Pragmatics (Linguistics)

PRAGMATICSThe Study of Language Use

PragmaticsA subfield of linguistics which studies how people use language within a CONTEXTand why they use language in particular ways

Context fills in the details and allows full understanding

Consider the word “BALL” in the following sentences:He kicked the ball into the net.She dribbled the ball down the court and shot a basket.She putted the ball from two feet away.His racket missed the ball by mere inches.The ball rocketed across the alley and took down all ten pins.

ContextThe discourse that surrounds a language unit and helps to determine its interpretation

Subparts of ContextPhysical ContextWhere the conversation takes place

What actions are taking placeEpistemic ContextBackground knowledge shared by speakers and hearersLinguistic ContextUtterances previous to the utteranceSocial ContextSocial relationship and setting of speakers and hearersSpeech ActsThe use of language to perform some act

Speech ActsOther speech acts include: Threats

PromisesPerformative VerbsVerbs that can be used to perform the acts they nameI assert that John Jones has bad breath.I ask who ate my porridge.I order you to leave me alone.I request that you leave me alone.I threaten you that if you do that again, I’ll punch you.I warnthat there is a gremlin at the back of your car.I betyou five bucks that they will win tonight.I advise you to go to class at least once a quarter.I promise to pass the requirement tomorrow.

Direct and Indirect Speech ActsDirect Speech ActIndirect Speech ActThey perform their functions in a direct and literal mannerCan be performed by:Making a direct, literal utterance, orUsing a performative verbWhat the speaker actually means is different from what s/he literally says.Never uses performative verbs

To perform a particular speech act indirectly, one need only formulate a question, assertion, request, or order that evokes a felicity condition on that speech act.

Felicity ConditionsConditions that must be satisfied if a speech act is to be correctly and honestly performed

Question Felicity ConditionsS questions H about P:S does not know the truth about P.S wants to know the truth about P.S believes that H may be able to supply the information about P that S wants.Where:S is the Speaker,H is the Hearer, andP is some state of affairs

ExampleDirect Speech ActIndirect Speech ActDid John marry Helen?I ask you whether or not John marry Helen.I don’t know if John married Helen. (S does not know the truth about P)I would like to know if John married Helen. (S wants to know the truth about P)Do you know if John married Helen? (S believes that H may be able to supply the information about P that S wants)

Request Felicity ConditionsS requests H to do A:S believes A has not yet been done.S believes that H is able to do A.S believes that H is willing to do A-type things for S.S wants A to be done.Where:S is the Speaker,H is the Hearer, andA is some action

ExampleDirect Speech ActIndirect Speech ActPlease take out the garbage.I request that you take out the garbage.The garbage isn’t out yet. (S believes A has not yet been done)Could you take out the garbage? (S believes that H is able to do A)Would you mind taking out the garbage? (S believes that H is willing to do A-type things for S)I would like for you to take out the garbage. (S wants A to be done)

Promise Felicity ConditionsS promises H to do AS believes that H wants A done.S is able to A.S is willing to do A.A has not already been done.Where:S is the Speaker,H is the Hearer, andA is some action

ExampleDirect Speech ActIndirect Speech ActI will buy you a doll tomorrow.I promise to buy you a doll tomorrow.Would you like a doll tomorrow? (S believes that H wants A done)I can buy you a doll tomorrow. (S is able to A)I would love to buy you a doll. (S is willing to do A)I still haven’t bought you a doll, have I? (A has not already been done)

Threat Felicity ConditionsS promises H to do AS believes that H does not want A done.S is able to A.S is willing to do A.A has not already been done.Where:S is the Speaker,H is the Hearer, andA is some action

ExampleDirect Speech ActIndirect Speech ActIf you do that again, I’ll punch you.I threaten you that if you do that again, I’ll punch you.You don’t want me to punch you, do you? (S believes that H does not want A done)I can punch you, y’ know. (S is able to A)I wouldn't mind punching you. (S is willing to do A)Seems your face is not yet bruised, eh? (A has not already been done)

Rules of ConversationA set of conventions governing language use that preserves it integrity by requiring us, among other things, to be honestin its use, to have evidence for what we say, and to make what we say relevant to the speech context

H.P. Grice’s Cooperative PrincipleWe are enjoined to make sure that what we say in conversation furthers the purposes of these conversations.

Maxims of QualityDo not say what you believe is false.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Maxim of Relation/RelevanceBe relevant.

Maxims of QuantityMake your contribution as informative as required.Do not make your contribution more informative than required.

Maxims of MannerAvoid obscurity of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.

Language in AdvertisingAdvertising is a business in which language is used to persuade people to do things (e.g. to buy some product, to vote for someone, or to believe things)

EntailmentLogically valid inferenceIf sentence X entails sentence Y, then whenever X is true Y must also be true

ExampleIan drives a Corvette.Ian drives a car.A entails B because B is true when A is true as all Corvettes are cars.B cannot entail A because A can be false when B is true as not all cars are Corvettes.

ImplicatureNot logically valid but is nevertheless warrantedSentence X implicates sentence Y if:X does not entail YThe speaker is warranted in believing that Y is true based on the meaning of X and Grice’s Maxims of Conversation.

ExampleNot everyone is going to come.Someone is going to come.A implicates B because:A does not entail BB can be false when A is trueAssuming that the speaker of A makes his contribution as informative as required (1st Maxim of Quantity), the more informative claim “no one is going to come” was not used because it was not known to be true. Thus the hearer of A is justified in believing that B is true.

Leaving out of the than phraseCampbell soups have one-third less salt.Ford LTD was 700 percent quieter.More people sleep on Sealy PosturpedicThe cars more Americans depend on.Maytags are built to last longer and need fewer repairs.

Fine PrintFly anywhere Delta Airline goes.Fine Print: Some restrictions apply.Our UPS Next Day Air Letter. Guaranteed overnight delivery to any address from coast to coast.Fine Print: See Air Service Guide for Guarantee Details.Le Sabre is the most trouble-free American car.Fine Print: Owner-related problems during the first 90 days of ownership.

Idiomatic LanguageMercedes-Benz cars: engineered like no other car in the world.In one out of two American homes you’ll find Kenmore appliances.

Modal Auxiliaries or AdverbsIt may be one of the most powerful cars in the world.It could save you up to 15% on Allstate homeowners insurance.If you choose to finance or lease your new GMAC vehicle someplace other than GMAC, you might find yourself waiting in line instead of out hugging one.It leaves clothes virtually static-free.

Discourse AnalysisAnalysis on how meaning is created as people tell personal experience stories using narrations

ExampleThis is about a good-looking guy that made me a bit embarrassed of myselfIt happened to me last semester before summerEarly morning, I rode a jeep on the way to schoolUh. It was –uh- really cold and –uh- coldI was still sleepy but when I looked around the jeep the guy in front of me was so cute, not just cute –uh- gorgeous is more fittingAnother man said, “Para,” and –uh- and he was like –uh- preparing to go out of the jeep.And so, while the gorgeous guy was fixing his bag –uh- I winked and smiled at himIt was like so brave and stupid of me.

Pragmatics (Linguistics)

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