Preventing the first cesarean delivery

Current Commentary

Preventing the First Cesarean Delivery
Summary of a Joint Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development, Society for Maternal-
Fetal Medicine, and American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists Workshop
Catherine Y. Spong, MD, Vincenzo Berghella, MD, Katharine D. Wenstrom, MD, Brian M. Mercer, MD,
and George R. Saade, MD

points were identified to assist with reduction in cesar-
With more than one third of pregnancies in the United ean delivery rates including that labor induction should
States being delivered by cesarean and the growing be performed primarily for medical indication; if done
knowledge of morbidities associated with repeat cesar- for nonmedical indications, the gestational age should be
ean deliveries, the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Insti- at least 39 weeks or more and the cervix should be favor-
tute of Child Health and Human Development, the able, especially in the nulliparous patient. Review of the
Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, and the American current literature demonstrates the importance of adher-
College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists convened ing to appropriate definitions for failed induction and
a workshop to address the concept of preventing the first arrest of labor progress. The diagnosis of “failed induc-
cesarean delivery. The available information on maternal tion” should only be made after an adequate attempt.
and fetal factors, labor management and induction, and Adequate time for normal latent and active phases of
nonmedical factors leading to the first cesarean delivery the first stage, and for the second stage, should be
was reviewed as well as the implications of the first allowed as long as the maternal and fetal conditions per-
cesarean delivery on future reproductive health. Key mit. The adequate time for each of these stages appears
to be longer than traditionally estimated. Operative vag-
From the Pregnancy and Perinatology Branch, Eunice Kennedy Shriver
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Insti-
inal delivery is an acceptable birth method when indi-
tutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland; the Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, cated and can safely prevent cesarean delivery. Given the
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jefferson Medical College of Thomas progressively declining use, it is critical that training and
Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the Division of Maternal-Fetal experience in operative vaginal delivery are facilitated
Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Brown Alpert School of
Medicine, Women and Infants Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island; the Depart- and encouraged. When discussing the first cesarean
ment of Obstetrics & Gynecology, MetroHealth Medical Center Case Western delivery with a patient, counseling should include its
Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; the Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, effect on future reproductive health.
Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch,
(Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:1181–93)
Galveston, Texas; and the Publications and Executive Committees of the Society
for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Washington, DC. DOI: http://10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182704880
This article is an executive summary of a Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine,

C
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development, and American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists workshop esarean delivery is the most commonly performed
that was held February 7–8, 2012, in Dallas, Texas. major surgery in the United States. Approxi-
Dr. Spong, Associate Editor of Obstetrics & Gynecology, was not involved in mately one in three pregnancies is delivered by cesar-
the review or decision to publish this article. ean, accounting for more than 1 million surgeries each
Corresponding author: Catherine Y. Spong, MD, Chief, Pregnancy and year.1 In 2007, 26.5% of low-risk women giving birth
Perinatology Branch, NICHD, NIH, 6100 Executive Boulevard, Room 4B03 for the first time had a cesarean delivery.2 The Healthy
MSC 7510, Bethesda, MD 20892; e-mail: spongc@mail.nih.gov.
People target for 2020 is a cesarean delivery rate of
Financial Disclosure
The authors did not report any potential conflicts of interest. 23.9% in low-risk full-term women with a singleton,
vertex presentation. This is much higher than the
© 2012 by The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Published
by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. never achieved target cesarean delivery rate of 15%
ISSN: 0029-7844/12 for Healthy People 2010.3 The appropriate rate of

VOL. 120, NO. 5, NOVEMBER 2012 OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY 1181

cesarean delivery is not easily determined because it which may be preventable (Table 1). Importantly,
varies according to multiple factors. Although “case there are very few absolute indications for cesarean
mix adjustment” for these factors has been proposed, delivery such as complete placenta previa, vasa pre-
there are limited data on which variables should be via, or cord prolapse. Most indications depend on the
included in the adjustment when evaluating variations caregiver’s interpretation, recommendation, or action
between individuals or institutions. The primary cesar- in response to the developing situation, therefore
ean delivery is defined as the first cesarean delivery. making them modifiable and likely target to lower
Given its effect on subsequent pregnancies, an under- the cesarean delivery rate (Tables 2–4). Although each
standing of the drivers behind the increase in primary individual indication for cesarean delivery makes
cesarean delivery rates, and renewed effort to reduce a finite contribution to the overall primary cesarean
them, may have a substantial effect on health care. delivery rate, a measurable reduction could result if
Although the dramatic rise in the rate of cesarean concerted interventions were adopted to avoid each
delivery since 1995 is attributable in part to an increase and all unneeded surgeries.
in frequency of primary cesarean deliveries, it is also Patient and physician attitudes as well as their
the result of a decline in attempted trials of labor after perceptions regarding the risks of vaginal delivery
cesarean delivery. Of U.S. women who require an compared with cesarean delivery are other potentially
initial cesarean delivery, more than 90% will have modifiable factors. Undue concern about vaginal
a subsequent repeat cesarean delivery. Not only does delivery coupled with relative indifference regarding
cesarean delivery increase the risk of maternal compli- the risks of cesarean delivery may lead to a decision
cations in the index pregnancy, including intraoper- that is not based on clinical evidence. Whenever
ative complications, it has serious implications for cesarean delivery is planned or performed, the patient
future gestations. Adhesions of the uterus, bowel, and should be advised of the short- and long-term risks
bladder can result in trauma at surgery, whereas and benefits of the surgery both for herself and her
abnormal placentation (placenta previa, accreta, incre- offspring, in the present and future. The corollary is
ta, percreta) and uterine rupture can be catastrophic for that the risks associated with vaginal delivery should
both mother and neonate.4 Given the risks associated be presented in an objective and unbiased manner.
with the initial cesarean delivery and its implications for The indication for the surgery should be included in
subsequent pregnancies, the most effective approach to the consent and documented in the patient record.
reducing overall morbidities related to cesarean deliv- A cesarean delivery that is performed without an
ery is to avoid the first cesarean delivery. Incidences of accepted indication should be labeled as such, ie,
maternal as well as perinatal morbidity and mortality “nonindicated cesarean delivery.” The term “elective
should be kept to the lowest level achievable. cesarean delivery” should be avoided.5
To synthesize the available information regarding
factors leading to the first cesarean delivery, including
Table 1. Major Indications for Primary Cesarean
obstetric, maternal, and fetal indications for cesarean
Delivery
delivery, labor management and induction practices,
and nonmedical factors, the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Stage Indication %
National Institute of Child Health and Human Devel-
Prelabor Malpresentation 10–15*
opment (NICHD), the Society for Maternal Fetal Med- Multiple gestation 3
icine, and the American College of Obstetricians and Hypertensive disorders 3
Gynecologists convened a workshop on February 7–8, Macrosomia 3
2012. Workshop participants also reviewed the implica- Maternal request 2–8
In labor First-stage arrest 15–30*
tions of the first cesarean delivery on future reproductive Second-stage arrest 10–25
health and considered recommendations for practice, Failed induction 10
opportunities for patient and community education, Nonreassuring fetal heart rate 10
and potential areas for research with the goals of deter- Some indications may occur both prelabor and in labor.
mining the scope of the problem and identifying oppor- * Percentage of all cesarean deliveries that have this as a primary
tunities to reduce unnecessary first cesarean deliveries. indication.
Data from Zhang J, Troendle J, Reddy UM, Laughon SK, Branch
DW, Burkman R, et al. Contemporary cesarean delivery
EXAMINING INDICATIONS FOR PRIMARY practice in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol
CESAREAN DELIVERY 2010;203:326.e1–10; and Barber EL, Lundsberg LS, Belanger
K, Pettker CM, Funai EF, Illuzzi JL. Indications contributing to
There are numerous obstetric, fetal, and maternal the increasing cesarean delivery rate. Obstet Gynecol
indications for primary cesarean delivery, some of 2011;118:29–38.

1182 Spong et al Preventing the First Cesarean Delivery OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY

Table 2. Selected Potentially Modifiable Obstetric Indications for First Cesarean Delivery
Effect on Prevention
Diagnostic of First Cesarean
Indication Accuracy* Delivery† Preventive Strategies

Failed induction Limited Large See Table 5 and Figure 1
Arrest of labor Limited Large See Table 5 and Figure 3
Multiple gestation High Small Prevent multiple gestations: encourage single embryo
transfer
Safe trial of labor: training for vaginal twin delivery,
simulation for cephalic version, or breech
extraction of second twin
Preeclampsia High Small Education: preeclampsia is not an indication for
cesarean delivery
Prior shoulder dystocia Limited Small Improved documentation as to prior shoulder dystocia
Education regarding risk of recurrence based on
estimated fetal weight
Prior shoulder dystocia is not an absolute indication
for cesarean delivery
Prior myomectomy Limited Small Improved documentation of prior myomectomy
Education regarding impact of myomectomy on
delivery
Prior third-degree or fourth-degree High Small Education: not an absolute indication for cesarean
laceration, prior breakdown of delivery
repair, fistula Education: limited ability to predict recurrence
Marginal and low-lying High Small Education: attempt at vaginal delivery acceptable as
placentation long as placenta is 1 cm or more from internal os38
* Diagnostic criteria accuracy: how readily and accurately cases can be diagnosed. For example, the ability to diagnose multiple gestations
is high, whereas the ability to identify all cases of shoulder dystocia is limited as a result of subjectivity of the definition.
†
Effect on prevention of first cesarean delivery: large means that modification of indication (eg, arrest of labor) could lead to a large
decrease in cesarean deliveries. Small means that modification of indication (eg, prior shoulder dystocia) could lead to a small decrease
in cesarean deliveries.

In addition to monitoring and providing feed- induce labor for medical or nonmedical indications,
back to clinicians regarding their indications for and labor management style, the diagnosis and manage-
rates of primary cesarean deliveries, institutions ment of arrest disorders in the first and second stages
should identify those occurring without an accepted of labor, the use of labor neuroaxial anesthesia, the
medical indication. Of those with specific indications, use of operative vaginal delivery, and evaluation of
attention should be paid to cesarean deliveries fetal factors as well as nonmedical indications may
occurring after labor inductions, those labeled as for affect the potential for successful vaginal delivery.
“nonreassuring fetal status,” and those occurring for
labor arrest or “failed induction” without meeting Induction of Labor
accepted criteria (Table 5). A classification system is The overall likelihood of vaginal delivery is lower
needed to track cesarean deliveries, compare rates after labor induction than after spontaneous labor,
between practices and over time, perform audits, pro- especially when labor induction is attempted in
vide feedback, and identify areas for potential inter- a nulliparous woman with an unfavorable cervix.
vention.6 Although not uniquely designed for Institutions should have a clear policy regarding labor
primary cesarean deliveries, the Robson classification induction, including a list of acceptable indications,
is an example of a simple method that allows com- and should specify the definitions of a favorable
parison of cesarean delivery rates between practices cervix, options for cervical ripening in the presence
as well as over time.7–9 of an unripe cervix, oxytocin infusion protocols, and
criteria for the diagnosis of failed induction. Labor
LABOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND induction with an unfavorable cervix should not be
PRIMARY CESAREAN DELIVERY undertaken unless delivery is indicated for clear
Antepartum and intrapartum management decisions maternal or fetal benefit. Any time induction is
can have a profound effect on the individual patient’s undertaken, it should be clear that the goal is vaginal
likelihood of cesarean delivery. The decision to delivery.

VOL. 120, NO. 5, NOVEMBER 2012 Spong et al Preventing the First Cesarean Delivery 1183

Table 3. Selected Potentially Modifiable Fetal Indications for First Cesarean Delivery
Diagnostic Effect on Prevention of First
Indication Accuracy* Cesarean Delivery† Preventive Strategies

Malpresentation High Large External cephalic version
Nonreassuring antepartum or Moderate Large Education regarding correct interpretation
intrapartum fetal surveillance and management (Fig. 2)
Confirmatory tests (eg, scalp stimulation)
Intrauterine resuscitative measures (eg, IVF,
position change, oxygen, etc)
Macrosomia Limited Small Screen for and treat diabetes; limit weight
gain in pregnancy
Malformations, eg, NTD, SCT, Moderate Small Anecdotal for indication
EXIT procedure, hydrops Education: cesarean delivery not indicated
for abdominal wall defects
Multidisciplinary education of
subspecialists and counseling of patients
IVF, in vitro fertilization; NTD, neural tube defects; SCT, sacrococcygeal teratoma; EXIT, ex utero intrapartum treatment.
* Diagnostic criteria accuracy: how readily and accurately cases can be diagnosed. For example, the ability to diagnose malpresentation is
high, whereas the ability to identify macrosomia is limited. Moderate accuracy is between high and limited.
†
Effect on prevention of first cesarean delivery: large means that modification of indication (eg, malpresentation) could lead to a large
decrease in cesarean deliveries. Small means that modification of indication (eg, malformations) could lead to a small decrease in
cesarean deliveries.

Because an unfavorable cervix can negatively Pragmatically, although the potential maternal and
affect the labor course and increase the potential for fetal risks related to induction with an unfavorable
cesarean delivery, this factor should be considered in cervix should be incorporated into the overall risk–
decision-making regarding the method of labor induc- benefit evaluation when considering medically indi-
tion. However, the decision for induction should be cated labor induction, the decision to proceed with
considered first and should be separate from the induction should be made independent of the condi-
decision about whether to use cervical ripening. tion of the cervix and based on the specific indication

Table 4. Selected Potentially Modifiable Maternal Indications for First Cesarean Delivery
Effect on
Diagnostic Prevention of
Criteria First Cesarean
Indication Accuracy* Delivery† Preventive Strategies

Obesity (BMI greater than or equal to High Small Weight loss preconception, and limited weight
30 kg/m2) gain in pregnancy
Education: obesity is not an indication for cesarean
delivery and is a poor predictor of cesarean
delivery
Infection (HSV, HCV, HIV) High Small HIV treatment to minimize viral load
Cardiovascular disease (acute High Small Education: not an independent indication for
HTN crisis, cardiomyopathy, cesarean delivery
pulmonary HTN, cerebral
aneurysm, CVA)
Inadequate pelvis Limited Small Education: in general, not an indication for
cesarean delivery
Request (no maternal, obstetric, Not applicable Small Education of patient and provider regarding acute
or fetal indication) complications and long-term risks, benefits, and
effect of cesarean delivery on mother and
newborn; specific education on fear of labor
BMI, body mass index; HSV, herpes simplex virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HTN, hypertension; CVA,
cerebrovascular accident.
* Diagnostic criteria accuracy: how readily and accurately cases can be diagnosed. For example, the ability to diagnose infection is high,
whereas the ability to identify inadequate pelvis is limited as a result of subjectivity of the definition.
†
Effect on prevention of first cesarean delivery: small means that modification of indication (eg, infection) could lead to a small decrease in
cesarean deliveries.

1184 Spong et al Preventing the First Cesarean Delivery OBSTETRICS & GYNECOLOGY

Table 5. Definitions of Failed Induction and Arrest tion, and the expectation that well-defined criteria be
Disorders met before cesarean delivery is performed for failure
Failed induction of labor of induction or failure of progress in labor, may
Failure to generate regular (eg, every 3 min) contractions actually prevent many unnecessary first cesarean
and cervical change after at least 24 h of oxytocin deliveries. During this evaluation, it is important to
administration, with artificial membrane rupture if differentiate between “failed induction” and “arrest of
feasible labor” in the first stage. The diagnosis of failed induc-
First-stage arrest
6 cm or greater dilation* with membrane rupture and no tion should be reserved for those women who have
cervical change for not achieved regular (eg, every 3 minutes) contrac-
4 h or more of adequate contractions (eg, .200 tions and cervical change after at least 24 hours of
Montevideo units) or oxytocin administration with artificial membrane rup-
6 h or more if contractions inadequate ture if feasible (after completion of cervical ripening, if
Second-stage arrest
No progress (descent or rotation) for performed; Table 5; Fig. 1). Studies have shown that
4 h or more in nulliparous women with an epidural more than half of the women undergoing labor induc-
3 h or more in nulliparous women without an epidural tion remain in the latent phase for at least 6 hours, and
3 h or more in multiparous women with an epidural nearly one fifth remain in the latent phase for 12 hours
2 h or more in multiparous women without an epidural or longer.11 In a multicenter study, nearly 40% of the
* Since women may still be in latent labor, additional time and women still in the latent phase after 12 hours of oxy-
interventions may be needed in order to diagnose an arrest of
active labor before 6 cm dilatation (see Figure 1 for suggested tocin and membrane rupture successfully delivered
management). vaginally. These data suggest that induction should
not be defined to have failed in the latent phase unless
oxytocin has been administered for at least 24 hours
(s). There is no single definition used to differentiate or for 12 hours after membrane rupture.12,13 Numer-
a favorable (“ripe”) from an unfavorable (“unripe”) ous approaches to induction and cervical ripening
cervix whether in research or in clinical practice. In have been published, and no single approach is con-
general, the Bishop’s score has most often been used sidered superior to all others. Individual circumstan-
to describe cervical ripeness. A Bishop’s score greater ces should be considered for each patient. The
than 8 generally confers the same likelihood of vagi- algorithm offered in Figure 1 provides a general
nal delivery with induction of labor as that after spon- approach once the decision has been made to proceed
taneous labor and thus has been considered to with labor induction.
indicate a favorable cervix.10 Conversely, a Bishop’s There is much debate as to how long induction
score of 6 or less has been used to denote an unfavor- should be allowed to continue and whether it is
able cervix in many studies and has been associated appropriate to “rest” the patient who does not progress
with a higher risk of cesarean delivery when labor is after 12 or more hours of induction but who does not
induced compared with spontaneous labor. Because otherwise have a maternal or fetal reason for immediate
the Bishop’s score was originally developed to predict delivery. In cases in which induction is undertaken for
the likelihood of multiparous women at term to enter
spontaneous labor, making it less predictive of out-
come after labor induction in nulliparas, the effects Box 1. Quality Measures to Track and Provide
of maternal parity and gestational age were also con- Feedback for Each Obstetrician–Gynecologist
sidered during the workshop. Cervical ripening may Physician*
be considered when there is a medical indication for
induction. Because inductions without medical indica- Rate of nonmedically indicated cesarean delivery
tion should not be done with an unripe cervix, cervi- Rate of nonmedically indicated induction
cal ripening would not be an option (Fig. 1). Although Rate of labor arrest or failed induction diagnosed with-
cervical ripening agents have generally not been dem- out meeting accepted criteria
onstrated to reduce the likelihood of cesarean delivery
Rate of cesarean deliveries for nonreassuring fetal
in prospective interventional trials, their use can affect heart rate by Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Insti-
the duration of labor. tute of Child Health and Human Development
Because the goal of labor induction is vaginal category14
delivery, adequate time to enter into or progress in
labor should be allowed, provided the mother and *For singleton gestation, vertex presentation, at 37 0/7 to 41 6/7
weeks of gestation.
neonate are stable. The prudent use of labor induc-


Induction

Oxytocin with regular
frequent contractions

Cervical change No cervical change
from baseline from baseline

At least 6 cm Less than 6 cm Rupture of membranes Rupture of membranes
safe and feasible not safe or not feasible

Rupture of membranes
Contractions at not safe or not feasible At least 3 cm Less than 3 cm; fetal
least every 3 minutes heart tracing reassuring;
for at least 6 hours,
patient stable
but no further Administer oxytocin
cervical change at least 24 hours
Options:
Mechanical cervical
Rupture of membranes Rupture of membranes Rupture of membranes ripening
not safe or not feasible safe and feasible not safe or not feasible Pharmacologic cervical
ripening with
alternate agent
Consider cesarean Consider double setup Consider resting
delivery for attempted rupture patient overnight
of membranes
Rupture of membranes

Cervical change No cervical change Inadequate Rupture of membranes
despite adequate contractions; no not feasible
contractions for at cervical change
least 4 hours for at least 6 hours

Consider cesarean
Continue labor delivery

Fig. 1. Algorithm for induced labor.
Spong. Preventing the First Cesarean Delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2012.

specific maternal or fetal conditions that can worsen time and whose membranes remain intact (Table 5;
with time, stopping the induction is not an appropriate Fig. 1). An arrest disorder should not be confused with
option. Examples of such cases include preeclampsia, failed induction. The diagnosis of an arrest disorder in
fetal growth restriction, diabetes, and ruptured mem- women undergoing induction should not be made
branes. On the other hand, induction is sometimes unless the woman has entered the active phase of labor,
undertaken when neither the maternal nor fetal condi- requiring that there be documented cervical change
tion is expected to deteriorate rapidly. An example is preceding the arrest in dilation (Table 5). Once 6-cm
induction at 41 weeks of gestation. Despite this being cervical dilation is reached and the active phase is
a common obstetric dilemma, guidance available from entered, labor progress during induction is similar to
professional organizations does not provide clarity.15–17 the patient in spontaneous labor. However, the dura-
Published trials allowed cervical ripening over a period tion of the phase before 6-cm dilation is longer in
ranging from a single dose to several doses over days. women undergoing induction.17
In a trial of the Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Net-
work, the study design specified at least 24 hours from LABOR-MANAGEMENT STYLE
start of oxytocin before declaring a failed induction. All It has been suggested that the widely varying rates of
trials have found good outcomes in the induction group cesarean delivery among health care providers may be
despite waiting for at least 24 hours before failed induc- the result of different labor management styles. Admis-
tion was declared. It is also important to note that in all sion of women in the early latent phase of labor (eg,
induction trials, rupture of membranes was undertaken less than 3 cm dilated) has been associated with higher
as soon as feasible and safe. Based on this indirect evi- cesarean delivery rates. However, it is unclear whether
dence, it is considered appropriate to temporize before the admission in early labor itself increases the risk for
declaring that an induction has failed in women being cesarean delivery or if women requiring admission
induced for conditions that are not likely to worsen with earlier in labor are actually more likely to have an

1186 Spong et al Preventing the First Cesarean Delivery OBSTETRICS GYNECOLOGY

abnormal labor course (eg, abnormal contraction differentiate between the diagnostic criteria for arrest
pattern resulting in excessive pain and slower progress disorders that occur after spontaneous labor compared
in early labor, foreshadowing a subsequent arrest with labor induction. Pragmatically, arrest disorders in
disorder). Hospital admission does provide more time spontaneously laboring women are defined by clinical
to monitor labor progress and fetal well-being as well findings noted after admission. In both spontaneous as
as to implement interventions to facilitate labor. well as induced labor, the diagnosis of an arrest
However, early admission could also give the impres- disorder should not be made before the patient has
sion of a long labor and result in earlier abandonment entered into the active phase. The definitions of arrest
if progress is not deemed adequate or because of disorders outlined in Table 5 vary somewhat from
pressure from the patient or family. Although it is published criteria10 in recognition of more recent find-
prudent to avoid unneeded admissions (eg, before 3 ings regarding labor progress that challenge our long-
cm of dilatation) and interventions (eg, augmentation, held practices based on the Friedman curve. For
artificial membrane rupture), there is limited informa- example, the acceleration phase in active labor may
tion regarding the direct effect of these practices on not begin until approximately 6-cm dilation rather
primary cesarean delivery rates. than the previously recognized 4-cm cutoff, and mul-
Provider type (eg, physician, certified nurse mid- tiparous women appear to have a steeper acceleration
wife) may also be related to labor outcomes. Whether phase than previously thought.22
this relationship is causal or merely by association is Data needed to establish the normal range for the
not clear.19–21 It is possible that differences in the char- duration of the latent phase are not readily available
acteristics and expectations of women seeking differ- because the onset of the latent phase in most women
ent health care provider types may also affect the in spontaneous labor occurs outside the hospital and
outcome; for example, the woman interested in deliv- therefore cannot be accurately determined. Available
ering with a midwife or other low-risk health care evidence suggests that the duration of the latent phase
provider may have an inherently different risk of is not different between nulliparous and multiparous
cesarean delivery than one who prefers the care of women, a finding that contrasts with the overall length
an obstetrician or maternal-fetal medicine subspecial- of the first and second stages of labor.22 Based on data
ist. Despite this, the same defined criteria for labor from the safe labor consortium, nulliparous women in
arrest and prolonged labor should be used regardless spontaneous labor entering the hospital have a median
of health care provider or patient type. duration of 6 hours (95th percentile of 15.7 hours) to
reach the active phase of labor (6-cm dilation) if they
DIAGNOSIS OF ARREST DISORDERS enter the hospital at 2-cm dilation, and 4.2 hours (95th
The concept of a prolonged or “protracted” first or percentile 12.5 hours) if they enter at 3 cm.22 Nullip-
second stage of labor should be considered distinct arous women admitted in spontaneous labor with
from that of an arrest disorder. Progress in the first a cervix between 2 and 4 cm may not change their
stage should not be based solely on cervical dilation cervix for up to 7 to 6 hours, respectively.22
but must also take into consideration change in cervi- The safe labor consortium analyzed the duration
cal effacement and fetal station. Similarly, progress in of labor in 62,415 women with a term singleton
the second stage involves not only descent, but also pregnancy and a normal outcome and developed
rotation of the fetal head as it traverses the maternal contemporary partograms for labor.22 Labor in nul-
pelvis. Recognition of arrest of labor in the first or liparous women took longer than expected based on
second stage of labor (Table 5) provides an opportu- the Friedman curves. The investigators found that
nity to reassess the maternal and fetal condition, to labor can take more than 6 hours to progress from
counsel the woman about the ongoing potential for 4 cm to 5 cm and more than 3 hours to progress from
successful vaginal delivery, and to address the mater- 5 cm to 6 cm. The median duration of the active
nal and perinatal risks of continued labor. However, phase, from 6 cm to complete cervical dilation, was
“protracted labor” alone should not be the sole 2.1 hours in nulliparous women and 1.5 hours in
indication for an operative vaginal or cesarean multiparous women, with 95th percentiles of 8.6 hours
delivery if progress is being made and the maternal and 7.5 hours, respectively. The median and 95th per-
and fetal status are reassuring. centiles for the cervical change before 6 cm are sim-
Although the timing of labor onset in the patient ilar for nulliparous and multiparous women. After 6
entering spontaneous labor at home may be less clear, cm, multiparous women had a slightly faster labor
and the progress of labor before arrival to the hospital than nulliparous women. These data suggest that the
cannot be accurately assessed, there is no reason to historical criteria defining normal labor progress—


cervical change of 1.2 cm/h for nulliparous women Table 6. Duration of Each Centimeter Change in
and 1.5 cm/h for multiparous women—are no longer Cervical Dilatation for Nulliparous
valid. Women With Spontaneous Onset of
As for the second stage of labor, the data from the Labor*
safe labor consortium showed the median duration Cervical Change (cm) Median (h) 95th Percentile (h)
(95th percentile) with epidural analgesia to be 1.1 (3.6),
0.4 (2.0), and 0.3 (1.6) hours for nulliparous, primipa- 3–4 1.8 8.1
4–5 1.3 6.4
rous, and multiparous women, respectively, and 0.6 5–6 0.8 3.2
(2.8), 0.2 (1.3), and 0.1 (1.1) hours without an epidural.21 6–7 0.6 2.2
Table 6 shows the median and 95th percentile duration 7–8 0.5 1.6
for each centimeter change in nulliparous women in 8–9 0.5 1.4
spontaneous labor. 9–10 0.5 1.8
* Modified from Zhang J, Landy HJ, Branch DW, Burkman R,
Haberman S, Gregory KD, et al. Contemporary patterns of
LABOR ANALGESIA spontaneous labor with normal neonatal outcomes. Obstet
Gynecol 2010;116:1281–7.
Although it has been suggested that the use of
neuraxial analgesia (epidural, spinal, or combined
spinal–epidural) may prolong the latent phase of
performed by an experienced health care practitioner.
spontaneous labor, numerous trials have failed to find
Training programs should have readily available
an increase in cesarean delivery with neuraxial anal-
skilled operators to teach these procedures and
gesia either during labor induction or after spontane-
mechanisms in place to provide training, including
ous labor.23–25 As such, neuraxial analgesia should not
in actual cases as well as by simulation.
be withheld or delayed because of concerns regarding
the risk of cesarean delivery. EVALUATION OF FETAL STATUS BEFORE AND
DURING LABOR
OPERATIVE VAGINAL DELIVERY Electronic fetal heart monitoring remains the main-
Forceps and vacuum-assisted operative vaginal deliv- stay for assessment of fetal status during labor and is
ery may avert a cesarean delivery when maternal often used to decide on the mode of delivery in
expulsive forces are inadequate or expedited delivery a complicated pregnancy (Fig. 2). Continuous intra-
is needed.26 Many studies, including some that fol- partum fetal heart rate monitoring has been used in
lowed the offspring up to 18 years of age, have dem- more than 85% of deliveries in the United States for
onstrated that neonates delivered by operative vaginal more than a decade.31 However, despite the expec-
delivery typically have a normal newborn transition tation that continuous intrapartum fetal heart rate
period and normal long-term outcomes.27–30 Compar- monitoring would improve perinatal outcomes and
ing the reported rates of cesarean delivery with oper- the concomitant rise in cesarean deliveries, there has
ative vaginal delivery among U.S., Canadian, and been no reduction in the rate of cerebral palsy since
European practices, it becomes clear that higher rates its introduction in the United States and elsewhere.
of operative vaginal delivery are often associated with Although studies have found no benefit of continu-
lower cesarean delivery rates, and vice versa. ous monitoring over intermittent auscultation in low-
Although plausible, a cause-and-effect relationship risk women, intermittent auscultation requires one-
has not been established. to-one nursing throughout labor and may not be
Although operative vaginal delivery is acceptable appropriate in high-risk women or when there are
in appropriate circumstances, it requires an operator fetal heart rate abnormalities detected by ausculta-
who understands the indications and prerequisites and tion. Although it is reasonable to provide intermit-
is skilled in the technique. For this reason, the tent auscultation for low-risk women, guidelines
diminishing training and experience in operative defining appropriate candidates, the required fre-
vaginal delivery nationally is of concern. Important quency of auscultation, and criteria for conversion
steps in providing initial training and in maintaining to continuous fetal heart rate monitoring should be
skills include not only increased supervised training in place and enforced.
during residency and supplemental training and skill Important limitations in the interpretation of
maintenance simulations, but recognition by both continuous fetal heart rate monitoring include con-
patients and physicians that operative vaginal delivery siderable interobserver variability in the identification
is safe and can reduce perinatal morbidities when of fetal heart rate patterns likely to be associated with


Assessment of intrapartum FHR tracing

Fig. 2. Assessment of intrapartum Category I Category II* Category III
fetal heart rate monitoring. *Given
the wide variation of fetal heart rate Start intrauterine
Routine management Evaluation and
(FHR) tracings in Category II, this surveillance; resuscitative
algorithm is not meant to represent conﬁrmatory test (for measures†;
assessment and management of all example, scalp prepare for delivery
potential FHR tracings but provide an stimulation)
action template for common clinical
situations. †Intrauterine resuscitative
measures may include oxygen sup- FHR accelerations Absent FHR If not improved,
or moderate FHR accelerations and consider prompt
plementation, position change, intra- variability absent or minimal delivery‡
venous fluids, stopping oxytocin, FHR variability
tocolysis, and amnioinfusion. ‡Timing
and mode of delivery based on feasi- Continue surveillance Intrauterine
bility and maternal-fetal status. Modi- and intrauterine resuscitative
fied from Management of intrapartum resuscitative measures†
fetal heart rate tracings. Practice Bul- measures†
letin No. 116. American College of
Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Ob- If not improved or
stet Gynecol 2010;116:1232–40. FHR tracing progresses
Spong. Preventing the First Cesarean to Category III,
Delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2012. consider delivery‡

fetal acidosis and the fact that many patterns have Fetal heart rate acceleration in response to fetal
a low positive predictive value for adverse outcomes. scalp stimulation is supportive evidence suggesting
In 2008, the NICHD revised the guidelines for the absence of metabolic acidemia. Although fetal
interpretation of fetal heart rate patterns, creating scalp sampling was previously used to determine
a three-tiered interpretation system. Category I fetal scalp microcapillary pH, the hardware needed for
heart rate tracings are strongly predictive of normal bedside fetal scalp pH assessment is no longer readily
fetal acid-base status and are considered “normal.” available in the United States. The efficacy of other
Category III fetal heart rate patterns are predictive ancillary technologies (eg fetal pulse oximetry, fetal
of abnormal fetal acid-base status at the time of obser- electrocardiographic ST-segment analysis, computer-
vation and are considered “abnormal.” The interme- ized fetal heart rate pattern interpretation) to improve
diate Category II fetal heart rate patterns include neonatal outcome has not been confirmed. Until addi-
those that cannot be classified as Category I or III.14 tional effective technologies become available, it is un-
The NICHD recommendations do not specify any likely that the rate of cesarean delivery for fetal heart
particular intervention for Category I tracings but rate abnormalities will be reduced substantially.
do support prompt evaluation of Category III heart It is important to remember that any test that
rate patterns. Although interventions to resolve an depends on human interpretation will be subject to
abnormal Category III fetal heart rate pattern may the pressures exerted on the individual making the
help to avoid unneeded cesarean delivery, expedi- decision and the individual’s responses to the envi-
tious delivery is recommended if these efforts are ronment. This will lead to either higher false-nega-
unsuccessful (Fig. 2). The intermediate Category tive or higher false-positive test results depending
II fetal heart rate pattern requires a heightened on whether the decision-maker fears more the
level of attention but does not by itself require implications of a mistaken diagnosis or the implica-
immediate delivery; rather, evaluation and con- tions of missing a diagnosis, respectively. In the case
tinued surveillance and re-evaluation are recom- of electronic fetal monitoring, the major implication
mended. Maneuvers to improve uteroplacental of a false-positive interpretation is a potentially
perfusion (eg, adjustment of oxytocin infusion unnecessary operative delivery, but the implication
rate, administration of maternal oxygen, change of a false-negative interpretation is an adverse out-
of maternal position, treatment of maternal hypo- come for the fetus, along with its associated conse-
tension) may result in reversion to a Category I quences to the decision-maker and hospital. Even
pattern. if one believes that continuous fetal heart rate


monitoring may have prevented some adverse
Box 2. Key Points
outcomes, the evidence is overwhelming that it
has caused many more unnecessary interventions A cesarean delivery that is performed without an
overall. The result is a rise in cesarean delivery accepted indication should be labeled as such, ie,
“nonindicated cesarean delivery.” The term ”elective
rates, which has led to an increased incidence of cesarean delivery” should be avoided.
subsequent placenta accreta and associated mater-
nal morbidities and mortality. When discussing Labor induction should be performed only for medical
indication; if done for nonmedical indications, the
continuous fetal heart rate monitoring, the fetus gestational age should be 39 weeks or more, and the
who was “saved” is frequently held as proof of cervix should be favorable (Bishop score more than 8),
benefit of this technology, but the many more especially in the nulliparous patient.
women who underwent unnecessary procedures, The diagnosis of failed induction should only be made
had significant morbidity or even died as a result after an adequate attempt. Failed induction is defined
of a false-positive interpretation are rarely mentioned. as failure to generate regular (eg, every 3 minutes)
Importantly, the fact that the risks of cesarean delivery contractions and cervical change after at least 24
are cumulative over future pregnancies is frequently hours of oxytocin administration with artificial mem-
brane rupture if feasible.
overlooked.
Given that interpretation of the fetal heart rate Adequate time for normal latent and active phases of
can be subjective, it is important that hospitals the first stage, and for the second stage, should be
allowed unless expeditious delivery is medically indi-
institute some form of quality control for operative cated (Table 5; Figs. 1 and 3).
deliveries with nonreassuring fetal heart rate as the
indication (Box 1). Including the fetal heart rate In the presence of reassuring maternal and fetal sta-
tus, the diagnosis of arrest of labor should not be
category in the indication should be expected. In made until adequate time has elapsed. This includes
the case of an indication with a Category II pattern, greater than 6 cm dilation with membrane rupture
confirmatory testing, if any, should be documented, and 4 or more hours of adequate contractions
such as a negative response to scalp stimulation (eg, greater than 200 Montevideo units) or 6 hours
or minimal variability. Regular audits and reports or more if contractions inadequate with no cervical
change for first-stage arrest. For second-stage arrest,
can be provided to the staff with the rates of oper- no progress (descent or rotation) for more than 4
ative deliveries according to indications and stage hours in nulliparous women with an epidural, more
of labor. than 3 hours in nulliparous women without an epi-
dural, more than 3 hours in multiparous women with
an epidural, and more than 2 hours in multiparous
NONMEDICAL FACTORS women without an epidural should be considered,
with no cesarean delivery for this indication before
The relative safety of cesarean delivery has lowered these time limits (Table 5).
both patient and physician apprehension regarding
Intermittent auscultation, done appropriately, is an
the risk of such surgery, especially in the face of
acceptable method for labor management in low-risk
borderline fetal heart rate abnormalities, protracted patients without heart rate abnormalities.
labor or arrest disorders, or after the development of
In the patient with moderate fetal heart rate variability,
obstetric or medical complications. In general, the
other findings have little association with neurologic
usual concerns regarding major surgery do not seem damage or acidosis.
to apply as emphatically to cesarean delivery as to
other operations. This is most evident among patients Medically indicated operative vaginal delivery is
an acceptable birth method. Given the current
requesting a nonmedically indicated cesarean delivery rates, it is critical that training and experience
and physicians who acquiesce to such requests. in operative vaginal delivery are augmented and
Patient perception and education, societal attitudes, encouraged.
and social media all play a role.32 In addition to con- Doctors who are salaried and participate in profit-shar-
sidering the risk of the first cesarean delivery, physi- ing, thus reducing the financial incentive to limit the
cians and patients should be made aware of the time spent managing labor, have lower cesarean deliv-
potential complications resulting from repeated sur- ery rates.
geries both for the mother (eg, adhesions, bowel or When discussing the first cesarean delivery with
bladder trauma, abnormal placentation including a patient, counseling should include its effect on sub-
placenta accreta, uterine rupture, hysterectomy) and sequent pregnancy risks such as uterine rupture and
the fetus (eg, delayed delivery resulting from exten- placental implantation abnormalities including pla-
centa previa and accreta.
sive adhesions).


Spontaneous labor*

3–5.9 cm At least 6 cm

Fig. 3. Algorithm for spontaneous No cervical change Cervical change No cervical change Cervical change
labor. *Consider outpatient manage-
ment of uncomplicated labor until at Supportive care† Continue labor Rupture of membranes Continue labor
least 3 cm dilated or fetal membrane
rupture occurs. †Continued observa-
Cervical change No cervical change Inadequate
tion in latent phase, with augmenta- despite adequate contractions; no
tion as indicated. Discharge may be contractions for at cervical change
appropriate if labor subsides, mem- least 4 hours for at least 6 hours
branes remain intact, and maternal
and fetal status remain stable.
Consider cesarean
Spong. Preventing the First Cesarean
Continue labor delivery
Delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2012.

Institutional factors, such as time constraints for Patient expectations, the medical–legal climate,
scheduling on the labor and delivery unit, varying and practice patterns regarding intrapartum manage-
operating room staff availability, and the inability to ment need to be addressed if the rate of primary
support prolonged inductions with resources and cesarean delivery is to be reduced. Importantly, the
space that may be scarce all play a role in the misperception among reproductive-age women that
decision to proceed to cesarean delivery. Physician labor and vaginal delivery can harm the neonate,
factors such as fatigue, workload, and anticipated whereas cesarean delivery ensures a normal out-
sleep deprivation likely also affect decision-making. come, must be recognized and corrected. Given the
Several studies have suggested that cesarean delivery implications of primary cesarean delivery on both
rates are influenced by the “leisure incentive”; when pregnancy complications and subsequent deliveries,
the health care provider can go to sleep or go home it is important to institute practice management that
after the delivery, the cesarean delivery rate, espe- limits performance of the first cesarean delivery
cially cesarean deliveries performed for “dystocia” (Table 5).
(prolonged or dysfunctional labor) and “fetal intoler-
ance of labor,” increases.33,34 Financial incentives
and disincentives related to work efficiency and staff- CONCLUSIONS
ing workload may also tilt the scale toward more Although numerous factors contribute to the primary
liberal performance of scheduled cesarean deliveries. cesarean delivery rate, the clinician’s ability to modify
Given the time required to monitor a complicated some of these and mitigate others is the first step
labor, there is a financial disincentive to persevere toward lowering the primary cesarean delivery rate
when labor does not proceed efficiently or if border- (Tables 2–5; Box 2). The available information on
line fetal heart patterns are present. Evidence sug- maternal and fetal factors, labor management and
gests that doctors who are salaried and participate induction, and nonmedical factors leading to the first
in profit-sharing, thus reducing the financial incen- cesarean delivery as well as the implications of the
tive to limit the time spent managing labor, have first cesarean delivery on future reproductive health
lower cesarean delivery rates.14 are reviewed and critical key points were identified
The current medical–legal climate has also made (Box 2). The implications of a cesarean delivery rate
waiting for a vaginal delivery less attractive to many of 30% or more have tremendous effects on the med-
physicians when labor is not proceeding smoothly. In ical system as well as on the health of women and
many centers, the number of cesarean deliveries per- children. It is essential to embrace this concern and
formed for “nonreassuring fetal status” has increased provide guidance on strategies to lower the primary
more than any other indication despite the fact that cesarean delivery rate. Education regarding the nor-
the number of women classified as high risk has not mal labor course and the implications of first cesarean
increased concomitantly.35,36 All of these factors are delivery may allow women and their health care pro-
compounded by the belief among many patients that viders to avoid practices that increase the potential for
cesarean delivery is safer for the fetus.37 unneeded first cesarean deliveries.


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