Power Quality
Unit -1
Syllabus
Definition of Power Quality- Power Quality Terminology – Classification of Power Quality
Issues-Magnitude Versus Duration Plot - Power Quality Standards - Responsibilities of The
Suppliers and Users of Electric Power-CBEMA and ITIC Curves.
Introduction:
Development of any country’s economy depends on power production and power
consumption. Power consumption is an index of growth and development, with rapid growth
of industrialization manufacturers want faster, more productive, more efficient machinery.
Utilities encourage this effort because it helps their customers become more profitable and
also helps to put off large investments in substations and generation by using more efficient
load equipment. Interestingly, the equipment installed to increase the productivity is also
often the equipment that suffers the most from common power disruptions. And the
equipment is sometimes the source of additional power quality problems. When entire
processes are automated, the efficient operation of machines and their controls becomes
increasingly dependent on quality power
Electric power is the most essential raw material. It is unusual commodity as it
requires continuous flow and can not be conveniently stored. It is a typical example of “Just
in Time” philosophy – Components are delivered to the production line at the point and time
of use by a trusted supplier with no requirement of “goods in” inspection.
Power quality is any abnormal behaviour on a power system arising in the form of
voltage or current, which affects the normal operation of electrical or electronic equipment.
Power quality is any deviation of the voltage or current waveform from its normal sinusoidal
wave shape.
Power quality has been defined as the parameters of the voltage that affect the customer’s
supersensitive equipment.
The IEEE defines POWER QUALITY as
“The ability of a system or an equipment to function satisfactorily in its
electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic
disturbances to anything in that environment”.
Power Quality can also be defined as
“Any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that
results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment”

Power Quality = Voltage Quality
The common term for describing the power quality is actually the quality of the
voltage that is being supplied. Power is the rate of energy delivery and is proportional to the
product of the voltage and current. It would be difficult to define the quality of this quantity
in any meaningful manner. The power supply system can only control the quality of the
voltage; it has no control over the currents that particular loads might draw. Therefore, the
standards in the power quality area are devoted to maintaining the supply voltage within
certain limits.
AC power systems are designed to operate at a sinusoidal voltage of a given
frequency [typically 50 or 60 hertz (Hz)] and magnitude. Any significant deviation in the
waveform magnitude, frequency, or purity is a potential power quality problem. Of course,
there is always a close relationship between voltage and current in any practical power
system. Although the generators may provide a near-perfect sine-wave voltage, the current
passing through the impedance of the system can cause a variety of disturbances to the
voltage. For example,
1. The current resulting from a short circuit causes the voltage to sag or disappear
completely, as the case may be.
2. Currents from lightning strokes passing through the power system cause high-
impulse voltages that frequently flash over insulation and lead to other phenomena,
such as short circuits.
3. Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also distort the voltage as they
pass through the system impedance. Thus a distorted voltage is presented to other end
users.
Therefore, while it is the voltage with which we are ultimately concerned, we must also
address phenomena in the current to understand the basis of many power quality problems.
Why Are We Concerned about Power Quality?
The quality of power can have a direct economic impact on many industrial consumers.
 Continuous process industry where short outage of power may loss synchronizing of
machinery and may result in large quantity of semi processed product – Paper making
where cleanup process is long and expensive
 Outage in multistage batch process may destroy the value of previous process –
Semiconductor industry – Production of wafer requires few dozen process over
several days.
 Residential customers typically do not suffer direct financial loss or the inability to
earn income as a result of most power quality problems, but they can be a major force
when they notice that the utility is providing poor service.

The Power Quality Evaluation Procedure
There are wide range of Power quality problems each problem has different causes
and different solutions that can be used to improve the power quality and equipment
performance. The general steps that are associated with investigating many of these
problems, are given in Figure below.
Basic Steps involved in Power Quality Evaluation.
The general procedure must also consider whether the evaluation involves an existing
power quality problem or one that could result from a new design or from proposed changes
to the system. Measurements will play an important role for almost any power quality
concern.
This is the primary method of characterizing the problem or the existing system that is by
measuring the parameters (i.e voltage, freq, etc) the variations at the same time so that
problems can be correlated with possible causes.
Solutions need to be evaluated using a system perspective, and both the economics and the
technical limitations must be considered. Possible solutions are identified at all levels of the
system from utility supply to the end-use equipment being affected. Solutions that are not
technically viable get thrown out, and the rest of the alternatives are compared on an
economic basis. The optimum solution will depend on the type of problem, the number of
end users being impacted, and the possible solutions.

General Classification of Power Quality Problems
In order to categorize the power quality problems using electromagnetic phenomena
some parameters (attributes) are considered, appropriate attributes for steady state and non
steady state are given below .
For steady-state phenomena, the following attributes can be used:
i. Amplitude
ii. Frequency
iii. Spectrum
iv. Modulation
v. Source impedance
vi. Notch depth
vii. Notch area
For non-steady-state phenomena, other attributes may be required:
i. Rate of rise
ii. Amplitude
iii. Duration
iv. Spectrum
v. Frequency
vi. Rate of occurrence
vii. Energy potential
viii. Source impedance
Based on the above attributes power quality problems can be categorized as:
1. Voltage sag
2. Voltage swell
3. Voltage Flicker
4. Harmonics
5. Over voltage
6. Under voltage
7. Transients
Voltage sags are considered the most common power quality problem. These can be caused
by the utility or by customer loads. When sourced from the utility, they are most commonly
caused by faults on the distribution system. These sags will be from 3 to 30 cycles and can be
single or three phase. Depending on the design of the distribution system, a ground fault on 1
phase can cause a simultaneous swell on another phase.
Power quality problems are related to grounding, ground bonds and neutral to ground
voltages, ground loops, ground current or ground associated issues.

Harmonics are distortions in the AC waveform. These distortions are caused by loads on the
electrical system that use the electrical power at a different frequency than the fundamental
50 or 60 Hz.
Terms and Definitions:
Power Quality: It is any deviation of the voltage or current waveform from its normal
sinusoidal wave shape.
Voltage quality: Deviations of the voltage from a sinusoidal waveform.
Current quality: Deviations of the current from a sinusoidal waveform.
Frequency Deviation: An increase or decrease in the power frequency.
Impulsive transient: A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of
voltage or current that is unidirectional in polarity.
Oscillatory transients: A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is bidirectional in polarity.
DC Offset: The presence of a DC voltage or current in an AC power system.
Noises: An unwanted electric signal in the power system.
Long duration Variation: A variation of the RMS value of the voltage from nominal
voltage for a time greater than 1 min.
Short Duration Variation: A variation of the RMS value of the voltage from nominal
voltage for a time less than 1 min.
Sag: A decrease in RMS value of voltage or current for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 min.
Swell: A Temporary increase in RMS value of voltage or current for durations of 0.5 cycles
to 1 min.
Under voltage: 10% below the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1 min.
Over voltage: 10% above the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1 min.
Voltage fluctuation: A cyclical variation of the voltage that results in flicker of lightning.
Voltage imbalance: Three phase voltages differ in amplitude.
Harmonic: It is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency
that is an integral multiple of the fundamental power frequency.
Distortion: Any deviation from the normal sine wave for an AC quantity.
Total Harmonic Distortion: The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content to
the RMS value of the fundamental quantity.

Interruption: The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time
greater than 1 min.
Concepts of transients:
1. Transient over voltages in electrical transmission and distribution networks result
from the unavoidable effects of lightning strike and network switching operations.
2. Response of an electrical network to a sudden change in network conditions.
3. Oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or system. It is a
momentary event preceding the steady state (electronics) during a sudden change of a
circuit.
4. An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital (pulse) signals in computer
networks. Each pulse produces two transients, an oscillation resulting from the sudden
rise in voltage and another oscillation from the sudden drop in voltage. This is
generally considered an undesirable effect as it introduces variations in the high and
low voltages of a signal, causing instability.
Types of transient:
a. Impulsive transient
b. Oscillatory transient
Impulse transient:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage or current that
is unidirectional in polarity.
Oscillatory transient: A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is bidirectional in polarity.

Short duration variations – Interruption The complete loss of voltage on one or more
phase conductors for a time less than 1 min.
Types of Short Duration interruption:
a. Momentary Interruption < 1 min , <0.1 pu
b. Temporary Interruption < 1 min , <0.1 pu
Long duration variations – Sustained interruption: The complete loss of voltage on one or
more phase conductors for a time greater than 1 min.

Sags and Swells:
Voltage sag:
 A voltage sag or voltage dip is a short duration reduction in RMS voltage which can
be caused by a short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors.
 Voltage sag happens when the RMS voltage decreases between 10 and 90 percent of
nominal voltage for one-half cycle to one minute.
 Some references define the duration of sag for a period of 0.5 cycles to a few seconds,
and longer duration of low voltage would be called “sustained sag".
 There are several factors which cause voltage sag to happen:
 Since the electric motors draw more current when they are starting than when they are
running at their rated speed, starting an electric motor can be a reason of voltage sag.
 When a line-to-ground fault occurs, there will be voltage sag until the protective
switch gear operates.
 Some accidents in power lines such as lightning or falling an object can be a cause of
line-to-ground fault and voltage sag as a result.
 Sudden load changes or excessive loads can cause voltage sag.
 Depending on the transformer connections, transformers energizing could be another
reason for happening voltage sags.
 Voltage sags can arrive from the utility but most are caused by in-building equipment.
In residential homes, we usually see voltage sags when the refrigerator, air-
conditioner or furnace fan starts up.

Voltage Swell:
Swell - an increase to between 1.1pu and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency durations from 0.5 to 1 minute
In the case of a voltage swell due to a single line-to-ground (SLG) fault on the system, the
result is a temporary voltage rise on the un faulted phases, which last for the duration of the
fault. This is shown in the figure below:
Instantaneous Voltage Swell Due to SLG fault
Voltage swells can also be caused by the deenergization of a very large load.
It may cause breakdown of components on the power supplies of the equipment, though the
effect may be a gradual, accumulative effect. It can cause control problems and hardware
failure in the equipment, due to overheating that could eventually result to shutdown. Also,
electronics and other sensitive equipment are prone to damage due to voltage swell.

Voltage unbalance:
In a balanced sinusoidal supply system the three line-neutral voltages are equal in
magnitude and are phase displaced from each other by 120 degrees (Figure 1). Any
differences that exist in the three voltage magnitudes and/or a shift in the phase separation
from 120 degrees is said to give rise to an unbalanced supply (Figure 2)

The utility can be the source of unbalanced voltages due to malfunctioning equipment,
including blown capacitor fuses, open-delta regulators, and open-delta transformers. Open-
delta equipment can be more susceptible to voltage unbalance than closed-delta since they
only utilize two phases to perform their transformations.
Also, voltage unbalance can also be caused by uneven single-phase load distribution among
the three phases - the likely culprit for a voltage unbalance of less than 2%. Furthermore,
severe cases (greater than 5%) can be attributed to single-phasing in the utility’s distribution
lateral feeders because of a blown fuse due to fault or overloading on one phase.
Voltage Fluctuation:
 Voltage fluctuations can be described as repetitive or random variations of the voltage
envelope due to sudden changes in the real and reactive power drawn by a load. The
characteristics of voltage fluctuations depend on the load type and size and the power
system capacity.
 Figure 1 illustrates an example of a fluctuating voltage waveform. The voltage
waveform exhibits variations in magnitude due to the fluctuating nature or
intermittent operation of connected loads.
 The frequency of the voltage envelope is often referred to as the flicker frequency.
Thus there are two important parameters to voltage fluctuations, the frequency of
fluctuation and the magnitude of fluctuation. Both of these components are significant
in the adverse effects of voltage fluctuations.

Voltage fluctuations are caused when loads draw currents having significant sudden or
periodic variations. The fluctuating current that is drawn from the supply causes additional
voltage drops in the power system leading to fluctuations in the supply voltage. Loads that
exhibit continuous rapid variations are thus the most likely cause of voltage fluctuations.
i. Arc furnaces
ii. Arc welders
iii. Installations with frequent motor starts (air conditioner units, fans)
iv. Motor drives with cyclic operation (mine hoists, rolling mills)
v. Equipment with excessive motor speed changes (wood chippers, car shredders)
Power frequency variations:
i. Power frequency variations are a deviation from the nominal supply frequency. The
supply frequency is a function of the rotational speed of the generators used to
produce the electrical energy.
ii. At any instant, the frequency depends on the balance between the load and the
capacity of the available generation.
iii. A frequency variation occurs if a generator becomes un-synchronous with the power
system, causing an inconsistency that is manifested in the form of a variation.
iv. The specified frequency variation should be within the limits Hz at all times for grid
network.
International Standards of power quality:
IEEE Standards:
i. IEEE power quality standards: Institute Of Electrical and Electronics Engineer.
ii. IEEE power quality standards: International Electro Technical Commission.
iii. IEEE power quality standards: Semiconductor Equipment and Material International.
iv. IEEE power quality standards: The International Union for Electricity Applications
v. IEEE Std 519-1992: IEEE Recommended practices and requirements for Harmonic
control in Electric power systems.
vi. IEEE Std 1159-1995: IEEE Recommended practices for monitoring electrical power
vii. IEEE std 141-1993, IEEE Recommended practice for electric power distribution for
industrial plants.
viii. IEEE std 1159-1995, IEEE recommended practice for Monitoring electrical power
quality.

IEC Standards:
i. Definitions and methodology 61000-1-X
ii. Environment 61000-2-X
iii. Limits 61000-3-X
iv. Tests and measurements 61000-4-X
v. Installation and mitigation 61000-5-X
vi. Generic immunity and emissions 61000-6-X
Responsibilities of The Suppliers and Users of Electric Power
i. Suppliers argue – Critical users must bear the cost of ensuring quality of supply.
ii. Rather than expecting the supply industry to provide very high reliability to every
customer everywhere on the network.
iii. Some quality problems are the result of shared infrastructure.
iv. Fault on a one part of network may cause dip that will affect some customers
v. Higher the level of the fault, the greater will be the number of customers affected.
vi. Problem on one customer’s site may cause a transient that affects all the customers on
the same subsystem.
vii. Harmonics, arise within the customer’s won installation may propagate onto the
network and affect other customers.
CBEMA and ITI Curves:
One of the most frequently employed displays of data to represent the power quality is the so-
called CBEMA curve.
 A portion of the curve adapted from IEEE Standard 4469 that we typically use in our
nalysis of power quality monitoring results is shown in Fig. 1.5.
 This curve was originally developed by CBEMA to describe the tolerance of
mainframe computer equipment to the magnitude and duration of voltage variations
on the power system.
 While many modern computers have greater tolerance than this, the curve has become
a standard design target for sensitive equipment to be applied on the power system
and a common format for reporting power quality variation data.
 The axes represent magnitude and duration of the event. Points below the envelope
are presumed to cause the load to drop out due to lack of energy. Points above the
envelope are presumed to cause other malfunctions such as insulation failure,
overvoltage trip, and over excitation.
 The upper curve is actually defined down to 0.001 cycle where it has a value of about
375 percent voltage.

 We typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycles and higher due to limitations in
power quality monitoring instruments and differences in opinion over defining the
magnitude values in the sub cycle time frame.
 The CBEMA organization has been replaced by ITI, and a modified curve has been
developed that specifically applies to common 120-V computer equipment (see Fig.
1.6). The concept is similar to the CBEMA curve. Although developed for 120-V
computer equipment, the curve has been applied to general power quality evaluation
like its predecessor curve.
 Both curves are used as a reference in this book to define the withstand capability of
various loads and devices for protection from power quality variations.
 For display of large quantities of power quality monitoring data, we frequently add a
third axis to the plot to denote the number of events within a certain predefined cell of
magnitude and duration.
A portion of the CBEMA curve commonly used as a design target for equipment And a
format for reporting power quality variation data.

Power quality notes unit 1

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Power quality notes unit 1