Psychology and Counselling COGNITION-MEMORY & FORGETTING.ppt

Lecture 4 : COGNITION
LEARNING & COGNITION
Memory & Forgetting

Introduction to Cognition
Definition: Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing,
storing, and using information.
•It encompasses a wide range of functions, including perception, attention, memory,
reasoning, problem-solving, language, and decision-making. These cognitive functions
allow individuals to interpret the world around them, make sense of experiences, and
engage in adaptive behaviors.
•Cognition is fundamental to how we understand, learn, and interact with the
environment, and it plays a critical role in shaping our thoughts, emotions, and actions.
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Memory and Forgetting
How does new information
turn into memories
And why do we forget it ?
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Topic Content
Memory-Processes and stages
Forgetting and why it occurs
Biological basis of memory
Application of psychology of
memory in nursing practice and
education
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Topic Objectives
1) Discuss the concept of memory.
2) Discuss the three stages/systems of memory
3) Identify current memory strategies to aid in information storage and recall.
4) Discuss the concept of forgetting
5) Explain the relevance of the psychology of memory and forgetting in nursing
practice and education
6) Explain Selected examples of memory loss conditions
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Definition
Memory is the cognitive process by which we encode, store, and retrieve
information over time
•It allows us to retain past experiences, knowledge, and skills, and use them to
influence future behavior, decisions, and learning.
•Memory is typically categorized into three main stages:
Stage 1:Encoding
The process of converting sensory input (e.g., sights, sounds, and feelings) into a
form that can be stored in the brain.

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Stage 2: The retention of encoded information over time, which can occur in
different types of memory systems (e.g., short-term memory, long-term memory
•Information is stored in memory for later use. Holding onto the information
Retaining input for varying periods of time.
•Occurs after successful encoding of information
•It means that a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored.
•Much of stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except
when we need to use it.
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Stage 3:Retrieval
• The process by which we bring stored memories into conscious awareness.
• It involves reversing the process of encoding
•Locating and accessing information when it is needed
•Retrieval process allows us to bring memories out of storage into conscious
awareness.
•It requires reversing the process of encoding (returning the information to a form
similar to what we stored).
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1:Encoding: The process of changing information into a usable form so that
it can be stored.
 It means transforming the data into a meaningful form by;
• Maintenance Rehearsal: process information through repetition.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: an association with an existing information already
stored in memory (an image or a sound.)
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Basic Memory Processes(model of Human Memory)-information
Processing Approach
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Psychology and Counselling COGNITION-MEMORY & FORGETTING.ppt

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Basic Structure & Function of Memory
The Three Stages/ systems of Memory( The Stage Model of Memory) -Atkinson
and Shiffrin (1968 );
The theory outlines three separate stages of memory
Implies humans, have three distinct memory storage capabilities
Each stage differs from the other in :-
Capacity (amount of information that is storable at a stage).
Duration (length of time that information is stored at a stage).
Function (what is done with the information at that stage).

Basic Structure & Function Of Memory
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Three Stages of Storage
Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored
in long-term memory.

Type of memory
Sensory Memory-Refers to the information we receive through the senses.
• It is the earliest stage of memory.
• Helps us to experience a constant flow of information brought by the 5 senses.
• Capacity is large and holds all exact image of each sensory information from
the environment until it is fully processed
• It is very brief lasting only as much as a few seconds- ≤ ½ sec for visual
information and 3 - 4 secs for auditory information
• We attend only to certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of
this information to pass into the next stage, short-term memory.
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Selective Attention:
 Mental resources are focused on only part of the stimuli around us.
Discriminates between useful and non-useful information
◦ Remaining unattended information quickly fades away
◦ Most memory problems result from attention failures.
• Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term
memory.
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Short-Term (Working) Memory- is the information we are currently aware of or
thinking about
• Can be referred to as the conscious –Freud’s psychology
• STM takes over when the information in our sensory memory is transferred to
our consciousness or our awareness (Engle, Cantor, & Carullo, 1993; Laming,
1992).
• It is the information that is currently active such as reading this slide , talking to a
friend or taking down notes.
• Stores information for approx. 20 to 30 seconds.
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• Words are stored by their sound(accoustic) ,visual and semantic (meanings)
properties
• According to research, we can remember approx.5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of information in
our short term memory at any given time (Miller, 1956)
• Unattended information is quickly forgotten; attending to the information allows it to
continue on the next stage, long-term memory.
 Has a very limited capacity.
 E.g. Try this: Read once to a colleague
IBFIMBWBMATWIC

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TRY AGAIN NOW.....
FBI, IBM, BMW, WAT, CIA
How much can you now remember?
Did combining them in meaningful grouping help?
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Try to remember the following letters:
TH EDO GSA WTH EC AT
Now, recall all of the letters
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Let’s try that again:
THE-DOG-SAW-THE-CAT
Now, recall all of the letters
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The Power of chunking letters into meaningful words
• They were the same letters, just chunked differently

TEST YOUR SHORT TERM MEMORY
9 2 5
Now, recall the numbers
8 6 4 2
recall the numbers
3 7 6 5 4
recall the numbers
9 2 2 3 5 3 0
4 8 6 8 5 4 3 3 2
2 5 3 1 9 7 1 7 6 8
6 2 7 4 1 8
0 4 0 1 4 7 3
8 5 1 2 9 6 1 9 4 5 0
9 1 8 5 4 6 9 4 2 9 3 7

Reflection
 If STM lasts only up to 30 seconds, how do we ever get any work
done?
 Wouldn't we start to lose focus or concentrate about twice every
minute?
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A second phase of STM- Working Memory is the process that
takes place when we continually focus on material for longer than
STM alone will allow (Baddeley, 1992).
What happens when our short term memory is full and another bit
of information enters?

 Displacement means that the new information will push out part of the old
information. Suddenly some one says the area code for that phone number
and almost instantly you forget the last two digits of the number.
 We can improve short term memory skills, however, by chunking and
using rehearsal (which allows us to visualize, hear, say, or even see the
information repeatedly and through different senses).
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Long-Term Memory: Refers to the continuing storage of information. Referred to
as preconscious and unconscious by Freud.
 information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working
memory to be used.
 Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much
more difficult to access.
 LTM is relatively permanent and practically unlimited in terms of its storage
capacity. We have enough space in our LTM to memorize every phone number
in the U.S. and still function normally in terms of remembering what we do now.
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Subcategories Of LTM.
 Declarative memory. Stores memories for facts, life events, and information
about our environment
(i) semantic memory- factual knowledge e.g. meaning of words, concepts, and
our ability
to do maths (Lesch & Pollatsek, 1993, Rohrer et al., 1995)
(ii) Episodic memory, memories for events and situations (Goldringer, 1996;
Kliegel &
Lindberger, 1993).
 Non-declarative (or implicit) memory.
 These are memories we have stored due to extensive practice, conditioning,
or habits.
 The second subcategory and is often not thought of as memory because it
refers to internal, rather than external information. When you brush your teeth,
write your name, or scratch your eye, you do this with ease because you
previously stored these movements and can recall them with ease.
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Components of Long-term Memory

More of LTM
• Episodic memories. personal experiences for events or episodes in our life
(e.g. Birth dates, last important parties).
• semantic memories: general knowledge, facts, dates, concepts, ideas that
aren't tied to specific episodes. For example, Christmas is on Dec. 25th; 1st
president of Kenya)
• Procedural memories: Information about performance of various tasks e.g.
administering injections
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Why We Remember What We Remember?
Factors That Enhance Recall of Information
• Primacy Effect - information that occurs first is typically remembered better than information
occurring later. When given a list of words or numbers, the first word or number is usually
remembered due to rehearsing this more than other information.
• Recency effect - often the last bit of information is remembered better because not as much
time has past; time which results in forgetting.
• Distinctiveness - if something stands out from information around it, it is often remembered
better.
• Frequency effect – rehearsal results in better memory. Remember trying to memorize a
formula for your math class. The more you went over it, the better you knew it.
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Why we remember what we remember ……..
• Associations - when we attach information to other information it becomes
easier to remember. strategy in our professions and everyday life in the form of
acronyms, Mnemonics.
• SMART
• OLD CART
• On Old Olympia Tiny Top A French And Germen Voyaged Against Hope
• Reconstruction - sometimes we actually fill in the blanks in our memory. In
other words, when trying to get a complete picture in our minds, we will make up
the missing parts, often without any realization that this is occurring
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Elaborate rehearsal
This requires significant cognitive effort.
 involves thinking about the new information and attempting to relate it to information
already existing in memory; what they mean and how they relate to what you already
know.
Deeper and more effortful processing of information leads to better long term
memory because it helps us encode more features of the item which makes it easier
to locate later.
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Forgetting In Short-term Memory
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Peterson, L. R. & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term
retention of individual verbal items. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 59, 193-198.

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How Do We Retrieve Stored Memories?
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Retrieval: Locating information from long term memory
 Storage; Plays an important role in determining how readily information can later
be retrieved
 Organization: Better organized material are easier to retrieve
 Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that helps one retrieve information from LTM.
 Only cues that were encoded at the time information is entered into memory can
later contribute to the retrieval of such information
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• Context Dependent Memories: Memories that are helped or hindered by similarities
or differences between the contexts in which they are learned and recalled.
Material learnt in one environment is more difficult to remember in a different
context than it is in the original one
The greater ease of recall of information that was entered into memory in one
context or setting in that same context than in others.
State Dependent retrieval: Memories that are helped or hindered by similarities or
differences in a person’s state during learning .
• Mood congruency effects
• Drinking coffee at the time of memorizing items & at taking exams
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FORGETTING:
1. The Decay Theory: Forgetting with time. The
gradual disappearance of the information
from memory due to weakening of such
materials .
2. Interference: Either the storage or retrieval of
information is impaired by the presence of
other information.
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•Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with recall of old information.
i.e. Information currently being learnt interferes with information already
present in memory-learning new rules of playing specific game causes
you to forget rules of a similar game you learnt to play last year
•Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with learning new information.
•Previously learnt information interferes with information you are acquiring at
present –information you acquired about operating an old VCR interferes with
your ability to operate a new one that is very different to control
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Forgetting: Interference
Forgetting may be caused by failure to retrieve information
This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive

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3: Motivated forgetting :Sometimes, we may actively work to
forget memories, especially those of traumatic or
disturbing events or experiences. The two basic forms of
motivated forgetting are: suppression & repression.
4: Failure to store: information never actually got into long-
term memory.- Encoding failures.
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RETRIEVAL FAILURE AND FORGETTING
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Source: Tulving and Psotka, "Retroactive Inhibition in Free Recall: Inaccessibility of Information Available in
the Memory Store." Journal of Experimental Psychology, 87, pp. 1-8, 1971. Copyright © 1971 by the American
Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

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HOW ACCURATE ARE OUR MEMORIES?
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Distortion & Construction In Memory
• Memories are affected by
owhat we perceive
ogeneralized knowledge about the phenomena.
oSchemas: Mental representations of categories of objects, events, and
people.
• Existing knowledge is used to organize new information as we receive it.-
We fill in gaps in information that we encode and retrieve.
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The effect of schemas on recall
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Memory and Perception in the Courtroom
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MEMORY AND THE BRAIN
Brain structures
involved in memory

The amygdala is involved in
emotional memories. The
hippocampus is associated
with declarative and episodic
memory as well as recognition
memory
The cerebellum plays a role in
processing procedural
memories, such as how to play
the piano. The prefrontal
cortex appears to be involved in
remembering semantic tasks

The Biochemistry of Memory
• New experiences alter the functioning of
existing synapses.
• Long-Term Potentiation: The process of
“sensitizing” synapses.
• Stimulation from the environment promotes
the formation of new synapses.
Impact of brain damage
on memory
• Anterograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for
any event occurring after the injury.
• Often the result of damage to the
hippocampus, nearby parts of the
cerebral cortex, and the thalamus.
• Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for
events prior to some brain injury.
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Memory Problems: Amnesia
• Amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical
trauma, or psychological trauma
• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories
• Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain
trauma

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How Can We Remember More Information?
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Improving memory &
guidelines for more
effective studying
• Strategies for putting information
into an organized context in order
to remember it more easily.
• Mnemonics
• Acronyms
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PQR4 METHOD-Preview, Question, Read,
Reflect, Recite, Review
• Create an outline or other overall context for
learning, rather than just passively reading and
rereading the material.
• Maintenance rehearsal alone tends to be
ineffective for retaining information over long
periods.
• Review the lecture notes as soon as possible
after the lecture to fill in missing details.
• When studying, use your notes as if they were a
chapter in a textbook

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