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Practical Handbook
of
Marine
Science
Third Edition

Marine Science Series
The CRC Marine Science Series is dedicated to providing state-of-the-
art coverage of important topics in marine biology, marine chemistry, marine
geology, and physical oceanography. The series includes volumes that focus
on the synthesis of recent advances in marine science.
CRC MARINE SCIENCE SERIES
SERIES EDITOR
Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D.
PUBLISHED TITLES
Artificial Reef Evaluation with Application to Natural Marine Habitats,
William Seaman, Jr.
Chemical Oceanography, Second Edition, Frank J. Millero
Coastal Ecosystem Processes, Daniel M. Alongi
Ecology of Estuaries: Anthropogenic Effects, Michael J. Kennish
Ecology of Marine Bivalves: An Ecosystem Approach, Richard F. Dame
Ecology of Marine Invertebrate Larvae, Larry McEdward
Environmental Oceanography, Second Edition, Tom Beer
Estuary Restoration and Maintenance: The National Estuary Program,
Michael J. Kennish
Eutrophication Processes in Coastal Systems: Origin and Succession
of Plankton Blooms and Effects on Secondary Production in
Gulf Coast Estuaries, Robert J. Livingston
Handbook of Marine Mineral Deposits, David S. Cronan
Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands, Joy B. Zedler
Intertidal Deposits: River Mouths, Tidal Flats, and Coastal Lagoons,
Doeke Eisma
Morphodynamics of Inner Continental Shelves, L. Donelson Wright
Ocean Pollution: Effects on Living Resources and Humans, Carl J. Sindermann
Physical Oceanographic Processes of the Great Barrier Reef, Eric Wolanski
The Physiology of Fishes, Second Edition, David H. Evans
Pollution Impacts on Marine Biotic Communities, Michael J. Kennish
Practical Handbook of Estuarine and Marine Pollution, Michael J. Kennish
Seagrasses: Monitoring, Ecology, Physiology, and Management,
Stephen A. Bortone

Edited by
Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D.
Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences
Rutgers University
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
CRC Press
Practical Handbook
of
Marine
Science
Third Edition

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.
The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
© 2001 by CRC Press LLC
No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2391-6
Library of Congress Card Number 00-060995
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Practical handbook of marine science / edited by Michael J. Kennish.--3rd ed.
p. cm.-- (Marine science series)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 0-8493-2391-6
1. Oceanography. 2. Marine biology. I. Title: Marine science. II. Kennish, Michael J.
III. Series.
GC11.2 .P73 2000
551.46--dc21 00-060995
disclaimer Page 1 Friday, November 17, 2000 5:03 PM

Dedication
This book is dedicated to the Jacques Cousteau National Estuarine Research Reserve
at Mullica River–Great Bay, New Jersey
Fm.fm Page 5 Monday, November 20, 2000 8:58 AM

Preface
This third edition of Practical Handbook of Marine Science provides the most comprehensive
contemporary reference material on the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the marine
realm. Since the publication of the second edition of this book 5 years ago, there have been
significant advances in nearly all areas of marine science. It is the focus of this volume to examine
these developments and to amass significant new data that will have appeal and utility for practicing
marine scientists and students engaged in investigations in oceanography and related disciplines.
Because of its broad coverage of the field, this volume will be valuable as a supplemental text for
undergraduate and graduate marine science courses. In addition, administrators and other profes-
sionals dealing in some way with the management of marine resources and various problems
pertaining to the sea will find the book useful.
Much of this third edition consists of updated material as evidenced by the large number of recent
references (1995 to 1999) cited in the text. This edition contains a systematic collection of selective
physical, chemical, and biological reference data on estuarine and oceanic ecosystems. It is com-
prised of six chapters: Physiography, Marine Chemistry, Physical Oceanography, Marine Geology,
Marine Biology, and Marine Pollution and Other Anthropogenic Impacts. Each chapter is arranged
in a multisectional format, with information presented in expository, illustrative, and tabular formats.
The main purpose of this handbook is the same as the two previous editions: to serve the
multidisciplinary research needs of contemporary marine biologists, marine chemists, marine geol-
ogists, and physical oceanographers. It is also hoped that the publication will serve the academic
needs of a new generation of marine science students.
I wish to acknowledge my colleagues who have been instrumental in enabling me to gain new
insights into the complex and fascinating world of marine science. In particular, in the Institute
of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University I am thankful to Kenneth W. Able, Michael
P. DeLuca, Richard A. Lutz, J. Frederick Grassle, John N. Kraeuter, and Norbert P. Psuty. I also express
my deep appreciation to the editorial staff of CRC Press, especially John B. Sulzycki, who supervised
all editorial and production activities on the book, and Christine Andreasen, who provided technical
editing support on the volume. Finally, I am most appreciative of my wife, Jo-Ann, and sons, Shawn
and Michael, for recognizing the importance of my commitment to complete this volume and for
providing love and support during its preparation.

The Editor
Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D., is a research professor in the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences
at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
He graduated in 1972 from Rutgers University, Camden, New Jersey, with a B.A. degree in
Geology and obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in the same discipline from Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, in 1974 and 1977, respectively.
Dr. Kennish’s professional affiliations include the American Fisheries Society (Mid-Atlantic
Chapter), American Geophysical Union, American Institute of Physics, Atlantic Estuarine Research
Society, New Jersey Academy of Science, and Sigma Xi.
Dr. Kennish has conducted biological and geological research on coastal and deep-sea environ-
ments for more than 25 years. While maintaining a wide range of research interests in marine
ecology and marine geology, Dr. Kennish has been most actively involved with studies of marine
pollution and other anthropogenic impacts in estuarine and coastal marine ecosystems as well as
with biological and geological investigations of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and seafloor spreading
centers. He is the author or editor of ten books dealing with various aspects of estuarine and marine
science. In addition to these books, Dr. Kennish has published more than 100 research articles and
book chapters and has presented papers at numerous conferences. His biographical profile appears
in Who’s Who in Frontiers of Science and Technology, Who’s Who Among Rising Young Americans,
Who’s Who in Science and Engineering, and American Men and Women of Science.

Introduction
Marine science constitutes a broad field of scientific inquiry that encompasses the primary
disciplines of oceanography—marine biology, marine chemistry, marine geology, and physical
oceanography—as well as related disciplines, such as the atmospheric sciences. Its scope is
extensive, covering natural and anthropogenic phenomena in estuaries, harbors, lagoons, shallow
seas, continental shelves, continental slopes, continental rises, abyssal regions, and mid-ocean
ridges. Because of the breadth of its coverage, the study of marine science is necessarily a
multidisciplinary endeavor, requiring the efforts of many scientists from disparate disciplines.
Chapter 1 describes the topography and hypsometry of the world oceans. Emphasis is placed
on the major physiographic provinces (i.e., continental-margin, deep-ocean, and mid-ocean ridge
provinces). The characteristics of the benthic and pelagic provinces in the sea are also discussed.
Chapter 2 examines marine chemistry, focusing on the major, minor, trace, and nutrient elements
in seawater. Information is also presented on dissolved gases and organic compounds in the
hydrosphere. In addition, vertical profiles of the various chemical constituents are detailed. The
major nutrient elements (i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon) are particularly noteworthy because
of their importance to plant growth, with nitrogen being the principal limiting element to primary
production in estuarine and marine waters. However, phosphorus may be the primary limiting
element to autotrophic growth in some estuaries during certain seasons of the year. Low silicon
availability, in turn, can suppress metabolic activity of the cell, can limit phytoplankton production,
and can reduce skeletal growth of diatoms, radiolarians, and siliceous sponges. Hence, these three
nutrient elements play a critically important role in regulating biological production in the sea.
Chapter 3 deals with physical oceanography. It investigates the physical properties of seawater
and the circulation patterns observed in open-ocean, coastal-ocean, and estuarine waters. Waves,
currents, and tidal flow, as well as the forcing mechanisms responsible for their movements, are
assessed. Ocean circulation is divided into two components: (1) wind-driven (surface) currents
and (2) thermohaline (deep) circulation. These components are described for all the major oceans.
A detailed account is given on conspicuous wind-driven circulation patterns (e.g., gyres, meanders,
eddies, and rings). In estuaries, water circulation depends greatly on the magnitude of river
discharge relative to tidal flow. Turbulent mixing in these shallow systems is a function of river
flow acting against tidal motion and interacting with wind stress, internal friction, and bottom
friction. Surface wind stress and meteorological forcing also play a vital role in modulating
circulation in coastal ocean waters.
Chapter 4 addresses marine geology. Major structural features of the seafloor (e.g., mid-ocean
ridges, transform faults, and deep-sea trenches) are explained in light of the theory of plate tectonics,
which represents the unifying paradigm in geology. The dynamic nature of the ocean crust and
seafloor is coupled to the movement of lithospheric plates. The genesis of ocean crust occurs along
a globally encircling mid-ocean ridge and rift system through an interplay of magmatic construction,
hydrothermal convection, and tectonic extension. The destruction of ocean crust, in turn, takes
place at deep-sea trenches. The relative motion of lithospheric plates is responsible for an array
of tectonic and topographic features on the seafloor. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridges, the
deep ocean floor exhibits the following prominent topographic features: abyssal hills and plains,
seamounts, aseismic ridges, and trenches. The continental margins are typified by continental rises,
slopes, and shelves. The seafloor is blanketed by sediments in most areas. Terrigenous sediments
predominate on the continental margins. The deep ocean floor contains a variety of sediment types,
with various admixtures of biogenous, terrigenous, authigenic, volcanogenic, and cosmogenic
components. The relative concentration of these sediment components at any site depends on water
depth, the proximity to landmasses, biological productivity of overlying waters, volcanic activity
on the seafloor, as well as other factors.

Marine biology is treated in Chapter 5. Major taxonomic groups of plants and animals found
in estuarine and oceanic environments are reviewed. Included here are various groups of phyto-
plankton, zooplankton, benthic flora and fauna, and nekton. Data are compiled on the abundance,
biomass, density, distribution, and diversity of these organisms. Information is also chronicled on
estuarine and marine habitats.
Chapter 6 conveys the seriousness of pollution and other anthropogenic impacts on biotic
communities and habitats in estuarine and marine environments. Acute and insidious pollution
problems encountered in these environments are commonly linked to nutrient and organic carbon
loading, oil spills, and toxic chemical contaminant inputs (i.e., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
halogenated hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and radioactive substances). Many human activities
disrupt and degrade habitats, leading to significant decreases in abundance of organisms. For
example, uncontrolled coastal development, altered natural flows, overexploitation of fisheries, and
the introduction of exotic species can have devastating effects on estuarine and coastal marine
systems. The impacts of human activities—especially in the coastal zone—will continue to be a
major issue in marine science during the 21st century.

Contents
Chapter 1 Physiography
I. Ocean Provinces.......................................................................................................................1
A. Dimensions.........................................................................................................................1
B. Physiographic Provinces....................................................................................................2
1. Continental Margin Province........................................................................................2
2. Deep-Ocean Basin Province.........................................................................................2
3. Mid-Ocean Ridge Province ..........................................................................................3
C. Benthic and Pelagic Provinces ..........................................................................................3
1. Benthic Province...........................................................................................................3
2. Pelagic Province............................................................................................................4
1.1 Conversion Factors, Measures, and Units ..................................................................................5
1.2 General Features of the Earth...................................................................................................10
1.3 General Characteristics of the Oceans .....................................................................................14
1.4 Topographic Data......................................................................................................................17
Chapter 2 Marine Chemistry
I. Seawater Composition ...........................................................................................................45
A. Major Constituents...........................................................................................................45
B. Minor and Trace Elements...............................................................................................46
C. Nutrient Elements ............................................................................................................47
1. Nitrogen ......................................................................................................................47
2. Phosphorus..................................................................................................................48
3. Silicon .........................................................................................................................48
D. Gases ................................................................................................................................48
E. Organic Compounds.........................................................................................................49
F. Dissolved Constituent Behavior ......................................................................................49
G. Vertical Profiles................................................................................................................49
1. Conservative Profile....................................................................................................49
2. Nutrient-Type Profile ..................................................................................................49
3. Surface Enrichment and Depletion at Depth .............................................................50
4. Mid-Depth Minima.....................................................................................................50
5. Mid-Depth Maxima ....................................................................................................50
6. Mid-Depth Maxima or Minima in the Suboxic Layer ..............................................50
7. Maxima and Minima in Anoxic Waters .....................................................................50
H. Salinity .............................................................................................................................51
2.1 Periodic Table.........................................................................................................................54
2.2 Properties of Seawater ...........................................................................................................59
2.3 Atmospheric and Fluvial Fluxes............................................................................................68
2.4 Composition of Seawater.......................................................................................................76
2.5 Trace Elements.......................................................................................................................88
2.6 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Chemistry ..............................................................................98
2.7 Organic Matter .....................................................................................................................107
2.8 Decomposition of Organic Matter.......................................................................................126
2.9 Oxygen .................................................................................................................................128
2.10 Nutrients...............................................................................................................................136
2.11 Carbon ..................................................................................................................................153
Fm.fm Page 13 Wednesday, November 22, 2000 1:25 PM

Chapter 3 Physical Oceanography
I. Subject Areas........................................................................................................................167
II. Properties of Seawater .........................................................................................................167
A. Temperature....................................................................................................................167
B. Salinity ...........................................................................................................................168
C. Density ...........................................................................................................................168
III. Open Ocean Circulation.......................................................................................................169
A. Wind-Driven Circulation................................................................................................169
1. Ocean Gyres..............................................................................................................169
2. Meanders, Eddies, and Rings ...................................................................................169
3. Equatorial Currents...................................................................................................170
4. Antarctic Circumpolar Current.................................................................................171
5. Convergences and Divergences ................................................................................171
6. Ekman Transport, Upwelling, and Downwelling.....................................................171
7. Langmuir Circulation................................................................................................172
B. Surface Water Circulation..............................................................................................172
1. Atlantic Ocean ..........................................................................................................172
2. Pacific Ocean ............................................................................................................173
3. Indian Ocean.............................................................................................................173
4. Southern Ocean.........................................................................................................173
5. Arctic Sea..................................................................................................................173
C. Thermohaline Circulation ..............................................................................................174
1. Atlantic Ocean ..........................................................................................................174
2. Pacific Ocean ............................................................................................................174
3. Indian Ocean.............................................................................................................175
4. Arctic Sea..................................................................................................................175
IV. Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Circulation............................................................................176
A. Estuaries .........................................................................................................................176
B. Coastal Ocean ................................................................................................................177
1. Currents.....................................................................................................................177
2. Fronts ........................................................................................................................178
3. Waves ........................................................................................................................178
a. Kelvin and Rossby Waves...............................................................................178
b. Edge Waves......................................................................................................179
c. Seiches .............................................................................................................179
d. Internal Waves .................................................................................................179
e. Tides.................................................................................................................179
f. Surface Waves..................................................................................................180
g. Tsunamis..........................................................................................................182
3.1 Direct and Remote Sensing (Oceanographic Applications)................................................185
3.2 Light .....................................................................................................................................193
3.3 Temperature..........................................................................................................................196
3.4 Salinity .................................................................................................................................201
3.5 Tides .....................................................................................................................................206
3.6 Wind .....................................................................................................................................211
3.7 Waves and Their Properties .................................................................................................215
3.8 Coastal Waves and Currents ................................................................................................220
3.9 Circulation in Estuaries........................................................................................................238
3.10 Ocean Circulation ................................................................................................................258

Chapter 4 Marine Geology
I. Plate Tectonics Theory.........................................................................................................279
II. Seafloor Topographic Features ............................................................................................280
A. Mid-Ocean Ridges .........................................................................................................280
B. Deep Ocean Floor..........................................................................................................282
1. Abyssal Hills.............................................................................................................282
2. Abyssal Plains...........................................................................................................283
3. Seamounts .................................................................................................................283
4. Aseismic Ridges .......................................................................................................283
5. Deep-Sea Trenches ...................................................................................................284
C. Continental Margins.......................................................................................................285
1. Continental Shelf ......................................................................................................285
2. Continental Slope......................................................................................................285
3. Continental Rise........................................................................................................286
III. Sediments .............................................................................................................................286
A. Deep Ocean Floor..........................................................................................................286
1. Terrigenous Sediment ...............................................................................................287
2. Biogenous Sediment .................................................................................................288
a. Calcareous Oozes.................................................................................................288
b. Siliceous Oozes....................................................................................................289
3. Pelagic Sediment Distribution..................................................................................289
4. Authigenic Sediment.................................................................................................290
5. Volcanogenic Sediment.............................................................................................291
6. Cosmogenic Sediment ..............................................................................................291
7. Deep-Sea Sediment Thickness .................................................................................291
B. Continental Margins.......................................................................................................291
1. Continental Shelves ..................................................................................................292
2. Continental Slopes and Rises ...................................................................................293
4.1 Composition and Structure of the Earth...............................................................................297
4.2 Ocean Basins.........................................................................................................................303
4.3 Continental Margins..............................................................................................................305
4.4 Submarine Canyons and Oceanic Trenches .........................................................................311
4.5 Plate Tectonics, Mid-Ocean Ridges, and Oceanic Crust Formation ...................................335
4.6 Heat Flow..............................................................................................................................353
4.7 Hydrothermal Vents...............................................................................................................362
4.8 Lava Flows and Seamounts ..................................................................................................384
4.9 Marine Mineral Deposits ......................................................................................................397
4.10 Marine Sediments .................................................................................................................404
4.11 Estuaries, Beaches, and Continental Shelves.......................................................................410
Chapter 5 Marine Biology
I. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................441
II. Bacteria ..............................................................................................................................441
III. Phytoplankton.......................................................................................................................444
A. Major Taxonomic Groups..............................................................................................445
1. Diatoms .....................................................................................................................445
2. Dinoflagellates ..........................................................................................................445
3. Coccolithophores ......................................................................................................445
4. Silicoflagellates .........................................................................................................446
B. Primary Productivity......................................................................................................446

IV. Zooplankton .........................................................................................................................447
A. Zooplankton Classifications...........................................................................................447
1. Classification by Size................................................................................................447
2. Classification by Length of Planktonic Life ............................................................448
a. Holoplankton........................................................................................................448
b. Meroplankton .......................................................................................................448
c. Tychoplankton......................................................................................................449
V. Benthos.................................................................................................................................450
A. Benthic Flora..................................................................................................................450
1. Salt Marshes..............................................................................................................452
2. Seagrasses .................................................................................................................453
3. Mangroves.................................................................................................................454
B. Benthic Fauna ................................................................................................................454
1. Spatial Distribution...................................................................................................455
2. Reproduction and Larval Dispersal..........................................................................456
3. Feeding Strategies, Burrowing, and Bioturbation....................................................457
4. Biomass and Species Diversity ................................................................................458
a. Biomass ................................................................................................................458
b. Diversity ...............................................................................................................459
C. Coral Reefs.....................................................................................................................459
VI. Nekton ..................................................................................................................................460
A. Fish.................................................................................................................................460
1. Representative Fish Faunas ......................................................................................461
a. Estuaries ...............................................................................................................461
b. Pelagic Environment ............................................................................................461
i. Neritic Zone....................................................................................................461
ii. Epipelagic Zone..............................................................................................461
iii. Mesopelagic Zone ..........................................................................................461
iv. Bathypelagic Zone..........................................................................................461
v. Abyssopelagic Zone .......................................................................................461
c. Benthic Environment ...........................................................................................461
i. Supratidal Zone...............................................................................................461
ii. Intertidal Zone ................................................................................................461
iii. Subtidal Zone..................................................................................................462
iv. Bathyal Zone...................................................................................................462
v. Abyssal Zone ..................................................................................................462
vi. Hadal Zone .....................................................................................................462
B. Crustaceans and Cephalopods .......................................................................................462
C. Marine Reptiles..............................................................................................................462
D. Marine Mammals ...........................................................................................................463
E. Seabirds ..........................................................................................................................463
5.1 Marine Organisms: Major Groups and Composition...........................................................470
5.2 Biological Production in the Ocean .....................................................................................479
5.3 Bacteria and Protozoa...........................................................................................................491
5.4 Marine Plankton....................................................................................................................497
5.5 Benthic Flora.........................................................................................................................504
5.6 Benthic Fauna .......................................................................................................................541
5.7 Nekton ...................................................................................................................................561
5.8 Fisheries ................................................................................................................................571
5.9 Food Webs.............................................................................................................................572

5.10 Carbon Flow.........................................................................................................................580
5.11 Coastal Systems ...................................................................................................................587
5.12 Deep-Sea Systems................................................................................................................594
Chapter 6 Marine Pollution and Other Anthropogenic Impacts
I. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................621
II. Types of Anthropogenic Impacts.........................................................................................622
A. Marine Pollution ............................................................................................................622
1. Nutrient Loading.......................................................................................................622
2. Organic Carbon Loading ..........................................................................................624
3. Oil..............................................................................................................................625
4. Toxic Chemicals........................................................................................................627
a. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons.....................................................................627
b. Halogenated Hydrocarbons..................................................................................628
c. Heavy Metals .......................................................................................................630
d. Radioactive Substances........................................................................................631
B. Other Anthropogenic Impacts........................................................................................632
1. Coastal Development................................................................................................632
2. Marine Debris ...........................................................................................................633
3. Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal................................................................634
4. Oil Production and Marine Mining..........................................................................635
5. Exploitation of Fisheries...........................................................................................635
6. Boats and Marinas ....................................................................................................636
7. Electric Generating Stations .....................................................................................637
8. Altered Natural Flows...............................................................................................638
9. Introduced Species....................................................................................................638
III. Conclusions ..........................................................................................................................639
6.1 Sources of Marine Pollution.................................................................................................647
6.2 Watershed Effects..................................................................................................................654
6.3 Contamination Effects on Organisms...................................................................................671
6.4 Nutrients................................................................................................................................683
6.5 Organic Carbon.....................................................................................................................694
6.6 Sewage Waste........................................................................................................................709
6.7 Pathogens...............................................................................................................................721
6.8 Oil..........................................................................................................................................724
6.9 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons......................................................................................738
6.10 Halogenated Hydrocarbons...................................................................................................754
6.11 Heavy Metals ........................................................................................................................785
6.12 Radioactive Waste .................................................................................................................807
6.13 Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal............................................................................826
Index ..............................................................................................................................................837

1
CHAPTER 1
Physiography
I. OCEAN PROVINCES
A. Dimensions
The world oceans including the adjacent seas cover 71% of the earth’s surface (3.6
108 km2), and they have a total volume of 1.35 109 km3. The mean depth of all the oceans amounts
to 3700 m, with the Pacific Ocean being deepest (4188 m), followed by the Indian Ocean (3872 m)
and the Atlantic Ocean (3844 m). Nearly 75% of the ocean basins lie within the depth zone between
3000 and 6000 m. The seas are much shallower, being 1200 m deep or less. The Pacific Ocean
is by far the largest and deepest ocean, comprising 50.1% of the world ocean and occupying more
than one third of the earth’s surface. By comparison, the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean constitute
29.4 and 20.5% of the world ocean, respectively. The oceans range from 5000 km (Atlantic) to
17,000 km (Pacific) in width.
Ocean water is not evenly distributed around the globe. In the southern hemisphere, the
percentage of water (80.9%) to land (19.1%) far exceeds that of the percentage of water (60.7%)
to land (39.3%) in the northern hemisphere. This uneven distribution greatly affects world meteo-
rological and ocean circulation patterns.
The mean temperature of the oceans is 3.51°C, and the mean salinity 34.7‰. Excluding the
Southern Ocean as a separate entity, the Pacific Ocean exhibits the lowest temperatures and salinities
with mean values of 3.14°C and 34.6‰, respectively. In contrast, highest mean temperatures
(3.99°C) and salinities (34.92‰) exist in the Atlantic Ocean despite its large volume of riverine
inflow. This is particularly true in the North Atlantic, where the mean temperature (5.08°C) and
salinity (35.09‰) exceed those of all other major ocean basins. The Indian Ocean has intermediate
mean temperature (3.88°C) and salinity (34.78‰) values.
The major oceans also include marginal seas. Some of these smaller systems are bounded by
land or island chains (e.g., Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Sea of Japan). Others not
bounded off by land are distinguished by local oceanographic characteristics (e.g., Labrador,
Norwegian, and Tasman seas).1 Marginal seas can strongly influence temperature and salinity
conditions of the major ocean basins. For example, the warm, saline waters of the Mediterranean
Sea can be detected over thousands of kilometers at mid-depths in the Atlantic Ocean.
Comparing oceanic depths and land elevations on earth, it is quite clear that relative to sea
level, the landmasses are not as high as the oceans are deep. As demonstrated by a hypsographic
curve, 84% of the ocean floor exceeds 2000 m depth, while only 11% of the land surface is greater
than 2000 m above sea level. The maximum oceanic depth, recorded in the Mariana Trench in the
western Pacific, amounts to 11,035 m. The highest elevation on land, Mt. Everest, is 8848 m.
CH-01.fm Page 1 Friday, November 17, 2000 5:05 PM

2 PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF MARINE SCIENCE
B. Physiographic Provinces
1. Continental Margin Province
The ocean floor is divided into three major physiographic provinces—the continental margins,
deep-ocean basins, and mid-ocean ridges—characterized by distinctive bathymetry and unique
landforms.2,3 The continental margins represent the submerged edges of the continents, and they
consist of the continental shelf, slope, and rise, which extend seaward from the shoreline down to
depths of 2000 to 3000 m. The continental shelf is underlain by a thick wedge of sediment
derived from continental sources. Here, the ocean bottom slopes gently seaward at an angle of
0.5°. Although typified by broad expanses of nearly flat terrain, many shelf regions also exhibit
irregularly distributed hills, valleys, and depressions of low to moderate relief. Continental shelves,
which range from 5 km in width along the Pacific coasts of North and South America to as much
as 1500 km along the Arctic Ocean, average 7.5 km in width worldwide. They cover 7% of
the total area of the ocean floor. The outer margin of continental shelves lies at a depth of 150
to 200 m, where the slope of the ocean bottom increases abruptly to 1 to 4°, marking the shelf
break.
The continental slope occurs seaward of the shelf break, being inclined at 4°. It descends to
the upper limit of the continental rise. Sediments underneath the continental slope are commonly
incised by submarine canyons having steep-sided, V-shaped profiles. These erosional features, with
a topographic relief of 1 to 2 km, are usually cut by turbidity currents. They serve as conduits for
the transport of sediment from the continental shelf to the deep-ocean basins. Examples are the
Hudson, Baltimore, LaJolla, and Redondo canyons.
The continental rise is a gently sloping apron of sediment accumulating at the base of the
continental slope and spreading across the deep seafloor to adjacent abyssal plains. It is a topo-
graphically smooth feature, sloping at an angle of 1° and covering hundreds of kilometers of the
ocean floor down to depths of 4000 m. Clay, silt, and sand turbidite deposits underlying the rise
may accumulate to several kilometers in thickness, being transported by turbidity currents from
the nearby continental shelf and slope.
2. Deep-Ocean Basin Province
The deep-ocean basins are found seaward of the continental rises at a depth of 3000 to 5000 m.
Significant topographic features within this province include abyssal plains, abyssal hills, deep-sea
trenches, and seamounts. As such, the topography is more variable than in the continental margin
physiographic province, ranging from nearly flat plains to steep-sided volcanic edifices and deep
narrow trenches.
With slopes of less than 1 m/km, the abyssal plains are the flattest areas on earth. They consist
primarily of fine-grained sediments ranging from 100 m to more than 1000 m in thickness. These
level ocean basin regions form by the slow deposition of clay, silt, and sand particles (turbidites)
transported via turbidity currents off the outer continental shelf and slope, ultimately burying a
significant amount of the volcanic terrane.3 A large fraction of the sediments are transported to the
deep sea through submarine canyons.
Abyssal hills and seamounts frequently dot the seafloor in the deep-ocean basin province.
Typically of volcanic origin, the abyssal hills rise as much as 1000 m above the seafloor, but
generally have an average relief of only 200 m. Some appear as elongated hills, and others as
domes ranging from 5 to 100 km in width. In contrast, seamounts with circular, ovoid, or lobate
shapes usually protrude more than a kilometer above the surrounding seafloor, and typically have
slopes of 5 to 25°. Large intraplate volcanoes may approach 10 km in height. Occasionally,
seamounts merge into a chain of aseismic ridges. Flat-topped forms, referred to as guyots, develop

PHYSIOGRAPHY 3
as the volcanic peaks are eroded during emergence. Seamounts are most numerous in the Pacific
Ocean basin, where as many as 1 million edifices cover 13% of the seafloor.4
The greatest ocean depths (11,000 m) have been recorded in deep-sea trenches. These long,
narrow depressions are on average 3000 to 5000 m deeper than the ocean basins. They are bordered
by volcanic island arcs or continental margin magmatic belts, and mark the sites of major lithos-
pheric subduction zones. Deep-sea trenches represent tectonically active areas associated with
strong earthquakes and volcanism.
3. Mid-Ocean Ridge Province
The largest and most volcanically active chain of mountains on earth occurs along a globally
encircling mid-ocean ridge (MOR) and rift system that extends through all the major ocean basins
as seafloor spreading centers. It is along the 75,000-km global length of MORs where new oceanic
crust forms through an interplay of magmatic construction, hydrothermal convection, and tectonic
extension.5,6 These spreading centers are sites of active basaltic volcanism, shallow-focus earth-
quakes, and high rates of heat flow.
The seafloor at MORs consists of a narrow neovolcanic zone (1 to 4 km wide) flanked
successively by a zone of crustal fissuring (0.5 to 3 km) and a zone of active faulting out to a
distance of 10 km from the spreading axis. The neovolcanic zone is the region of most recent
volcanic activity along the ridge. The summit of the ridge is marked by a rift valley, axial summit
caldera, or axial summit graben. The MOR system is segmented along-axis by transform faults,
which commonly extend far into deep-ocean basins as inactive fracture zones. The irregular
partitioning of the ridge axis by transform faults creates a hierarchy of discontinuities.7
The mid-ocean ridge physiographic province lies at a depth of 2000 to 3000 m. The volcanic
ridges comprising this mountain system are comparable in physical dimensions to those on the
continents. Most seamounts form on or near mid-ocean ridges. The inner valley floor of the northern
Mid-Atlantic Ridge is composed of piled-up seamounts and hummocky pillow flows, representing
the product of crustal accretion.8–10 They account for highly variable and rugged volcanic landscapes.
As this volcanic material and the remaining newly formed lithosphere cool and subside on either
side of the MOR, the elevations of the submarine volcanic mountains decline, and the topography
becomes less rugged. The original volcanic topography also is gradually buried under a thick apron
of sediments as the lithosphere moves away from the MOR.
C. Benthic and Pelagic Provinces
1. Benthic Province
The oceans can also be subdivided on the basis of major habitats on the seafloor (benthic
province) and in the water column (pelagic province). The benthic province consists of five discrete
zones: littoral, sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, and hadal. The littoral (or intertidal) zone encompasses
the bottom habitat between the high and low tide marks. Immediately seaward, the sublittoral (or
subtidal) zone defines the benthic region from mean low water to the shelf break at a depth of
200 m. The seafloor extending from the shelf break to a depth of 2000 m corresponds to the
bathyal zone. The deepest benthic habitats include the abyssal zone from 2000 to 6000 m depth
and the hadal zone below 6000 m. These zones roughly conform with the aforementioned physi-
ographic provinces. For example, the sublittoral zone represents the benthic environment of the
continental shelf. The bathyal zone corresponds to the continental slope and rise, and the abyssal
zone to the deep-ocean basins exclusive of the trenches, which are represented by the hadal zone.
The abyssal zone accounts for 75% of the benthic habitat area of the oceans, and the bathyal and
sublittoral zones 16 and 8% of the area, respectively.

2. Pelagic Province
Pelagic environments are subdivided into neritic and oceanic zones. The neritic zone includes
all waters overlying the continental shelf, and the oceanic zone, all waters seaward from the shelf
break. Waters of the oceanic zone are further subdivided into the epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathy-
pelagic, abyssalpelagic, and hadalpelagic regions. Epipelagic waters constitute the uppermost por-
tion of the water column extending from the sea surface down to a depth of 200 m. The waters
between 200 and 1000 m constitute the mesopelagic zone, and those between 1000 and 2000 m,
the bathypelagic zone. Deepest ocean waters of the pelagic province occur in the abyssalpelagic
zone, located between 2000 m and 6000 m depth, and in the underlying hadalpelagic zone,
occupying the deep-sea trenches. The abyssalpelagic, mesopelagic, and bathypelagic zones contain
the greatest volume of seawater, amounting to 54, 28, and 15% of all water present in the oceanic
zone, respectively.
REFERENCES
1. Pickard, G. L. and Emery, W. J., Descriptive Physical Oceanography: An Introduction, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1985.
2. Millero, F. J., Marine Chemistry, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997.
3. Pinet, P. R., Invitation to Oceanography, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, MA, 1998.
4. Smith, D. K., Seamount abundances and size distribution, and their geographic variations, Rev. Aquat.
Sci., 5, 197, 1991.
5. Macdonald, K. C. and Fox, P. J., The mid-ocean ridge, Sci. Am., 262, 72, 1990.
6. Cann, J. R., Elderfield, H., and Laughton, A. S., Eds., Mid-Ocean Ridges: Dynamics of Processes
Associated with Creation of New Ocean Crust, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1998.
7. Macdonald, K. C., Scheirer, D. S., and Carbotte, S. M., Mid-ocean ridges: discontinuities, segments,
and giant cracks, Science, 253, 968, 1991.
8. Smith, D. K. and Cann, J. R., The role of seamount volcanism in crustal construction at the Mid-
Atlantic (24°–30°), J. Geophys. Res., 97, 1645, 1992.
9. Smith, D. K. and Cann, J. R., Building the crust at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Nature, 365, 707, 1993.
10. Smith, D. K., Mid-Atlantic Ridge volcanism from deep-towed side-scan sonar images, 25–29°N,
J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 67, 233, 1995.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 5
1.1 CONVERSION FACTORS, MEASURES, AND UNITS
Table 1.1–1 Recommended Decimal
Multiples and Submultiples
Multiples and
Submultiples Prefixes Symbols
1018 exa E
1015 peca P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deca da
101 deci d
102 centi c
103 milli m
104 micro
109 nano n
1012 pico p
1015 femto f
1018 atto a
Source: Beyer, W. H., Ed., CRC Standard Math-
ematical Tables, 28th ed., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 1987, 1. With permission.
Table 1.1–2 Conversion Factors
Metric to English
To Obtain Multiply By
Inches Centimeters 0.3937007874
Feet Meters 3.280839895
Yards Meters 1.093613298
Miles Kilometers 0.6213711922
Ounces Grams 3.527396195 102
Pounds Kilograms 2.204622622
Gallons (U.S. liquid) Liters 0.2641720524
Fluid ounces Milliliters (cc) 3.381402270 102
Square inches Square centimeters 0.1550003100
Square feet Square meters 10.76391042
Square yards Square meters 1.195990046
Cubic inches Milliliters (cc) 6.102374409 102
Cubic feet Cubic meters 35.31466672
Cubic yards Cubic meters 1.307950619

Table 1.1–2 Conversion Factors (continued)
English to Metrica
Microns Mils 25.4
Centimeters Inches 2.54
Meters Feet 0.3048
Meters Yards 0.9144
Kilometers Miles 1.609344
Grams Ounces 28.34952313
Kilograms Pounds 0.45359237
Liters Gallons (U.S. liquid) 3.785411784
Milliliters (cc) Fluid ounces 29.57352956
Square centimeters Square inches 6.4516
Square meters Square feet 0.09290304
Square meters Square yards 0.83612736
Milliliters (cc) Cubic inches 16.387064
Cubic meters Cubic feet 2.831684659 102
Cubic meters Cubic yards 0.764554858
Conversion Factors—Generala
Atmospheres Feet of water @ 4°C 2.950 102
Atmospheres Inches of mercury @ 0°C 3.342 102
Atmospheres Pounds per square inch 6.804 102
BTU Foot-pounds 1.285 103
BTU Joules 9.480 10 4
Cubic feet Cords 128
Degree (angle) Radians 57.2958
Ergs Foot-pounds 1.356 107
Feet Miles 5280
Feet of water @ 4°C Atmospheres 33.90
Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours 1.98 106
Foot-pounds Kilowatt-hours 2.655 106
Foot-pounds per min Horsepower 3.3 104
Horsepower Foot-pounds per second 1.818 103
Inches of mercury @ 0°C Pounds per square inch 2.036
Joules BTU 1054.8
Joules Foot-pounds 1.35582
Kilowatts BTU per minute 1.758 102
Kilowatts Foot-pounds per minute 2.26 105
Kilowatts Horsepower 0.745712
Knots Miles per hour 0.86897624
Miles Feet 1.894 104
Nautical miles Miles 0.86897624
Radians Degrees 1.745 102
Square feet Acres 43560
Watts BTU per minute 17.5796
Temperature Factors
°F 9/5 (°C) 32
Fahrenheit temperature 1.8 (temperature in kelvins) 459.67
°C 5/9 [(°F) 32]
Fahrenheit temperature 1.8 (Celsius temperature) 32
Celsius temperature temperature in kelvins 273.15
a Boldface numbers are exact; others are given to ten significant figures where so
indicated by the multiplier factor.
Source: Beyer, W. H., Ed., CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 28th ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1987, 21. With permission.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 7
Table
1.1–3
Metric
and
U.S.
System,
Measures,
Units,
and
Conversions
Lengths
Area
Metric
System
U.S.
System
Metric
System
U.S.
System
10
8
cm
1Å
3.937
10
9
in.
1
mm
2
0.00155
in.
2
(sq.
in.)
10
4
cm
1

3.937
10
5
in.
1
cm
2
0.155
in.
2
1
cm
0.3937
in.
6.45163
cm
2
1
in.
2
2.540
cm
1
in.
0.0929
m
2
1
ft
2
0.3048
1
ft
0.83613
m
2
1
yd
2
0.9144
m
1
yd
1
m
2
10.7639
ft
2
10
2
cm
1
m
1.09361
yd
1
km
2
0.3861
mi
2
1.8288
m
1
fathom
2.58998
km
2
1
mi
2
10
5
cm
1
km
0.62137
mi
1.60935
km
1
mi
1.852
km
1
int.
nautical
mi
Volume
Liquid
Measures
Metric
System
U.S.
System
Metric
System
U.S.
System
1
mm
3
0.6102
10
4
in.
3
(cu.
in.)
1
ml
0.0610
in.
3
1
cm
3
0.06102
in.
3
0.473
l
28.875
in.
3
1
pt
16.3872
cm
3
1
in.
3
1
ft
3
1
yd
3
0.946
l
57.749
in.
3
1
qt
0.02831
m
3
1
l
61.0
in.
3
1.0567
qt
0.76456
m
3
3.7853
l
231
in.
3
1
gal
1m
3
1.30794
yd
3
Mass
Density
Metric
System
U.S.
System
Metric
System
U.S.
System
1
g
1
g/cm
3
0.036127
lb/in.
3
28.349
g
1
oz
av
27.68
g/cm
3
1
lb/in.
3
453.59
g
1
lb
av
(lb
av)
a
0.0160
g/cm
3
1
lb/ft
3
1
kg
2.20462
lb
av
907.1848
kg
1
t
1.1023
ton
sh
1016.047
kg
1
ton
1
(long
ton)
(continued)
0.035
oz
av
(ounce
av)
1
ton
sh
(short
ton)

Table
1.1–3
Metric
and
U.S.
System,
Measures,
Units,
and
Conversions
(continued)
Energy
erg
Joule
mt
k
W
int
h
kcal
t
Liter-atmos.
BTU
erg
1
0.9997

10
7
2.7769

10
14
2.389

10
11
9.8692

10
10
9.4805

10
11
Joule
int
1.0002

10
7
1
2.7778

10
7
2.390

10
4
9.8722

10
3
9.480

10
4
kW
int
h
3.6011

10
13
3.6000

10
6
1
8.6041

10
2
3.5540

10
4
3.413

10
3
Kcal
15
4.1853

10
10
4.186

10
3
1.1622

10
3
1
4.1306

10
1
3.9685
Liter-atmos.
1.0133

10
9
1.0133

10
2
2.8137

10
5
2.421

10
2
1
9.607

10
2
BTU
1.0548

10
10
1.0548

10
3
2.930

10
4
2.5198

10
1
1.0409

10
1
1
Pressure
bar
Torr
atm.
at
lb/in.
2
1
bar
(10
6
dyn/cm
2)
1
750
0.98692
1.0197
14.504
1
torr
0.00133
1
0.00131
0.001359
0.01934
1
atm
1.0133
760
1
1.033
14.696
1
at
(1
kg/cm
2
)
0.98067
735.56
0.96784
1
14.223
1
lb/in.
2
0.06895
51.7144
0.068046
0.07031
1
CH-01.fm Page 8 Wednesday, November 22, 2000 10:49 AM

PHYSIOGRAPHY 9
Temperature
Absolute
Centigrade
or
Kelvin
(K)

°K

T°C

273.18
Degrees
Centigrade
(°C)

°C

5/9
(
T°F

32)
Degrees
Fahrenheit
(°F)

°C

5/4
T°R

°F

9/4
T°R

32

°F

9/5
T°C

32
Degrees
Réaumur
(°R)

°R

4/9
(
T°F

32)

°R

4/5
T°C
Centigrade
to
Fahrenheit
°C
°F
°C
°F
°C
°F
200
328
60
140
200
392
150
238
70
158
250
482
100
148
80
176
300
572
50
58
90
194
400
752
0
32
100
212
500
932
Centigrade
to
Fahrenheit
°C
°F
°C
°F
°C
°F
10
50
110
230
600
1112
20
68
120
248
700
1292
30
86
130
266
800
1472
40
104
140
284
900
1652
50
122
150
302
1000
1832
a
1
lb
av

1
pound
avoirdupois
is
the
mass
of
27.662
in.
3
.
Source:
Heydemann,
A.,
Handbook
of
Geochemistry,
Vol.
1,
Wedepohl,
K.
H.,
Ed.,
Springer-Verlag,
Berlin,
1969.
With
permission.

1.2 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH
Figure 1.2–1 Divisions of the earth’s surface. (From Millero, F. J., Chemical Oceanography, 2nd ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996, 4. With permission.)
Table 1.2–1 Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth
Quantity Symbol Value Unit
Mass M 5.9742 1027 g
Major orbital semi-axis aorb 1.000000 AU
1.4959787 108 km
Distance from sun at perihelion rx 0.9833 AU
Distance from sun at aphelion r 1.0167 AU
Moment of perihelion passage Tx Jan. 2, 4 h 52 min
Moment of aphelion passage T July 4, 5 h 05 min
Siderial rotation period around sun Porb 31.5581 106 s
365.25636 d
Mean rotational velocity Uorb 29.78 km/s
Mean equatorial radius 6378.140 km
Mean polar compression (flattening factor) 1/298.257
Difference in equatorial and polar semi-axes a c 21.385 km
Compression of meridian of major equatorial axis a 1/295.2
Compression of meridian of minor equatorial axis b 1/298.0
Equatorial compression 1/30,000
Difference in equatorial semi-axes a b 213 m
Difference in polar semi-axes cN cS 70 m
Polar asymmetry 1.105
Mean acceleration of gravity at equator ge 9.78036 m/s2
Mean acceleration of gravity at poles gp 9.83208 m/s2
Difference in acceleration of gravity at pole and
at equator
gp ge 5.172 cm/s2
Mean acceleration of gravity for entire surface
of terrestrial ellipsoid
g 9.7978 m/s2
a

PHYSIOGRAPHY 11
Table 1.2–1 Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth (continued)
Quantity Symbol Value Unit
Mean radius R 6371.0 km
Area of surface S 5.10 108 km2
Volume V 1.0832 1012 km3
Mean density 5.515 g/cm3
Siderial rotational period P 86,164.09 s
Rotational angular velocity 7.292116 105 rad/s
Mean equatorial rotational velocity v 0.46512 km/s
Rotational angular momentum L 5.861 1033 J s
Rotational energy E 2.137 1029 J
Ratio of centrifugal force to force of gravity
at equator
qc 0.0034677 1/288
Moment of inertia I 8.070 1037 kg m2
Relative braking of earth’s rotation due
to tidal friction
e / 4.2 108 century1
Relative secular acceleration of earth’s rotation i / 1.4 108 century1
Not secular braking of earth’s rotation / 2.8 108 century1
Probable value of total energy of tectonic
deformation of earth
Et 1 1023 J/century
Secular loss of heat of earth through radiation
into space
Ek 1 1023 J/century
Portion of earth’s kinetic energy transformed into
heat as a result of lunar and solar tides in the
hydrosphere
Ek 1.3 1023 J/century
Differences in duration of days in March and August P 0.0025 (March–August) s
Corresponding relative annual variation in earth’s
rotational velocity
*/ 2.9 108 (Aug.–March)
Presumed variation in earth’s radius between
August and March
*R 9.2 (Aug.–March) cm
Annual variation in level of world ocean ho 10 (Sept.–March) cm
Area of continents SC 1.49 108 km2
29.2 % of surface
Area of world ocean So 3.61 108 km2
70.8 % of surface
Mean height of continents above sea level hC 875 m
Mean depth of world ocean ho 3794 m
Mean thickness of lithosphere within the limits of
the continents
hc.l. 35 km
Mean thickness of lithosphere within the limits of
the ocean
ho.l. 4.7 km
Mean rate of thickening of continental lithosphere h/t 10–40 m/106 y
Mean rate of horizontal extension of continental
lithosphere
l/t 0.75–20 km/106 y
Mass of crust m1 2.36 1022 kg
Mass of mantle 4.05 1024 kg
Amount of water released from the mantle and core
in the course of geological time
3.40 1021 kg
Total reserve of water in the mantle 2 1023 kg
Present content of free and bound water in the
earth’s lithosphere
2.4 1021 kg
Mass of hydrosphere mh 1.664 1021 kg
Amount of oxygen bound in the earth’s crust 1.300 1021 kg
Amount of free oxygen 1.5 1018 kg
Mass of atmosphere ma 5.136 1018 kg
Mass of biosphere mb 1.148 1016 kg
Mass of living matter in the biosphere 3.6 1014 kg
Density of living matter on dry land 0.1 g/cm2
Density of living matter in ocean 15 108 g/cm3

Table 1.2–1 Mass, Dimensions, and Other Parameters of the Earth (continued)
Age of the earth 4.55 109 y
Age of oldest rocks 4.0 109 y
Age of most ancient fossils 3.4 109 y
Note: This table is a collection of data on various properties of the earth. Most of the values are given in SI
units. Note that 1 AU (astronomical unit) 149,597,870 km.
Source: Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P. R., Eds., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 14–6. With permission.
REFERENCES
1. Seidelmann, P. K., Ed., Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, University Science Books,
Mill Valley, CA, 1992.
2. Lang, K. R., Astrophysical Data: Planets and Stars, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992.
Table 1.2–2 Density, Pressure, and Gravity as a Function of Depth within the Earth
Depth
km

g/cm3
p
kbar
g
cm/s2
Depth
km

g/cm3
p
kbar
g
cm/s2
Crust Mantle (solid)
1771 4.96 752 994
2071 5.12 903 1002
0 1.02 0 981 2371 5.31 1061 1017
3 1.02 3 982 2671 5.45 1227 1042
3 2.80 3 982 2886 5.53 1352 1069
21 2.80 5 983
Outer Core (liquid)
Mantle (solid)
2886 9.96 1352 1069
21 3.49 5 983 2971 10.09 1442 1050
41 3.51 12 983 3371 10.63 1858 953
61 3.52 19 984 3671 11.00 2154 874
81 3.48 26 984 4071 11.36 2520 760
101 3.44 33 984 4471 11.69 2844 641
121 3.40 39 985 4871 11.99 3116 517
171 3.37 56 987 5156 12.12 3281 427
221 3.34 73 989
Inner Core (solid)
271 3.37 89 991
321 3.47 106 993
371 3.59 124 994 5156 12.30 3281 427
571 3.95 199 999 5371 12.48 3385 355
871 4.54 328 997 5771 12.52 3529 218
1171 4.67 466 992 6071 12.53 3592 122
1471 4.81 607 991 6371 12.58 3617 0
Note: This table gives the density , pressure p, and acceleration due to gravity g as a
function of depth below the earth’s surface, as calculated from the model of the
structure of the earth in Reference 1. The model assumes a radius of 6371 km for
the earth. The boundary between the crust and mantle (the Mohorovicic disconti-
nuity) is taken as 21 km, while in reality it varies considerably with location.
Source: Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P. R., Eds., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 79th ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 14–10. With permission.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, D. L. and Hart, R. S., J. Geophys. Res., 81, 1461, 1976.
2. Carmichael, R. S., CRC Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and
Minerals, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989, 467.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 13
Table 1.2–3 Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and Sea
Abundance Abundance
Element Crust (mg/kg) Sea (mg/l) Element Crust (mg/kg) Sea (mg/l)
Ac 5.5 1010 N 1.9 101 5 101
Ag 7.5 102 4 105 Na 2.36 104 1.08 104
Al 8.23 104 2 103 Nb 2.0 101 1 105
Ar 3.5 4.5 101 Nd 4.15 101 2.8 106
As 1.8 3.7 103 Ne 5 103 1.2 104
Au 4 103 4 106 Ni 8.4 101 5.6 104
B 1.0 101 4.44 O 4.61 105 8.57 105
Ba 4.25 102 1.3 102 Os 1.5 103
Be 2.8 5.6 106 P 1.05 103 6 102
Bi 8.5 103 2 105 Pa 1.4 106 5 1011
Br 2.4 6.73 101 Pb 1.4 101 3 105
C 2.00 102 2.8 101 Pd 1.5 102
Ca 4.15 104 4.12 102 Po 2 1010 1.5 1014
Cd 1.5 101 1.1 104 Pr 9.2 6.4 107
Ce 6.65 101 1.2 106 Pt 5 103
Cl 1.45 102 1.94 104 Ra 9 107 8.9 1011
Co 2.5 101 2 105 Rb 9.0 101 1.2 101
Cr 1.02 102 3 104 Re 7 104 4 106
Cs 3 3 104 Rh 1 103
Cu 6.0 101 2.5 104 Rn 4 1013 6 1016
Dy 5.2 9.1 107 Ru 1 103 7 107
Er 3.5 8.7 107 S 3.50 102 9.05 102
Eu 2.0 1.3 107 Sb 2 101 2.4 104
F 5.85 102 1.3 Sc 2.2 101 6 107
Fe 5.63 104 2 103 Se 5 102 2 104
Ga 1.9 101 3 105 Si 2.82 105 2.2
Gd 6.2 7 107 Sm 7.05 4.5 107
Ge 1.5 5 105 Sn 2.3 4 106
H 1.40 103 1.08 105 Sr 3.70 102 7.9
He 8 103 7 106 Ta 2.0 2 106
Hf 3.0 7 106 Tb 1.2 1.4 107
Hg 8.5 102 3 105 Te 1 103
Ho 1.3 2.2 107 Th 9.6 1 106
I 4.5 101 6 102 Ti 5.65 103 1 103
In 2.5 101 2 102 Tl 8.5 101 1.9 105
Ir 1 103 Tm 5.2 101 1.7 107
K 2.09 104 3.99 102 U 2.7 3.2 103
Kr 1 104 2.1 104 V 1.20 102 2.5 103
La 3.9 101 3.4 106 W 1.25 1 104
Li 2.0 101 1.8 101 Xe 3 105 5 105
Lu 8 101 1.5 107 Y 3.3 101 1.3 105
Mg 2.33 104 1.29 103 Yb 3.2 8.2 107
Mn 9.50 102 2 104 Zn 7.0 101 4.9 103
Mo 1.2 1 102 Zr 1.65 102 3 105
Note: This table gives the estimated abundance of the elements in the continental crust (in mg/kg,
equivalent to parts per million by mass) and in seawater near the surface (in mg/l). Values
represent the median of reported measurements. The concentrations of the less abundant
elements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude.
Source: Lide, D. R. and Frederikse, H. P. R., Eds., CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 79th
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998, 14-14. With permission.
REFERENCES
1. Carmichael, R. S., Ed., CRC Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and Minerals, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1989.
2. Bodek, I. et al., Environmental Inorganic Chemistry, Pergamon Press, New York, 1988.
3. Ronov, A. B. and Yaroshevsky, A. A., Earth’s crust geochemistry, in Encyclopedia of Geochemistry
and Environmental Sciences, Fairbridge, R. W., Ed., Van Nostrand, New York, 1969.

1.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OCEANS
Table 1.3–1 Area, Volume, Mean, and Maximum Depths of the Oceans and Their Adjacent Seas
Sea
Areaa
(106 km2)
Volumea
(106 km3)
Depth
Meana
(m)
Maximumb
(m)
Oceans without adjacent seas
Pacific Ocean 166.24 696.19 4,188 11,022a
Atlantic Ocean 84.11 322.98 3,844 9,219b
Indian Ocean 73.43 284.34 3,872 7,455c
Total 323.78 1,303.51 4,026 —
Mediterranean seas
Arcticd 12.26 13.70 1,117 5,449
Austral-Asiatice 9.08 11.37 1,252 7,440
American 4.36 9.43 2,164 7,680
Europeanf 3.02 4.38 1,450 5,092
Total 28.72 38.88 1,354 —
Intracontinental Mediterranean seas
Hudson Bay 1.23 0.16 128 218
Red Sea 0.45 0.24 538 2,604
Baltic Sea 0.39 0.02 55 459
Persian Gulf 0.24 0.01 25 170
Total 2.31 0.43 184 —
Marginal seas
Bering Sea 2.26 3.37 1,491 4,096
Sea of Okhotsk 1.39 1.35 971 3,372
East China Sea 1.20 0.33 275 2,719
Sea of Japan 1.01 1.69 1,673 4,225
Gulf of California 0.15 0.11 733 3,127
North Sea 0.58 0.05 93 725g
Gulf of St. Lawrence 0.24 0.03 125 549
Irish Sea 0.10 0.01 60 272
Remaining seas 0.30 0.15 470 —
Total 7.23 7.09 979 —
Oceans, including adjacent seas
Pacific Ocean 181.34 714.41 3,940 11,022a
Atlantic Ocean 106.57 350.91 3,293 9,219b
Indian Ocean 74.12 284.61 3,840 7,455c
World ocean 362.03 1,349.93 3,729 11,022a
a Vitiaz Depth in the Mariana Trench.
b Milwaukee Depth in the Puerto Rico Trench.
c Planet Depth in the Sunda Trench.
d Consisting of Arctic Ocean, Barents Sea, Canadian Archipelago, Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay.
e Including Aegean Sea.
f Including Black Sea.
g In the Skagerrak area.
Source: Millero, F. J. and Sohn, M. L., Chemical Oceanography, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1992, 6.
With permission.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 15
Table
1.3–2
Depth
Zones
in
the
Oceans
Ocean
Area
a
Depth
Zone
(km)
World
Ocean
0–0.2
0.2–1
1–2
2–3
3–4
4–5
5–6
6–7
7–8
8–0
9–10
10–11
Pacific
Ocean
b
1.631
2.583
3.250
6.856
21.796
34.987
26.884
1.742
0.188
0.063
0.019
0.001
45.919
Austral
Asiatic
51.913
9.255
10.433
12.151
6.698
7.780
1.636
0.076
0.058
0
0
0
2.509
Mediterranean
Seas
c
Bering
Sea
46.443
5.975
7.623
10.330
29.629
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.625
Sea
of
Okhotsk
26.475
39.479
22.383
3.403
8.260
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.384
East
China
Sea
d
81.305
11.427
5.974
1.239
0.055
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.332
Sea
of
Japan
23.498
15.176
19.646
20.096
21.551
0.033
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.280
Gulf
of
California
46.705
20.848
25.891
6.556
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.042
Atlantic
Ocean
b
7.025
5.169
4.295
8.590
19.327
32.452
22.326
0.738
0.067
0.012
0
0
23.909
Arctic
Med.
e
47.083
17.427
9.317
11.153
12.834
2.195
0
0
0
0
0
0
3.386
American
Med.
23.443
10.674
13.518
15.313
20.796
13.440
2.572
0.193
0.051
0
0
0
1.203
European
Med.
f
22.868
20.814
18.362
30.326
7.426
20.204
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.834
Baltic
Sea
99.832
0.168
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.105
Indian
Ocean
b
3.570
2.685
3.580
10.029
25.259
36.643
16.991
1.241
0.001
0
0
0
20.282
Red
Sea
41.454
43.058
14.920
0.568
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.125
Persian
Gulf
100.000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.066
World
Ocean
7.492
4.423
5.376
8.497
20.944
31.689
21.201
1.232
0.105
0.032
0.009
0.001
100.00
a
As
a
percentage
of
the
surface
of
each
ocean.
b
Without
adjacent
seas.
c
Including
Aegean
Sea.
d
Including
Yellow
Sea.
e
Consisting
of
Arctic
Ocean,
Barents
Sea,
Canadian
Archipelago,
Baffin
Bay,
and
Hudson
Bay.
f
Including
Black
Sea.
Source:
Millero,
F.
J.,
Chemical
Oceanography,
2nd
ed.,
CRC
Press,
Boca
Raton,
FL,
1996,
4.
With
permission.
Originally
adapted
from
Dietrich,
G.
et
al.,
General
Oceanography,
2nd
ed.,
John
Wiley

Sons,
New
York,
1980.

Figure 1.3–1 Generalized structure of the ocean bottom. (From Millero, F. J., Chemical Oceanography, 2nd
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996, 5. With permission.)
Table 1.3–3 Benthic and Pelagic Marine Environments
Zone Depth (m) Volume (%)
Pelagic Environmentsa
Epipelagic 0–200 3
Mesopelagic 200–1000 28
Bathypelagic 1000–2000 15
Abyssalpelagic 2000–6000 54
Hadalpelagic 6000 1
Zone Depth (m) Area (%)
Benthic Environmentsa
Sublittoral 0–200 8
Bathyal 200–2000 16
Abyssal 2000–6000 75
Hadal 6000 1
a Excludes the Arctic Ocean and includes all seas adjacent to
other oceans.
Source: Pinet, P. R., Invitation to Oceanography, Jones and
Bartlett Publishers, Boston, MA, 1998, 318. With permission.
Table 1.3–4 Average Temperature and Salinity of the Oceansa
Temperature
(°C)
Salinity
(parts per thousand)
Pacific (total) 3.14 34.60
North Pacific 3.13 34.57
South Pacific 3.50 34.63
Indian (total) 3.88 34.78
Atlantic (total) 3.99 34.92
North Atlantic 5.08 35.09
South Atlantic 3.81 34.84
Southern Ocean 0.71 34.65
World Ocean (total) 3.51 34.72
a Excluding marginal seas.
Source: Worthington, L. V., in Evolution of Physical Oceanography,
Warren, B. A. and Wunsch, C., Eds., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1981,
42. With permission.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 17
1.4 TOPOGRAPHIC DATA
HYPSOMETRY OF OCEAN BASIN PROVINCES
Physiographic provinces—These “provinces” are regions or groups of features that have
distinctive topography and usually characteristic structures and relations to other provinces. Prov-
ince boundaries are based on detailed physiographic diagrams where available (Heezen and Tharp,
1961, 1964; Heezen et al., 1959; Menard, 1964) supplemented by more generalized physiographic
and bathymetric charts. Provinces do not overlap nor are they superimposed in this study. Thus the
area of a volcano rising from an ocean basin is included only in province VOLCANO and excluded
from province OCEAN BASIN. The provinces identified in this study, the capitalized province
names used in the text, the abbreviations used in data processing, and the corresponding numbers
appearing in illustrations are
1. Continental SHELF AND SLOPE (CONS), the whole region from the shoreline to the base of the
steep continental slope. Shelf and slope are grouped because they are merely the top and front of
the margins of continental blocks.
2. CONTINENTAL RISE and partially filled sedimentary basins (CNRI). Gently sloping or almost
flat, they appear to have characteristic features resulting from the accumulation of a thick fill of
sediment eroded from an adjacent continent and overlying an otherwise relatively normal oceanic
Table 1.3–5 Water Sources for the Major Ocean Basinsa
Ocean Precipitation
Runoff from Adjoining
Land Areas Evaporation
Water Exchange
with Other Oceans
Atlantic 78 20 104 6
Arctic 24 23 12 35
Indian 101 7 138 30
Pacific 121 6 114 13
a Values in cm/year.
Source: Budyko, M. I., The Heat Budget of the Earth’s Surface, Office of Technical Services, Department
of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1958.
Table 1.3–6 Major River Discharges to the World Ocean Basins
Discharge
River 109 m3/year mi3/year Ocean Basin
Amazon 5550 1330 Atlantic
Congo 1250 300 Atlantic
Yangtze 688 165 Pacific
Ganges 590 141 Indian
Yenisei 550 130 Arctic
Mississippi 550 180 Atlantic
Lena 490 118 Arctic
St. Lawrence 446 107 Atlantic
Mekong 350 84 Pacific
Columbia 178 42.7 Pacific
Yukon 165 39.6 Pacific
Nile 117 28 Atlantic
Colorado 5 1.2 Pacific
Total world 30,000 7200
Source: Based on data from the U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.

crust. In this respect, the Gulf of Mexico and the western basin of the Mediterranean differ from
the continental rise off the eastern U.S. only because they are relatively enclosed.
3. OCEAN BASIN (OCBN), the remainder after removing all other provinces. Abyssal plains and
abyssal hills and archipelagic aprons are common features of low relief.
4. Oceanic RISE and RIDGE (RISE), commonly called “mid-ocean ridges” despite the fact that they
continue across ocean margins. They form one worldwide system with many branches. Boundaries
are taken in most places as outer limit of essentially continuous slopes from crest.
5. RIDGE NOT KNOWN TO BE VOLCANIC (RIDG), relatively long and narrow and with steep
sides. Most have unknown structure and some or most may be volcanic.
6. Individual VOLCANO (VOLC), with a boundary defined as the base of steep side slopes.
7. Island ARC AND TRENCH (TNCH), includes whole system of low swells and swales subparallel
to trenches. Continental equivalents or extensions of islands arcs, such as Japan, are excluded.
8. Composite VOLCANIC RIDGE (VRCM), formed by overlapping volcanoes and with a boundary
at the base of steep side slopes.
9. POORLY DEFINED ELEVATION (BLOB), with nondescript side slopes and length no more than
about twice width. Crustal structure unknown; may be thin continental type.
Tabulation of data and measuring procedure—Data were tabulated by 10° squares of latitude
and longitude. Squares containing more than one ocean were split, and each ocean was treated
separately. Within a square, the areas between the depth intervals 0–200 m, 200–1,000 m, and
between 1-km contours down to 11 km were compiled for each physiographic province.
The polar planimeters (Keuffel and Esser models 4236 and 4242) used for measuring areas
were read to the nearest unit on the vernier scale, and measurements were tabulated directly. These
values were converted to square kilometers during computer processing by a scale factor derived
from a measurement of the total number of units in the square. The area of a square was calculated
assuming a spherical earth with a radius of 6,371.22 km.
Depth distribution in different oceans as a function of provinces—The depth distribution
in provinces in different ocean basins, as seen in Figure 1.4–12, closely resembles the composite
distribution in the world ocean (Figure 1.4–8). The sum of the depth distribution of all provinces
in an ocean basin is double peaked, but for the individual provinces it is single peaked and relatively
symmetrical. However, the depth distributions are sufficiently different to warrant some discussion.
The mean depths of all provinces in the three major ocean basins, including marginal seas, range
from 3575 m for the Atlantic Ocean to 3940 m for the Pacific (Table 1.4–4). The range of mean
depths of the OCEAN BASIN province in each of these ocean basins is similar. The smallest mean
OCEAN BASIN depth of 4530 m in the Indian Ocean may be the result of epirogenic movement
of the oceanic crust, but it is also partially attributable to sedimentation. The eastern and south-
western parts of the Indian Ocean are deeper than 5000 m and are thus below the mean depth of
the world ocean. The northwestern and southeastern parts, however, are exceptionally shallow.
Seismic stations and topography show that the northwestern region has been shoaled by deposition
of turbidities spreading from the mouths of the great Indian and east African rivers (Menard, 1961;
Heezen and Tharp, 1964).
The mean depths of RISE and RIDGE have a limited range: from 3945 m in the Indian Ocean
to 4008 m in the Atlantic Ocean (Table 1.4–4). This uniformity seems remarkable considering the
widespread and diverse evidence that oceanic rises and ridges are tectonically among the more unstable
features of the surface of the earth. It is all the more remarkable because the local, relief, or elevation
above the adjacent OCEAN BASIN differs substantially in different oceans. The relief of RISE AND
RIDGE in an ocean basin can be estimated by subtracting the mean depth from that of OCEAN
BASIN or by determining the deepening required to give a best fit of individual hypsometric curves
for each province. Comparing the means gives the relief of RISE AND RIDGE ABOVE OCEAN
BASIN as 585 m in the Indian Ocean, 662 m in the Atlantic, and 928 m in the Pacific. The reliefs
from matching curves are 800, 900, and 1200 m, respectively. The greater relief obtained by the
curve-matching method results from ignoring the shallow tails of the depth distribution. Thus the

PHYSIOGRAPHY 19
range in relief is about six times as great as the range in mean depths of RISE AND RIDGE, which
may be explained if the seafloor is not only elevated by epirogeny, but is also depressed. It seems
reasonable to assume that the depth intervals in OCEAN BASIN with the largest areas (4 to 5 and
5 to 6 km) are those underlain by normal crust and mantle. A uniform oceanic process in the mantle
acting on a uniform oceanic crust at a uniform depth may produce oceanic rises and ridges of
uniform depth. Many current hypotheses for the origin of rises and ridges suggest just such an
elevation. However, it is at least implicit that the mantle under the ocean basins cannot become
denser and thus epirogenically depress the crust. Moreover, it is assumed by advocates of convection
that if the crust is dragged down dynamically it forms a long narrow oceanic trench. The symmetrical
distribution curves for OCEAN BASIN indicate that a considerable area is below the most common
depth interval. Very extensive regions deeper than 6000 m exist in the northwestern Pacific and
eastern Indian oceans, and there may be places where the normal oceanic crust is epirogenically
depressed by more than a kilometer below the 4753-m mean depth of the OCEAN BASIN for the
world ocean. Formation of broad depressions would alter the depth distribution in OCEAN BASIN
and thereby vary the relief of RISE AND RIDGE in different oceans. If these broad epirogenic
depressions exist, they may have a significant effect on the possible range of sea level changes
relative to continents. This will be considered under ‘‘Discussion.’’
Depth distribution in island arc and trench provinces—These provinces have been defined
to include not only trenches, but also the subparallel low swells and the island arcs which rise
above some of them. The justification for this definition is that these features probably are caused
by the same process; one question that can be answered by this type of study is whether the process
elevates or depresses the seafloor. The volcanoes, some capped with limestone, which form most
islands in this province, have a rather minor volume and have hardly any effect on the hypsometry.
The median depth for island ARC AND TRENCH is somewhat less than 4 km, which is less
than the median depth for all ocean basins and considerably less than for the OCEAN BASIN
province. The average depth would be much shallower if it were possible in some simple way to
include the elevations above normal continents of the mountain ranges parallel to the Peru-Chile,
Central America, Japan, and Java trenches. This would require some elaborate assumptions, but it
is clear that the process that forms trenches and related features generally elevates the crust.
Volume of the ocean—Murray (1888) calculated the volume of the ocean at 323,722,150 cubic
miles, which equals about 1.325 109 km3. Kossinna (1921) obtained 1.370 109 km3, and we
obtain 1.350 109 km3. It appears unlikely that this value is in error by more than a few percent.
Our method of calculation is essentially the same as that of Murray and Kossinna. The midpoint
value of a depth interval is multiplied by the area of that interval, and the volumes of the intervals
are summed.
DISCUSSION
Seafloor epirogeny and sea level changes—Seafloor epirogeny is only one of a multitude of
causes of sea level change of which the wax and wane of glaciers is probably the most intense.
Epirogeny is especially important because it may have occurred at any time in the history of the
earth in contrast to relatively brief periods of glaciation. That eustatic changes in sea level have
occurred during geological time is suggested by widespread epicontinental seas alternating with
apparently high continents.
The hypothesis that oceanic rises are ephemeral (Menard, 1958) provides a basis for quantitative
estimates of epirogenic effects on sea level. If the approximate volume of existing rises and ridges
is compared with the area of the oceans, it appears that uplift of the existing rises has elevated the
sea level 300 m. Likewise, subsidence of the ancient Darwin rise has lowered it by 100 m (Menard,
1964).
The present study suggests that the seafloor may be depressed epirogenically in places where
this movement does not merely restore the equilibrium disturbed by a previous uplift. The argument

derives from the fact that the mean depth in the OCEAN BASIN province is about 4700 m.
Considering that the crust has about the same thickness everywhere in the province, variations from
this depth generally are caused by differences in density in the upper mantle. (We assume that
where the mean depth of the crust is ‘‘normal’’ it is underlain by a “normal” mantle.) Thus the
deeper regions, which are roughly 70 million km2 in area, have been depressed by a density increase
in the mantle. If large areas of the seafloor can be depressed as well as elevated, the resulting
changes in sea level would be highly complex.
Only the most general conclusions can be drawn from this analysis, but they may be
significant. First, a plausible mechanism is available to explain the eustatic changes in sea
level observed in the geological record. At present, the mechanism places no constraints on
the sign of a change, but appears to limit the amount to a few hundred meters. Second, in
large regions the upper mantle may possibly become denser than normal. Substantial evidence
exists that it is less dense than normal under rises and ridges (Le Pichon et al., 1965). If it
can also be more dense than normal in large regions, these facts can provide very useful clues
regarding the composition of the upper mantle and processes acting below the crust. The
implications of possible densification of normal mantle can be avoided by defining the ‘‘nor-
mal’’ depth as the deepest that is at all widespread. If this definition is accepted as reasonable
(it does not appear so to us), small decreases in density of the upper mantle occur under most
of the world ocean. The volume of ocean basin elevated above normal is consequently large,
and the possible range of sea level changes is thus at least 1 km.
Seafloor spreading and continental drift—Several aspects of our data appear to have some
bearing on modern hypotheses of global tectonics. The relationships are not definitive, however,
and at this time we prefer merely to indicate some of the equations which have arisen.
1. The proportion of RISE AND RIDGE to OCEAN BASIN in a basin could range from
zero to infinity, but it is 0.84 for the Pacific, 0.82 for the Atlantic, and 0.61 for the Indian
Ocean. The sample is very small, and consequently the similarity of the proportions may be
coincidental. However, it suggests that the area of RISE AND RIDGE is proportional to the
whole area of an ocean basin. This in turn suggests that the size of the basin is related to the
existence of rises and ridges.
2. The proportion of SHELF AND SLOPE to OCEAN BASIN plus RISE AND RIDGE is
relatively constant for large ocean basins and quite dif021ferent from the proportion for small
ocean basins. This relationship may require modification of at least many of the details of the
hypothesis that the Atlantic Ocean basin was formed when an ancient continent split. When
the supposed splitting began, the whole basin was SHELF AND SLOPE. Consequently, the
proportion of SHELF AND SLOPE has since decreased. In the Pacific basin, on the other
hand, the proportion of SHELF AND SLOPE to OCEAN BASIN plus RISE AND RIDGE was
smaller than now and has since increased. If the Atlantic split apart at a constant rate and is
still splitting as the Pacific contracts, the present equality of the proportions of SHELF AND
SLOPE in the two ocean basins requires a striking coincidence. No coincidence is necessary
if the splitting occurred relatively rapidly until it reached some dynamic equilibrium state,
perhaps when the proportion of RISE AND RIDGE to OCEAN BASIN in each ocean basin
reached about 0.8 to 0.9.
Source: Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., Hypsometry of ocean basin provinces. J. Geophys.
Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With permission of American Geophysical Union.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 21
REFERENCES
Heezen, B. C. and Tharp, M., Physiographic Diagram of the South Atlantic, Geological Society of America,
New York, 1961.
Heezen, B. C. and Tharp, M., Physiographic Diagram of the Indian Ocean, Geological Society of America,
New York, 1964.
Heezen B. C., Tharp, M., and Ewing, M., The Floors of the Ocean. 1. The North Atlantic, Geological Society
of America, New York, Special paper 65, 1959.
Kossinna, E., Die Tiefen des Weltmeeres, Inst. Meereskunde, Veroff. Geogr. Naturwiss., 9, 70, 1921.
Le Pichon, X., Houtz, R. E., Drake, C. L., and Nafe, J. E., Crustal structure of the mid-ocean ridges, 1, Seismic
refraction measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 70(2), 319, 1965.
Menard, H. W., Development of median elevations in ocean basins, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 69(9), 1179, 1958.
Menard, H. W., Marine Geology of the Pacific, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
Murray, J., On the height of the land and the depth of the ocean, Scot. Geogr. Mag., 4, S. 1, 1888.
Figure 1.4–1 The distribution of levels on the earth’s surface. (a) A histogram showing the actual frequency
distribution. (b) A hypsographic curve for the earth. (From Brown, J., et al., The Ocean Basins:
Their Structure and Evolution, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1989, 27. With permission.)

Table
1.4–1
Province
Areas
in
Each
Ocean
and
Total
Areas
of
Provinces
and
Oceans
(10
6
km
2
)
Oceans
and
Adjacent
Seas
RISE
OCBN
VOLC
CONS
TNCH
CNRI
VRCM
RIDG
BLOB
Total
Area
of
Each
Ocean
Pacific
Ocean
65.109
77.951
2.127
11.299
4.757
2.690
1.589
0.494
0.227
166.241
Asiatic
Mediterranean
0
0
0.003
7.824
0.023
1.233
0
0
0
9.082
Bering
Sea
0
0
0
1.286
0.281
0.694
0
0
0
2.261
Sea
of
Okhotsk
0
0
0
1.254
0.023
0.115
0
0
0
1.392
Yellow
and
East
China
Seas
0
0
0
1.119
0.082
0
0
0
0
1.202
Sea
of
Japan
0
0
0.005
0.798
0
0.210
0
0
0
1.013
Gulf
of
California
0.042
0
0
0.111
0
0
0
0
0
0.153
Atlantic
Ocean
30.519
35.728
0.882
12.658
0.447
5.381
0
0.412
0.530
86.557
American
Mediterranean
0
1.346
0.060
1.889
0.201
0.861
0
0
0
4.357
Mediterranean
0
0
0
1.465
0
1.046
0
0
0
2.510
Black
Sea
0
0
0
0.263
0
0.245
0
0
0
0.508
Baltic
Sea
0
0
0
0.382
0
0
0
0
0
0.382
Indian
Ocean
22.426
36.426
0.358
6.097
0.256
4.212
0.407
2.567
0.679
73.427
Red
Sea
0
0.070
0
0
0.383
0
0
0
0
0.453
Persian
Gulf
0
0
0
0.238
0
0
0
0
0
0.238
Arctic
Ocean
0.513
0
0
5.874
0
2.267
0.302
0
0.528
9.485
Arctic
Mediterranean
0
0
0
2.483
0
0.289
0
0
0
2.772
Total
area
each
province
118.607
151.522
3.435
55.421
6.070
19.242
2.298
3.473
1.965
362.033
Note:
CONS,
Continental
shelf
and
slope;
CNRI,
continental
rise
and
partially
filled
sedimentary
basins;
OCBN,
ocean
basin;
RISE,
oceanic
rise
and
ridge;
RIDG,
ridge
not
known
to
be
volcanic;
VOLC,
individual
volcano;
TNCH,
island
arc
and
trench;
VRCM,
composite
volcanic
ridge;
BLOB,
poorly
defined
elevation.
Source:
Menard,
H.
W.
and
Smith,
S.
M.,
J.
Geophys.
Res.,
71,
4305,
1966.
With
permission
of
American
Geophysical
Union.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 23
Table
1.4–2
Percent
of
Provinces
in
Oceans
and
Adjacent
Seas
Oceans
and
Adjacent
Seas
RISE
OCBN
VOLC,
VRCM,
RIDG,
BLOB
CONS
TNCH
CNRI
Percent
of
World
Ocean
in
Each
Ocean
Group
Pacific
and
adjacent
seas
35.9
43.0
2.5
13.1
2.9
2.7
50.1
Atlantic
and
adjacent
seas
32.3
39.3
2.0
17.7
0.7
8.0
26.0
Indian
and
adjacent
seas
30.2
49.2
5.4
9.1
0.3
5.7
20.5
Arctic
and
adjacent
seas
4.2
0
6.8
68.2
0
20.8
3.4
Percent
of
world
ocean
in
each
province
32.7
41.8
3.1
15.3
1.7
5.3
Note:
CONS,
Continental
shelf
and
slope;
CNRI,
continental
rise
and
partially
filled
sedimentary
basins;
OCBN,
ocean
basin;
RISE,
oceanic
rise
and
ridge;
RIDG,
ridge
not
known
to
be
volcanic;
VOLC,
individual
volcano;
TNCH,
island
arc
and
trench;
VRCM,
composite
volcanic
ridge;
BLOB,
poorly
defined
elevation.
Source:
Menard,
H.
W.
and
Smith,
S.
M.,
J.
Geophys.
Res.,
71,
4305,
1966.
With
permission
of
American
Geophysical
Union.

Figure 1.4–2 Pacific Ocean—physiographic provinces. Text contains key to province numbers. Individual vol-
canoes (VOLC) in black. (From Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305,
1966. With permission of American Geophysical Union.)

PHYSIOGRAPHY 25
Figure 1.4–3 Atlantic Ocean—physiographic provinces. (From Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys.
Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With permission of American Geophysical Union.)

Figure 1.4–4 Indian Ocean—physiographic provinces. (From Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys.
Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With permission of American Geophysical Union.)

PHYSIOGRAPHY 27
Figure 1.4–5 Smaller oceans and seas—physiographic provinces. Antarctic sub-ice in white is below sea level.
(From Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With permission of
American Geophysical Union.)

REFERENCES
1. Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., Hypsometry of ocean basin provinces, J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966.
2. Kossinna, E., Die Tiefen des Weltmeeres, Inst. Meereskunde, Veroff. Geogr. Naturwiss., 9, 70, 1921.
3. Murray, J. and Hijort, J., The Depths of the Ocean, Macmillan, London, 1912.
4. Murray, J., On the height of the land and the depth of the ocean, Scot. Geogr. Mag., 4, S. 1, 1888.
Table 1.4–3 Bathymetric Charts Used for Hypsometric Calculations
Source
No. Title Scale Projection Ref.
1 Pacific Ocean 1:7,270,000a Lambert azimuthal equal-area A
2 Indian Ocean 1:7,510,000a Lambert azimuthal equal-area B
3 Antarctica 1:9,667,000 Polar azimuthal equal-area C
4 Atlantic Ocean 1:10,150,000a Lateral projection with oval isoclines B
5 Tectonic Chart of the Arctic 1:10,000,000 Polar azimuthal equal-area D
6 Mediterranean Sea 1:2,259,000 Mercator E
7 Northern Hemisphere 1:25,000,000 Polar azimuthal equal-area B
a Scale of photographic enlargement used for measuring.
REFERENCES
A. Menard, H. W., Marine Geology of the Pacific, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
B. Main Administration in Geodesy and Cartography of the Government Geological Committee, USSR.
C. American Geographical Society, New York.
D. Geological Institute, Academy of Science, Moscow.
E. Unpublished chart of the Mediterranean, modified from contours compiled by R. Nason from various
sources. U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office chart 4300 used as base.
Source: Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With permission of American
Geophysical Union.
Figure 1.4–6 Hypsometry of all ocean basins according to various studies (see References). (From Menard, H. W.
and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966.With permission of American Geophysical Union.)

PHYSIOGRAPHY 29
Figure 1.4–7 Hypsometry of individual major ocean
basins. (From Menard, H. W. and Smith,
S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966.
With permission of American Geophys-
ical Union.)
Figure 1.4–8 Hypsometry of all ocean basins. This
diagram is for all provinces combined
(ALLP) and for individual major prov-
inces: CONS, continental shelf and
slope; CNRI, continental rise; RISE,
oceanic rise and ridge; OCBN, ocean
basin. (From Menard, H. W. and Smith,
S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305,
1966. With permission of American
Geophysical Union.)

Figure 1.4–9 Hypsometry of ocean basins plotted cumulatively by provinces. CONS, continental shelf and
slope; RISE, oceanic rise and ridge; CNRI, continental rise; VOLC, individual volcano; VRCM,
composite volcanic ridge; RIDG, ridge not known to be volcanic, OCBN, ocean basin; TNCH,
island arc and trench. (From Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966.
With permission of American Geophysical Union.)
Figure 1.4–10 Hypsometry of all arc and trench provinces and of some groups of arcs and trenches. (From
Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With permission of American
Geophysical Union.)

PHYSIOGRAPHY 31
Figure 1.4–11 Hypsometric curve of ocean basins.
Hypsometric curve of all ocean basins
for RISE and RIDGE province normal-
ized to curve for OCEAN BASIN prov-
ince to show close similarity. (From
Menard, H. W. and Smith, S. M., J.
Geophys. Res., 71, 4305, 1966. With
permission of American Geophysical
Union.)
Figure 1.4–12 Hypsometry of all provinces (ALLP)
and individual provinces in major
basins. (From Menard, H. W. and
Smith, S. M., J. Geophys. Res., 71,
4305, 1966. With permission of Amer-
ican Geophysical Union.)

Another Random Document on
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Mr. Liebeler. Can you give me an estimate, looking at this picture,
where that thing might have hit the street?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. It may not be in this picture—I don't know that it is.
Mrs. Baker. I just can't tell—I would say it was over in here
somewhere in this picture.
Mr. Liebeler. Somewhere in about here?
Mrs. Baker. It could have been further on up.
Mr. Liebeler. Well, we will mark the place X, but you think it
might have been right along here or somewhere farther down. Now,
is there a concrete divider somewhere here on Elm Street?
Mrs. Baker. Not until you pass the underpass.
Mr. Liebeler. Not until you get down here towards the underpass
and then there are concrete dividers here between Elm Street and
Main Street?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Back up here toward the intersection at Houston
Street, there is a curb on the side of Elm Street and that's all?
Mrs. Baker. Yes, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. In other words, you turn down from Houston Street
and go right on down Elm Street?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. You saw this thing hit the street before you heard
the second shot; is that correct?
Mrs. Baker. Yes, sir; yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Are you absolutely sure of that?
Mrs. Baker. I hope I am—I know I am.

Mr. Liebeler. In marking the X on Baker Exhibit No. 1 that we
marked, we were assuming, were we not, that the X was fairly
near the first sign on the right-hand side of Elm Street going toward
the triple underpass after the Texas School Book Depository
Building?
Mrs. Baker. I think that's right.
Mr. Liebeler. I think that we will find that the X is—well, it is
very difficult to tell the exact spot from which Baker Exhibit No. 1
was taken, but if in fact we are correct, if in fact it is taken from the
side of Main Street toward Commerce Street, then the X would not
be in the right place, would it, if this lampost here that appears in
the picture is actually at the end of the grassy spot made by Main
Street and Elm Street, then the X that we have on Baker Exhibit
No. 1 would be too far down toward the Triple Underpass to be in
the right place where you saw it hit, isn't that right; do you follow
me?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Because, if this is actually the end of this grassy
spot, if the lamppost is actually the end of the grassy spot here
between Elm Street and Main Street, this X is very close to the
Triple Underpass.
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. And you didn't see the bullet hit that far down the
street, did you?
Mrs. Baker. No; not that far.
Mr. Liebeler. It would have been much closer, up towards the
Texas School Book Depository Building—near the first sign?
Mrs. Baker. This right here are the steps—to the plaza.
Mr. Liebeler. That's right, and as a point of fact, as we look at
that now, it becomes quite clear that it was taken from a spot much
closer to the triple underpass than we had originally thought,

because in the left-hand side of the picture you can see the steps
coming down from the plaza.
Mrs. Baker. It must have been right here in this area because
these were the steps—I can't tell which sign is which, but I know
there were four girls standing near the sign and it must have been
back up here because there must have been another sign closer up.
Mr. Liebeler. Looking at Hudson Exhibit No. 1, which was taken at
the time of the assassination, it shows Dealey Plaza here and there
are some steps that go down over here in the very background of
the picture and they go down onto the sidewalk and it runs along
past Elm Street here.
Mrs. Baker. This would be the first sign here.
Mr. Liebeler. The Stemmons Freeway sign.
Mrs. Baker. This one over here—the steps are already here.
Mr. Liebeler. Yes; the steps are toward the background in Hudson
Exhibit No. 1 and those appear to be the steps that are also toward
the front left of Baker Exhibit No. 1.
Mrs. Baker. It was probably back over this way.
Mr. Liebeler. Yes, so the X on Baker Exhibit No. 1 is actually in
the wrong place as far as these pictures here—it is not correct—it
should be further back on up here.
Mrs. Baker. Yes; definitely.
Mr. Liebeler. So, we will put a Y back up here toward the School
Book Depository Building, and actually if you look at Commission
Exhibit No. 354, you can see the steps coming right down to Elm
Street.
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. At the end of Dealey Plaza toward the Triple
Underpass, and I think that those steps are the same steps we can
see in the left front foreground of Baker Exhibit No. 1.

Mrs. Baker. That's the sign right in there—that big sign there,
and I don't know—the sign would be here, you know.
Mr. Liebeler. That's right, and the sign that we see in the very left
front foreground of the picture would be the sign here that is toward
the Triple Underpass from the steps to go down to Dealey Plaza on
the right-hand side of Elm Street?
Mrs. Baker. Yes; this is confusing.
Mr. Liebeler. In any event, you are quite clear in your mind that
you saw this thing hit before you heard the second shot?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. So, if what you saw hitting the street was, in fact, a
bullet, it would have been the first shot?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Did you see anything else around the area of the
Texas School Book Depository Building that day that you think might
have anything to do with the assassination?
Mrs. Baker. I don't know, but before the parade ever got there,
someone passed out and I guess it would be to the left, coming
down Elm Street over in this plaza between Elm Street and Main,
because an ambulance pulled up and picked someone up—we never
could tell who. This was before the motorcade ever got to Houston
Street—I would say onto Elm Street.
Mr. Liebeler. About how long before the motorcade came did this
ambulance come and pick up this person?
Mrs. Baker. I'll judge—5 minutes—about 5 minutes.
Mr. Liebeler. The ambulance had already left the area about 5
minutes before the Presidential motorcade came?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. What time did you come to work that morning; do
you remember?

Mrs. Baker. Well, it could have been 6:30 or 7, because I rode
with daddy; my daddy works behind the Depository for the Katy
Railroad and if he had to be there at 6, then I got there at 6, but
that morning, I couldn't tell you, but whatever time daddy had to be
at work, that's when I had to be there.
Mr. Liebeler. Did you see Oswald on the morning of November 22
at any time?
Mrs. Baker. No, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. Do you know Billy Lovelady?
Mrs. Baker. Yes, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. I show you Commission Exhibit No. 203, and I call
your attention to a man standing in the doorway of the Texas School
Book Depository Building?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Do you recognize him?
Mrs. Baker. That looks like Billy.
Mr. Liebeler. That looks like Billy Lovelady?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. And that man you pointed to is immediately as we
face the picture to the right of the mark A in the picture?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. And is standing directly against the side of the
doorway of the building—of the Texas School Book Depository
Building?
Mrs. Baker. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Thank you. If you don't have anything else you
would like to tell us about this that you think we should know and
that I haven't asked you, I have no other questions at this point.
Mrs. Baker. Thank you.

TESTIMONY OF JAMES W. ALTGENS
The testimony of James W. Altgens was taken at 12:45 p.m., on
July 22, 1964, in the office of the U.S. attorney. 301 Post Office
Building, Bryan and Ervay Streets, Dallas, Tex., by Mr. Wesley J.
Liebeler, assistant counsel of the President's Commission.
Mr. Liebeler. Will you please stand and take the oath. Do you
solemnly swear that the testimony you are about to give will be the
truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help you God?
Mr. Altgens. I do.
Mr. Liebeler. Mr. Altgens, my name is Wesley J. Liebeler. I am an
attorney on the staff of the President's Commission on the
Assassination of President Kennedy. I have been authorized to take
your testimony by the Commission, pursuant to authority granted to
it by President Johnson's Executive Order No. 11130, dated
November 29, 1963, and the joint resolution of Congress No. 137.
Under the rules of the Commission's proceedings you are entitled to
have an attorney present if you want one. If you don't think you
need one, it's perfectly all right. You are entitled to 3 days' notice
and you may actually have gotten 3 days' notice, but if you did not, I
presume you are prepared to go ahead, since you are here?
Mr. Altgens. Yes; as a matter of fact I had more than 3 days'
notice because the time that was originally set up was postponed for
almost an additional week, so I had plenty of time.
Mr. Liebeler. Would you state your full name for the record,
please?

Mr. Altgens. James W. Altgens [spelling], A-l-t-g-e-n-s.
Mr. Liebeler. Where do you live, sir?
Mr. Altgens. 6441 Pemberton [spelling], P-e-m-b-e-r-t-o-n Drive.
Mr. Liebeler. Here in Dallas?
Mr. Altgens. Yes; Dallas.
Mr. Liebeler. Are you employed here in Dallas at the present
time?
Mr. Altgens. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. In what capacity?
Mr. Altgens. Officially, I am hired as a wire photo operator, but
they use me in three different classifications. I am a photographer
and a news photo editor as well as a wire photo operator.
Mr. Liebeler. By whom are you employed?
Mr. Altgens. The Associated Press, Dallas Bureau.
Mr. Liebeler. How long have you been employed by the AP?
Mr. Altgens. Approximately 26½ Years.
Mr. Liebeler. So one might say you are an experienced
photographer and have a little experience in the area of
photographic work?
Mr. Altgens. I would assume so.
Mr. Liebeler. When were you born, sir?
Mr. Altgens. April 28, 1919.
Mr. Liebeler. Here in Dallas?
Mr. Altgens. Here; yes, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. Have you lived most of your life here in Dallas?
Mr. Altgens. All except my service connected time.

Mr. Liebeler. We have been advised that on November 22, 1963,
you were assigned to take pictures of the Presidential motorcade; is
that correct?
Mr. Altgens. Yes, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. Did you do that?
Mr. Liebeler. Would you tell us the circumstances surrounding the
taking of the picture or pictures that you did take and just what
happened, where you were and all that you know about the events
of November the 22d?
Mr. Altgens. Would you like for me to take it from the time that I
arrived on the scene up until the time of the shooting?
Mr. Liebeler. Yes, sir.
Mr. Altgens. I arrived on the triple overpass at approximately
11:15 a.m.
Mr. Liebeler. When you say the triple overpass, you mean the
railroad tracks that cross over Elm, Commerce, and Main Streets?
Mr. Liebeler. As they run near the Texas School Book Depository
Building?
Mr. Altgens. As well as in the opposite direction.
Mr. Liebeler. Yes, sir.
Mr. Altgens. My original assignment was to make a pictorial scene
of the caravan with the Dallas skyline in the background and the
triple overpass was selected as the site for making that picture, and
when I arrived on the triple overpass there was no one up there but
two uniformed policemen and one of the uniformed policemen came
over to me and asked me if I was a railroad employee and I told
him, No, and I showed him my press tag and told him I had a
Department of Public Safety ID card showing I was connected with

the AP—Associated Press, and he said, Well, I'm sorry, but this is
private property. It belongs to the railroad and only railroad
employees are permitted on this property. And, I explained to him
that this was a public event and I thought I would be privileged to
make a picture from that area, and he says, No. This is private
property and no one but railroad personnel are permitted in this
area.
This is a little extraneous but I wanted to point this out, and I
said, Well, it looks like you have got it pretty well protected from
this area because I see you two uniformed policemen on this
overpass and I see you have another uniformed policeman on the
overpass on Stemmons, and he said, Yes, and no one is permitted
over on that overpass. So, then, I had to decide on another location
for shooting my pictures, so I proceeded on across the triple
overpass into the parking lot which is just behind the Book
Depository Building and proceeded on down to Elm to the corner of
Elm and Houston, crossed Elm going—is that east or south—I guess
it is south on Houston. Yes; south on Houston over to Main and
Houston. That seemed to me to be the most likely spot to make any
pictures. Then I could, by advance planning, get away from that
spot after I had made a picture or two and run across the Dealey
Plaza and catch the caravan again down on Elm as it proceeded
toward the triple overpass and probably get some more pictures,
and that was my planning.
Well, I was at that site when the Presidential caravan arrived at
that intersection.
Mr. Liebeler. That intersection being the intersection of Houston
and Elm Streets?
Mr. Altgens. Houston and Main.
Mr. Liebeler. Houston and Main?
Mr. Altgens. Yes; Houston and Main. When the caravan reached
Houston and Main I made at least one shot—one picture—I don't
have the roll of film with me now so I don't know exactly, but I know

I had made an additional one or two pictures of the caravan coming
down Main Street prior to that, but I got the one picture with the
President waving into the camera. Mrs. Kennedy was looking at me
at the time, just as I got ready to snap it the north wind caught her
hat and almost blew it off, so she raised her left hand to grab her
hat and I did not get her looking into the camera, but I got the
Governor and Mrs. Connally and the President with the President
waving into the camera.
Mr. Liebeler. This was as they turned?
Mr. Altgens. This was as they turned into the sunlight.
Mr. Liebeler. Turning into Houston Street; is that right?
Mr. Altgens. Turning right—headed toward the Book Depository
Building.
Mr. Liebeler. All right.
Mr. Altgens. I thereupon grabbed my gadget bag that I carry my
extra lenses in and ran fast down across the Dealey Plaza to get
down in front of the caravan for some additional pictures and I took
this one picture——
Mr. Liebeler. Wait just a minute now—at this point, as you ran
across, you were along Elm Street; is that correct?
Mr. Altgens. Well, I ran across and reached up into—well, the
curb area on the west side of Elm Street.
Mr. Liebeler. Across Elm Street from the Texas School Book
Depository Building?
Mr. Altgens. Yes, sir; and if I had a picture I could probably show
you exactly where I was standing. I did show it to Agent Switzer, if
that would be of any help to you.
Mr. Liebeler. Yes; I would like to locate that spot. I show you
Exhibit No. 354, which is an aerial view of the area that we have
been discussing.

Mr. Altgens. This is the Book Depository Building, correct?
Mr. Liebeler. Yes.
(The witness points to the School Book Depository Building.)
Mr. Altgens. This would put me at approximately this area here,
which would be about 15 feet from me at the time he was shot in
the head—about 15 feet from the car on the west side of the car—
on the side that Mrs. Kennedy was riding in the car.
Mr. Liebeler. You have indicated a spot along the side of Elm
Street which I have marked with a No. 3; is that correct?
Mr. Liebeler. I that approximately where you were standing?
Mr. Liebeler. Now, when you took the picture of the caravan
turning from Main Street to the right on Houston Street, you then
ran across this Dealey Plaza?
Mr. Altgens. Down this way; yes, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. Along the lawn part.
Mr. Liebeler. To the point marked No. 3 on Commission Exhibit
No. 354?
Mr. Liebeler. And at that point did you take another picture?
Mr. Altgens. I made one picture at the time I heard a noise that
sounded like a firecracker—I did not know it was a shot, but
evidently my picture, as I recall, and it was almost simultaneously
with the shot—the shot was just a fraction ahead of my picture, but
that much of course—at that time I figured it was nothing more than
a firecracker, because from my position down here the sound was

not of such volume that it would indicate to me it was a high-velocity
rifle.
Mr. Liebeler. Did you have any idea where the sound came from
when you were standing there at No. 3 on Commission Exhibit No.
354?
Mr. Altgens. Well, it sounded like it was coming up from behind
the car from my position—I mean the first shot, and being fireworks
—who counts fireworks explosions? I wasn't keeping track of the
number of pops that took place, but I could vouch for No. 1, and I
can vouch for the last shot, but I cannot tell you how many shots
were in between. There was not another shot fired after the
President was struck in the head. That was the last shot—that much
I will say with a great degree of certainty.
Mr. Liebeler. What makes you so certain of that, Mr. Altgens?
Mr. Altgens. Because, having heard these shots and then having
seen the damage that was done on this shot to the President's head,
I was aware at that time that shooting was taking place and there
was not a shot—I looked—I looked because I knew the shot had to
come from either over here, if it were close range, or had to come
from a high-powered rifle.
Mr. Liebeler. When you say over here, you indicate what?
Mr. Altgens. The left side of the car.
Mr. Liebeler. That would be approximately the intersection of Elm
Street and the little street that runs down in front of the Texas
School Book Depository Building; isn't that right?
Mr. Altgens. Somewhere in that direction, yes, sir. But if it were a
pistol it would have to be fired at close range for any degree of
accuracy and there was no one in that area that I could see with any
firearms, so I looked back up in this area.
Mr. Liebeler. Indicating the buildings surrounding the intersection
of Houston Street and Elm Street; is that correct?

Mr. Altgens. Yes. What made me almost certain that the shot
came from behind was because at the time I was looking at the
President, just as he was struck, it caused him to move a bit
forward. He seemed as if at the time—well, he was in a position—
sort of immobile. He wasn't upright. He was at an angle but when it
hit him, it seemed to have just lodged—it seemed as if he were hung
up on a seat button or something like that. It knocked him just
enough forward that he came right on down. There was flesh
particles that flew out of the side of his head in my direction from
where I was standing, so much so that it indicated to me that the
shot came out of the left side of his head. Also, the fact that his
head was covered with blood, the hairline included, on the left side—
all the way down, with no blood on his forehead or face—suggested
to me, too, that the shot came from the opposite side, meaning in
the direction of this Depository Building, but at no time did I know
for certain where the shot came from.
Mr. Liebeler. Because you didn't see who fired it?
Mr. Altgens. Because I didn't see who fired it. After the
Presidential car moved a little past me, I took another picture—now,
just let me back up here—I was prepared to make a picture at the
very instant the President was shot. I had refocused to 15 feet
because I wanted a good closeup of the President and Mrs.
Kennedy, and that's why I know that it would be right at 15 feet,
because I had prefocused in that area, and I had my camera almost
to my eye when it happened and that's as far as I got with my
camera.
Because, you see, even up to that time I didn't know that the
President had been shot previously. I still thought up until that time
that all I heard was fireworks and that they were giving some sort of
celebration to the President by popping these fireworks. It stunned
me so at what I saw that I failed to do my duty and make the
picture that I was hoping to make.
The car never did stop. It was proceeding along in a slow pace
and I stepped out in the curb area and made another picture as the

Secret Service man stepped upon the rear step of the Presidential
car and went to Mrs. Kennedy's aid and then after that I immediately
crossed the street and once again I was looking to see if I could find
anything in this area of Elm and Houston Streets that would suggest
to me where the shot came from.
Moreover, I was interested in knowing whether or not somebody
else had been struck by a bullet or one of the bullets in this area. I
saw that no one else had been hit. I did notice after I got on this
side of the street, that would be on the opposite side of the
Presidential car from where I was standing originally, which would
be the left side of the car from where I was standing—looking up
toward the building—I saw people looking out of windows. I saw a
couple of Negroes looking out of a window which I later learned was
the floor below where the gun—where the sniper's nest was
supposed to have been, but it didn't register on me at the time that
they were looking from an area that the bullet might have come
from. There was utter confusion at the time I crossed the street. The
Secret Service men, uniformed policemen with drawn guns that went
racing up this little incline and I thought——
Mr. Liebeler. When you speak of little incline that means the
area—the little incline on the grassy area here by this concrete
structure across Elm Street toward the School Book Depository
Building, is that part of Dealey Plaza too over in here, this concrete
structure, or is Dealey Plaza only the name ascribed to this area here
between Elm Street and Commerce Street?
Mr. Altgens. I really don't know, sir—I don't know whether this is
considered part of the Dealey Plaza or whether this is just something
extra as you might have for dressing.
Mr. Liebeler. The part we are referring to that we are not just
sure if it is a part of Dealey Plaza lies between Elm Street and the
railroad tracks that run behind it over here and from the railroad
tracks that go over the triple underpass, and this little grassy area
that you have just mentioned is just between the area formed by

Elm Street and the street that runs directly in front of the School
Book Depository Building; is that correct?
I started up the incline with—or, after the officers, because they
were moving well ahead of me and I was moving behind them
thinking perhaps if they had the assassin cornered I wanted a
picture, but before I had gotten over one-quarter of the way up the
incline, I met the officers coming back and I presumed that they
were just chasing shadows, so to speak, because there was no
assassin in the area apparently, but I didn't learn the location of the
sniper's nest until I was en route out to Parkland Hospital to
continue my assignment and I heard it on the radio, that the
assassin's nest was in the sixth floor window of the Book Depository
Building.
After that I made a good look through this area to see that no
one else had been hit. I noticed the couple that were on the ground
over here with their children, I saw them when they went down and
they were in the area and laid there some time after the Presidential
car had disappeared.
Mr. Liebeler. They threw themselves on the ground in this grassy
area that I have just described previously where you ran across after
this last shot?
Mr. Altgens. Yes; but they were not hit. I looked at them and
they weren't hit by a bullet, so I took another long look around
before I started my dash back to the office, and as it turned out, my
report was the first that our service had on the assassination and my
pictures were the only pictures we had available for a period of
about 24 hours.
Mr. Liebeler. I have a picture here which has been marked as
Commission Exhibit No. 203 and I ask you if that is not the first
picture that you took after you left the intersection of Main and
Houston and crossed Dealey Plaza and stood on the side of Elm
Street across from the Texas School Book Depository Book Building?

Mr. Liebeler. Do you recognize that as the picture which you
took?
Mr. Liebeler. Do you know any of the individuals depicted in that
picture?
Mr. Altgens. No, sir; I do not.
Mr. Liebeler. You testified previously, I believe, that the first shot
that was fired had just been fired momentarily before you took the
picture, is that right?
Mr. Altgens. Yes, sir; it was so close you could almost say it was
simultaneous because it was coincidental but nevertheless that's just
the way it happened.
Mr. Liebeler. When you first heard this shot, did you see any
reaction either on the part of the President or anyone else that
indicated they might have been hit by this shot?
Mr. Altgens. No, sir; and as a matter of fact, I did not know that
Governor Connally had been hit until one of our reporters got the
information out at Parkland Hospital.
Mr. Liebeler. As the Presidential car went down Elm Street, did
you observe Governor Connally's movements at all, did you see what
he was doing?
Mr. Altgens. No, sir; my attention was primarily on the President
and Mrs. Kennedy and I just wasn't paying too much attention about
the other people in the car after what I saw happen. Of course, my
concern was about the President and I just wasn't paying too much
attention to others in the car.
Mr. Liebeler. You are quite sure in your mind, however, that there
were no shots, a noise that sounded like shots, prior to the time at
which you took the picture that has been marked Commission
Exhibit No. 203; is that correct?

Mr. Altgens. No, sir; I did not—you see—all of these shots
sounded the same. If you heard one you would recognize the other
shots and these were all the same. It was a pop that I don't believe
I could identify it any other way than as a firecracker and this
particular picture was made at the time the first firecracker noise
was heard by me.
Mr. Liebeler. Now, you don't think that there could have been any
other shots fired prior to that time that you wouldn't have heard,
you were standing right there and you would have heard them,
would you not?
Mr. Altgens. I'm sure I would have—yes, sir.
Mr. Liebeler. You also testified that you were standing perhaps no
more than 15 feet away when the President was hit in the head and
that you are absolutely certain that there were no shots fired after
the President was hit in the head?
Mr. Altgens. Yes, sir; that's correct.
Mr. Liebeler. Could you tell us approximately how many shots
there were between the first and the last shot—as you well know—
there were supposed to have been three shots, but how many shots
did you hear?
Mr. Altgens. Well, I wouldn't want to say—I don't want to guess,
because facts are so important on something like this. I am inclined
to feel like that there were not as many as I have heard people say.
I think it's of a smaller denomination, a smaller number, but I cannot
—I can really only vouch for the two. Now, I know that there was at
least one shot in between.
Mr. Liebeler. At least one?
Mr. Altgens. I would say that—I know there was one in between.
It is possible there might have been another one—I don't really
know, but two, I can really account for.
Mr. Liebeler. And that's the first one and the last one?

Mr. Liebeler. Do you have any recollection as to the spacing of
these shots?
Mr. Altgens. They seemed to be at almost regular intervals and
they were quick.
Mr. Liebeler. How much time do you think elapsed between the
first and the last shot?
Mr. Altgens. Well, let's see—I would have to figure it out on a
speed basis because they were going at approximately 12 to 15
miles per hour downhill and I would say that all the shots were fired
within the space of less than 30 seconds. That's an estimate.
Mr. Liebeler. How far away was the Presidential car when you
took the picture that has been marked Commission Exhibit No. 203—
you must have had your camera focused?
Mr. Altgens. Yes, sir; it was about 30 feet.
Mr. Liebeler. Looking at Commission Exhibit No. 354, we have
placed you at No. 3 on that picture.
Mr. Liebeler. In looking at Commission Exhibit No. 203, does it
appear to you that 203 could have been taken from position 3 on
Commission Exhibit No. 354 and only be 30 feet away from the
Presidential car at that time—I'm not saying it wasn't—I mean, just
what does it look like to you? The question I'm driving at, of course,
is—I want to know—did you move from the time you took the first
picture, which is Commission Exhibit No. 203, and the time you saw
the President's head hit, did you move down the street at all?
Mr. Altgens. May I ask you a question in return?
Mr. Liebeler. Sure.
Mr. Altgens. I have no reason to doubt that by relating other
testimony, that you have come up with this figure 1 as being an

exact location as to when the Presidential car was struck by the
bullet—the first bullet.
Mr. Liebeler. You mean on Commission Exhibit No. 354?
Mr. Liebeler. Oh, no; not at all. These figures numbers 1, 2, and 3
don't indicate where the shots hit. They are for entirely different
purposes. Figure No. 1 on this picture, Commission Exhibit No. 354,
indicates where someone was standing—that's all that indicates.
Mr. Altgens. Well, I will have to ask you this question, then, sir,
because as you will know by looking at this picture——
Mr. Liebeler. Commission Exhibit No. 203?
Mr. Altgens. Excuse me—picture 203—there is a tree way behind
the Presidential car. Now, figure 1 is placed up in front of this tree,
which means that figure 1 would have been behind the car at the
time the President received the first shot.
Mr. Liebeler. Yes; referring to Exhibit No. 354.
Mr. Liebeler. Of course, that has no significance because these
numbers have nothing to do with the place where the car was when
the President was hit.
Mr. Altgens. I'm sorry—I just misinterpreted it.
Mr. Liebeler. I can see why you could assume that, because as
you look here at Commission Exhibit No. 354, you see 1, 2, 3, and 4
spaced down Elm Street and you did infer that that's the location the
President's car was when it was hit.
Mr. Liebeler. Which is not right because those numbers do not
indicate that in any way whatsoever—they are not related to that
notion at all.

Mr. Altgens. Yes, sir; I did not move from fixed position 3. If I
moved at all, it would be to step into the curb area to make a picture
and back upon the curb because there were motorcycle policemen
on either side of the Presidential car and I didn't want to get in their
way, but if you will look at this picture——
Mr. Liebeler. Referring to Exhibit No. 203.
Mr. Altgens. You will see by then referring to picture No. 354,
that the Presidential car was well down Elm Street in front of a tree
that is located in a grassy area which is just off of Elm Street and
just off of the street that runs down in front of the Book Depository
Building, which would indicate that the point at which he was struck,
the location of the car, would be approximately 30 feet in front of
the position from which I made this picture. Does that make sense?
Mr. Liebeler. Yes; what you are saying is that picture 203 was
taken at a time when the President's car had actually gone down
Elm Street to a point past this tree that stands at the corner here, in
the grassy area, outlined by Elm Street and a little street that runs
down by the Texas School Book Depository Building?
Mr. Liebeler. Now, the thing that is troubling me, though, Mr.
Altgens, is that you say the car was 30 feet away at the time you
took Commission Exhibit No. 203 and that is the time at which the
first shot was fired?
Mr. Liebeler. And that it was 15 feet away at the time the third
shot was fired.
Mr. Liebeler. But during that period of time the car moved much
more than 15 feet down Elm Street going down toward the triple
underpass?

Mr. Liebeler. I don't know how many feet it moved, but it moved
quite a ways from the time the first shot was fired until the time the
third shot was fired. I'm having trouble on this Exhibit No. 203
understanding how you could have been within 30 feet of the
President's car when you took Commission Exhibit No. 203 and
within 15 feet of the car when he was hit with the last shot in the
head without having moved yourself. Now, you have previously
indicated that you were right beside the President's car when he was
hit in the head.
Mr. Altgens. Well, I was about 15 feet from it.
Mr. Liebeler. But it was almost directly in front of you as it went
down the street; isn't that right?
Mr. Altgens. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Am I wrong, or isn't it correct that under that
testimony the car couldn't have moved very far down Elm Street
between the time you took Exhibit No. 203, which you took when
the first shot was fired, and the time that you saw his head being
hit, which was the time the last shot was fired?
Mr. Altgens. Well, I have to take into consideration the law
governing photographic materials and the use of optics in cameras—
lenses—and while my camera may have been set on a distance of 30
feet, there is a plus or minus area in which the focus still is
maintained. I figure that this is approximately 30 feet because that's
what I have measured on my camera.
Mr. Liebeler. And you say Exhibit No. 203 was taken about 30
feet away?
Mr. Altgens. But it might be 40 feet, but I couldn't say that that's
exactly the distance because while it may be in focus at 40 feet, my
camera has it in focus 30 feet. It's the same thing—if I focus at 16
feet, my focus might extend 20 feet and it might also be reduced to
10 feet, but my focusing was in that general area of 30 feet. I
believe, if you will let me say something further here about this
picture——

Mr. Liebeler. Go ahead.
Mr. Altgens. Possibly I could step this off myself from this
position, this approximate position where I was standing and step
off the distance, using as a guidepost the marker on this post here
or some marker that I can find in the area and I can probably step it
off or measure it off and get the exact footage. I was just going by
the markings on my camera.
Mr. Liebeler. The important thing is—it's not all that important as
to how far you were away from the car at the time you took the
picture—the thing that I want to establish is that you are absolutely
sure that you took Exhibit No. 203 at about the time the first shot
was fired and that you are quite sure also in your own mind that
there were no shots fired after you saw the President hit in the
head.
Mr. Altgens. That is correct; in both cases.
Mr. Liebeler. So, it is clear from your testimony that the third shot
—the last shot, rather—hit the President?
Mr. Altgens. Well, off and on we have been referring to the third
shot and the fourth shot, but actually, it was the last shot, the shot
did strike the President and there was no other sound like a shot
that was made after that. I was just going to make a conclusion
here, but that's not my place to do that, so I'll just forget it—what I
was going to say.
Mr. Liebeler. Well, what were you going to suggest—go ahead.
Mr. Altgens. Well, it seems obvious now, when you think back on
it—of course, at the time you don't reason these things out in a state
of shock, but it seemed obvious to me afterwards that there
wouldn't be another shot if the sniper saw what damage he did. He
did enough damage to create enough attention to the fact that
everybody knew he was firing a gun. Another shot would have truly
given him away, because everybody was looking for him, but as I
say, that's an obvious conclusion on my part, but there was not
another shot fired after the President was struck in the head.

Mr. Liebeler. Now, of course, you are aware of the fact that there
is an individual portrayed in Exhibit No. 203, standing right in the
door of the School Book Depository Building?
Mr. Altgens. Yes.
Mr. Liebeler. Just to the right of the No. A in the picture?
Mr. Liebeler. You are aware that he has been thought to resemble
Lee Harvey Oswald by certain people and it has been my
understanding that a newspaper reporter by the name of Bonafede
called you and discussed this picture with you?
Mr. Liebeler. Do you have any information as to whether or not
that man might be Lee Oswald or some other man?
Mr. Altgens. No, sir; I have never seen the man before in my life
and have seen no one that looks like him since.
Mr. Liebeler. Did this newspaper reporter tell you that it was
Oswald, or that it was somebody else—did you have any
conversations with him about that?
Mr. Altgens. Oh, yes, sir; as a matter of fact I had two calls from
him. I never met the man Bonafede, personally, but I had two calls
from him and he indicated to me he was writing a story around this
picture which showed this controversial figure standing in the
doorway of picture No. 203. He was asking me if I knew him, if I
had any information that I might be able to give him in connection
with this, inasmuch as he was doing a story on it, and naturally I
had no information to give him in that connection, but I don't know
the man and I have never had an assignment down at the bookstore
before or after the shooting so I have had no occasion to meet
anyone down there in the building either before or after.
Mr. Liebeler. I don't think I have any more questions at this point,
Mr. Altgens. Can you think of anything else you think might be

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