PR Theory: Part I by SJB

PR Theory and Publics I

The Role of Theory

by Selwyn Jerry Boston
MA Public Relations
London College of Communication (UAL)

December 2010

Selwyn Jerry Boston 1

Selwyn Jerry Boston
PR Theory and Publics I: The role of theory
December 2010

Abstract
Public Relations has become an integral part in maintaining the reputation of an
organisation, managing the relationship with its stakeholders in a society that is
rapidly changing, and useful in the strategy and “management of
communication between an organisation and its publics” (Grunig and Hunt,
1984). The model of strategic public relations management proposed by Grunig
and Hunt (1984) encompasses much of the basic knowledge of public relations
strategy, including the situational theory that allows strategic publics to be
identified. Over the years, there has been a wide academic and professional
debate in the role of public relations and its theories in society today. It is
apparent however, that most practitioners are reluctant to use theoretical
frameworks to acquire wider management skills, and such attitudes may obstruct
the development of public relations as a profession and a strategic
management activity. This paper will briefly draw together how important
theories are in implementing successful strategies in contemporary public
relations practice, building and restoring an organisation’s good name in a
multicultural and technologically advanced society, and what disciplines are
important to carry out these processes.

Introduction: Contemporary academic and professional debate
The debate on the role of public relations in society, only partially reflected in
public relations literature, which has tended to ignore or dismiss the attacks on its
practices. The critics on one side of the debate argue that public relations is
asymmetrical (one-way) and undermines democracy. On the other side of the
debate public relations’ defenders (Cutlip, Dozier, Grunig and others) argue that
public relations practices symmetrical (two-way) communication, but that
“communication programs are conducted for different types of publics” (Grunig
2002). The excellence project has the laudable aim of improving public relations


practice by emphasising the best and demonstrating how others can improve.
However, there has been tendency to marginalise the role of persuasion
(Moloney, 2000), concentrating instead on the positive role that public relations
makes to society and democracy. Between the two is a small body of interested
academics (L’Etang, Pieczka, Moloney, and McKie among others) who note the
extensive involvement of public relations pioneers in wartime government
propaganda (before the term became pejorative) but L’Etang especially
emphasise differences between the growth of the field in the US (where most of
the core public relations texts have come) and in Europe and the UK. This paper
draws on their work and applies some of the issues they raise to the different
models of public relations practice.

The Grunig Models: Grunig vs. others
Grunig and Hunt’s two-way symmetrical model of communication from the four
models of public relations (1984) was once positioned and seen as the ‘ideal’
method of practising public relations but it has fuelled an academic debate by
concentrating on the ethical issue regarding the nature and purpose of public
relations. Pieczka raised her critique in Paradigms, System Theory and Public
Relations (1996) highlighting that Grunig’s model relied on system theory to
understand how public relations functions within an organisation. She further
points out that it was necessary to adopt and adapt an open and living system
to counteract environmental changes both internally and externally to achieve
“an ethical dimension of social responsibility”. (Pieczka 1996, p.351) Cutlip (2009)
notes that in an open system, feedback causes adjustments that reduces,
maintains or increases the deviation of goals. Edwards (2009) points out that
cross-cultural differences may dictate how an organisation practices PR rather
than operate in theoretical structure.

J. Grunig’s response to Pieczka’s argument has been reviewed by Heath (2001)
among many. He admitted that the model was constructed to be ideal and as a
normative public relations theory improve one of the core factors of excellence –
ethics. By positioning ethics at the core of symmetrical communication and


removing persuasion from the process of mutual understanding, Grunig believes
that this will allow both parties (organisation and publics) to use attitudes to
change behaviour. (Grunig et al, 1992, pp.55-61) However from this symmetrical
base, Grunig has developed his situational theory. The aim of this theory is to
anticipate the different responses most relevant to a public relations activity:
how the publics respond to an issue; the amount of and nature of
communication behaviour; the effects of communication and the likelihood of
participation in collective behaviour to pressure groups (Watson and Noble,
2007). Other issues raised formed part of the debate - i) is the role of public
relations frankly to promote the image of an organisation; ii) is public relations
about managing conflict its effect; iii) is public relations there to improve the
relationship between an organisation and its publics and/or to develop positive
and mutually beneficial relationships. They also focused on issues such as the
power of organisations compared to their publics, and the moral legitimacy of
persuasion as opposed to negotiation and compromise.

Miller and Pearson (1989) both disagreed with Grunig’s point that persuasion was
unethical. Pearson was the most influential in this debate, articulating that
persuasion was sometime required to counteract the cognitive dissonance that
may exist with the public thus making persuasion ethical. Murphy (1989) also
joined the debate with his point that organisations are neither symmetrical nor
asymmetrical and introduced the idea of mixed motives from game theory
which uses mathematics to determine beneficial actions. For example, Ford
analysts used cost-benefit analysis in their decision not to recall all Pinto cars and
fix their fuel tanks despite the hazard to human life. If not used properly, game
theory degenerates to gambling at times of crisis in which personal assertiveness
is high and cooperation is low, which can then shift power from the organisation
to its publics.

From a professional view, Grunig and Hunt’s models (1984) has focused on the
various ways in which organisations can view their publics and practice public
relations. Grunig (2001) draws attention to moral aspects of public relations


practice, connecting the concept of ethics and excellence to the two-way
symmetrical model. This is important but in applicational terms models are there
to provide practitioners with points of reference against which the public
relations practices of different organisations can be measured and assessed,
extending their system of communication and expressive forms.

As cited by Botan and Hazleton (2006) and according to Kuhn (1970), theory
frames and guides research in a field, and paradigms are described as a
disciplinary matrix. When Botan (1993) first called for a paradigm struggle in the
Public Relations Review, he acknowledged that public relations was still at a
preparadigmatic state (developing stage). Watson and Noble (2007) wote that
at present the role of theory is limited, but as public relations grows into a global
profession, there will be a higher demand of agreement on models and theory.
European consultancies have made little impact on mainstream public relations
and the globally adaptive British and American run consultancies may keep
reducing their influence. US and UK research traditions are rooted in managerial
theory and papers are based on empirical methods in contrast to the European
style which is more theoretical and normative (McManus and Moss, 1994).

Case study on ethics: Hamleys
In December 2010, Hamleys cancelled plans to bring live penguins into its
London store for the Christmas shopping period after welfare concerns were
raised. Two reindeer were withdrawn from the Regent Street shop a week before
the penguins had been due to arrive next week.

BBC News and Sky News reported that “outraged animal lovers have been
bombarding the famous Regent Street store with complaints and a Facebook
campaign page has been set up to encourage would-be customers to boycott
the brand.”

Even though Hamleys said the animals had been brought into the store in the
past and that they were well cared for by a highly respected and professional


organisation, Will Travers, CEO of Born Free Foundation, said: "Hamleys is the
world's favourite toy store, but they were doing their reputation no good at all by
contemplating a stunt with live animals." Another member of the public said it
was unethical for the store to bring in animals from their habitat to help drives
sales.

The world-famous toy store said that after listening to people's views cancellation
was the best course of action, and issued a statement in response to concerns
raised on social networking sites about the use of live animals.

New ways of communicating: globally and digitally
Companies need to give up old PR models and innovate on communication.
Some cynical practitioners might view theory irrelevant to their work, but as
public relations is becoming more internationalised and following the new trend
of going online, the research on public relations is most likely endless. With the
progress of technology, new models of communication may have to be
designed. Professionalism is a very important discipline that public relations
practitioners will have to display as they go online. As in the Hamleys case study,
if the firm had not listened to the public and communications team had not
been kept abreast with the effects of the decision by using old and new media,
the repercussions would have caused further damage to the organisation’s
reputation. Blogs, Facebook, Twitter and other social web sites are all extensively
used by practitioners today. Organizations work to have a vast online presence
being visible on relevant major social networking sites, twitter and throughout the
blogosphere. This dialogue with their target audiences comes naturally, and if an
individual in the target audience takes part in the debate the possibility is always
there for practitioners to engage. This increases the feeling of openness
(transparency) and authenticity (honesty) that is important in maintaining the
image of listening to the public’s voice.

Digitalisation has enabled organisations to access the media and the publics.
The publics are able to communicate directly within and among themselves.


Brown (2009) suggests organizations should join the conversations. An
implementation of such practice can be beneficial in these respects:

• Companies can engage with customers, build new relationships and
create a new pool of advocates talking positively about their brands
(Weber Shandwick, 2009).

• If interpreted inaccurately, organizations can intervene to try to correct or
enlarge the interpretation. (Grunig, 2009).

• Brands need to keep an online presence to engage in real-time with
media, customers and stakeholders.

Fig. 1: The figure below demonstrates the use of Grunig and Hunt’s four models of
public relations in today’s digital world.

Source: Phillips, D. (2009)


The Model of Strategic Management of Public Relations (Grunig, 2009) provides
a theoretical overview of how public relations practitioners can participate in the
strategic decision-making processes of the organisations. According to J. Grunig
(2009), digital media can be used for:

• Two-way interactive and dialogical communication with stakeholders
(media organisations, employees, financial institutions, regulators etc).

• Environmental scanning research and identification of problems, publics,
and issues (media monitoring).

• Stakeholder and publics segmentation.

• Issues and crises communication programmes.

• Measuring the type and quality of relationships developed with publics,
their cognitions, attitudes and behaviours.

Fig. 2: The Model of Strategic Management of Public Relations

Source: Grunig, J. (2009)


Conclusion
Having noted through experience as a public relations professional that there is
a noticeable reluctance on the part of fellow practitioners to embrace
theoretical frameworks as learning tools, or to acquire wider management skills, it
is suggested that such attitudes might hinder the development of public relations
as a profession and as a strategic management discipline.

For as much as the systems approach provides a framework for exploring and
understanding the underlying aims and purposes of public relations, and for
comparing the impact of different forms of behaviour, Grunig’s models (and that
of others) provide a point of reference against which the public relations
practices of organisations can be compared and evaluated. Leitch and Neilson
(2001) note that for an organisation to be a social actor in a social movement, it
needs to be a shared substance.

Public Relations practitioners must embrace public relations theory as it can
provide for them a language and conceptual structure by means of which they
can both assess and review their performance, and present their disciplines to
organisational leaders or clients within the context of wider management
strategies. By working together with academics to come up with new models of
communication in this rapidly changing world, practitioners can benefit
substantially. The changing landscape means that academic should be more
adaptive and reconsider existing models so that the progress of public relations
as a profession is consistent with contemporary theory.


References:

BBC News, (2010) “London Hamleys abandons live penguin display”. Available
from: <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-11901704> [Accessed on
10 December 2010]

Botan, C., and Hazleton, V. (2006) Public Relations Theory II. (pp.8-10) New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Brown, R., (2009) Public relations and the social web: using social media and
Web 2.0 in communications. London: Kogan Page Limited.

Cutlip, S., Center, A., and Broom, G., (2009) Effective Public Relations. Tenth
Edition. Person Education Inc (Eds.) New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall

Curtin, P., and Boyton, L., (2001), "Ethics in Public Relations: Theory and Practice".
In Heath, R. (Eds), Handbook of Public Relations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Edwards, L., (2009) ‘Systems theories: emergence of public relations research’. In
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Grunig, J., (1992) Communication, public relations and effective organisations:
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and Communications Management. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Grunig, J., (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of
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<http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/globalPR/GRUNIG.pdf >
[Accessed 01 December 2010].

Grunig, J., (2001), "Two-way symmetrical public relations – past, present & future",


in Heath, R. (Eds), Handbook of Public Relations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Grunig, J., and Hunt, T. (1984) Managing Public Relations. Sixth Edition. Orlando,
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Grunig, J., and White, J., (1992) The Effect of Worldwide views on Public Relations
Theory and Practice. In Grunig, J., et al (Eds.) Excellence in Public Relations and
Communications Management. (pp.51-61) New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates

Heath, R., (2001), "Shifting foundations – public relations as relationship building",
Handbook of Public Relations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Heath, R., Toth, E., and Waymer, D., (2009) Rhetorical and Critical Approaches to
Public Relations. Second Edition. New Jersey: Routledge

Leitch, S., & Neilson, D., (2001). Bringing publics into public relations: new
theoretical frameworks for the practice. In Heath, R.(Ed). Handbook of public
relations. (pp.127-138). London: Sage

Neff, B., (2001) Public Relations Identity: Evolving from Academic and Practitioner
Partnerships. In Heath, R.(Ed). Handbook of public relations.. London: Sage

Phillips, D., (2009) “A Grunigian view of model PR. LeverWealth” cited in Grunig,
J., (2009). Paradigms of global public relations in an age of digitalisation. [online]
University of Maryland. Available from:
<http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/globalPR/GRUNIG.pdf >

Pieczka, M., (1996) Paradigms, Systems Theory, and Public Relations. In L’Etang, J.
& Pieczka, M. (Eds) (2006) Public Relations: Critical Debates and Contemporary
Practice, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates


Sky News (2010) Outrage Over Hamleys' Live Penguin Display. Available from:
<http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Hamleys-Penguin-And-Reindeer-
Christmas-Displays-Outrage-Animal-Rights-
Campaigners/Article/201012115844023?chooseNews=videos>

Watson, T., and Noble, P. (2007) The Principles of Public Relations Practice
(pp.1-11) In Evaluating Public Relations: A Best Practice Guide to Public Relations
Planning, Research and Evaluation. Second Edition. London: Kogan Page
Limited

Weber Shandwick. 2009. Do fortune 100 companies need a twittervention.
[online]. Available at:
<http://www.webershandwick.com/resources/ws/flash/twittervention_study.pdf>


PR Theory: Part I by SJB

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