Public Enforcement and Corporate Governance in Asia

Public Enforcement
and Corporate
Governance in Asia
Guidance and Good Practices

Public Enforcement
and Corporate
Governance in Asia
GUIDANCE AND GOOD PRACTICES

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FOREWORD – 3
PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT AND CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN ASIA: GUIDANCE AND GOOD PRACTICES © OECD 2014
Foreword
The first of its kind at a regional level, this Guide to Public Enforcement
and Corporate Governance in Asia was endorsed by 14 Asian jurisdictions at
the 15th meeting of the Asian-OECD-Asian Roundtable on Corporate
Governance on 12-13 February 2014 in Mumbai, India. Established in 1999, the
OECD-Asian Roundtable on Corporate Governance (Asian Roundtable) has
served as a valuable regional platform for exchanging experiences and
advancing the reform agenda on corporate governance while promoting
awareness and use of the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance in Asia. It
brings together policy makers, practitioners and experts on corporate
governance from the Asian region, OECD countries and relevant international
organisations. The Roundtables are co-organised by the OECD Directorate for
Financial and Enterprise Affairs – Corporate Affairs Division and a host Asian
country, in partnership with the Government of Japan.
The Reform Priorities in Asia: Taking Corporate Governance to a Higher
Level issued in 2011 (‘2011 Report’), a key product of the Asian Roundtable,
recognised the need for an adequate regulatory framework and effective
enforcement in Asian jurisdictions. The 2011 Report identified improving
enforcement - in particular promoting better public supervision and
enforcement - as one of the six priority areas in line with Chapter 1 of the
OECD Principles of Corporate Governance concerning the development of an
effective corporate governance framework.
The 2011 Report led to the establishment of an Asian Roundtable Task
Force on Enforcement (‘Task Force’), which commissioned a review of the
legal framework and enforcement by capital market regulators in participating
jurisdictions with the intention of issuing a good practices report on public
enforcement. Based on the review, this Guide provides guidance and good
practices to support policy makers and regulators in Asia in the area of public
enforcement. The Guide will enhance the effectiveness of regulators and
contribute to a culture of compliance by companies, in the interest of protecting
investors and creating confidence in markets. It should serve as a basis for
reform and self-assessment within national systems as well as a reference point
for peer reviews at regional level and provide elements for consideration for the
revision of the OECD Principles in 2014. Beyond the Asian Roundtable
participating countries, the Guide could be an important benchmark for other
APEC and ASEAN economies.

TABLE OF CONTENTS – 5
Table of contents
Background and scope of the report .................................................................7
Legal framework and adequacy of laws............................................................9
Related-party transactions...............................................................................11
Disclosure of ownership and control...............................................................13
Fiduciary duties of directors............................................................................15
Enforcement ......................................................................................................17
Structure and capacity of enforcement authorities........................................21
Jurisdiction and expertise of enforcement authorities .....................................21
The independence of enforcement authorities.................................................24
Checks and balances in the enforcement system.............................................28
Budget for enforcement authorities.................................................................31
Authority to monitor, supervise, investigate, enforce
and impose sanctions ........................................................................................33
Sanctions .........................................................................................................36
Disclosure of enforcement actions and practices............................................41
Courts and the judicial system.........................................................................43
Cross-border enforcement................................................................................45
Notes...................................................................................................................50
Bibliography .......................................................................................................51
Annex A. Task force members ..........................................................................53

6 – ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Guide is a result of work conducted by the Chair of the Asian Roundtable
Task Force on Enforcement, Selvarany Rasiah, Chief Regulatory Officer,
Regulations, Bursa Malaysia Bhd.
Special thanks to Task Force members from 14 participating jurisdictions in
Asia who invested considerable time completing the extensive survey
questionnaires, interviews, participated in discussions and provided extensive
comments on earlier drafts.
This Guide was prepared by Fianna Jurdant, Senior Policy Analyst, Corporate
Affairs Division of the OECD Directorate for Financial and Enterprise Affairs.
The OECD would like to thank the Government of Japan for their generous
financial support of this work.

BACKGROUND AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT – 7
Background and scope of the report
The Reform Priorities in Asia: Taking Corporate Governance to a
Higher Level issued in 2011 (‘2011 Report’) recognized the need for an
adequate regulatory framework and effective enforcement in Asian
jurisdictions. The 2011 Report set out the priorities and recommendations
that were agreed upon by participating jurisdictions in the OECD-Asian
Roundtable on Corporate Governance and identified improving enforcement
- in particular promoting better public supervision and enforcement - as one
of the six priority areas in line with Chapter 1 of the OECD Principles of
Corporate Governance concerning the development of an effective
corporate governance framework.
The 2011 Report led to the establishment of a Task Force on
Enforcement (‘Task Force’), which agreed to commission a study of the
legal framework and enforcement by capital market regulators in
participating jurisdictions with the intention of issuing a good practices
report on enforcement. Although public and private enforcement play
complementary and interdependent roles, the Task Force agreed to focus on
public supervision and enforcement; given the constituency of Asian
Roundtable participants, there is more opportunity to influence reforms.
The study focused on the following areas:
• Comprehensive legal framework and adequacy of laws, with a
focus on related-party transactions, disclosure of ownership and
control, and fiduciary duties of directors,
• Structure of enforcement authorities,
• Authority to monitor, supervise, investigate, enforce and impose
sanctions,
• Disclosure of enforcement actions and practices,
• Role of the courts and the judicial system, and
• Cross-border enforcement.

8 – BACKGROUND AND SCOPE OF THE REPORT
The study was conducted in 2013 through a questionnaire that was
sent to respondents in Bangladesh; China; Chinese Taipei; Hong Kong,
China; India; Indonesia; the Republic of Korea; Malaysia; Mongolia;
Pakistan; the Philippines; Singapore; Thailand and Vietnam
(‘participating jurisdictions’). A report analyzing t h e responses on
enforcement issues and an Issues Paper on Enforcement were presented to
members of the Task Force in Kuala Lumpur on 4 June 2013. Taskforce
members held a discussion to obtain more information about the
challenges that regulators face. This was followed by interviews with
participants in Hong Kong, China; India; Indonesia; Malaysia; Singapore;
and Thailand to obtain more in-depth information about legal frameworks
and enforcement by capital market regulators in their jurisdictions. The
aim of the questionnaire, discussions and interviews was to identify key
challenges and obstacles to effective enforcement, as well as the practices
and policies in participating jurisdictions. The good practices and
recommendations in this report have taken into account responses from
the questionnaire, discussions and interviews. This report sets out guidance
and good practices to aid policy makers and regulators in Asia in the area
of public enforcement. It has been arranged according to the six areas
identified above. Each area covers narratives of the landscape, challenges,
good practices and recommendations.
Although the focus in this paper is on public enforcement, this is not the
only approach that regulators use to develop an effective corporate
governance framework. Reflecting evolving trends, regulators also use
persuasive approaches such as engaging with listed companies by providing
training and awareness activities. The report does not cover enforcement
through civil action. Asian Roundtable and Task Force participants did express
a desire to see future work address private enforcement as well as cross-border
enforcement issues in more depth.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND ADEQUACY OF LAWS – 9
Legal framework and adequacy of laws
Recommendations
• There should be comprehensive requirements governing related-party
transactions to prevent abuse and to penalize wrongdoers. These
requirements should set clear thresholds for disclosure and obtaining
approvals as well as include procedures for ensuring the
reasonableness of transaction costs.
• Beneficial owners who have crossed a threshold of ownership should
be required to disclose ultimate beneficial ownership arrangements,
including acting in concert arrangements.
• Directors’ fiduciary duties should be explicitly highlighted, and the
board of directors should establish clear roles and responsibilities
when complying with their fiduciary duties.
Good corporate governance requires an adequate regulatory
framework and effective enforcement. Although Asian jurisdictions in
recent years have substantially revamped their regulations and corporate
governance codes and good practices, these differ among jurisdictions,
particularly in the areas of related-party transactions, disclosure of
beneficial ownership and fiduciary duties of directors.
The corporate governance legal framework in most jurisdictions is
divided into three pillars comprising (a) company law, (b) securities
regulations and (c) rules governing the issuance of and trading in equity
and debts securities of listed companies, and corporate governance
codes that adopt a ‘comply or explain’ approach to offer some
flexibility. Regulators in participating jurisdictions may utilize their rule-
making power to mandate certain corporate governance principles
and guidelines to ensure compliance.
The three pillars of corporate governance are listed in Table 1.

10 – LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND ADEQUACY OF LAWS
Table 1. The three pillars of the corporate governance framework
Jurisdiction
First
Pillar
Second Pillar Third Pillar
Bangladesh
The
Companies
Act 1994
The Securities and Exchange Ordinance
1969; The Securities and Exchange
Rules 1987
Corporate
Governance
Guidelines of 2012
China
Company
Law (2005)
Securities Law (2005), Law on State-
Owned Assets in Enterprises (2008)
Code of Corporate
Governance for Listed
Companies
Chinese
Taipei
The
Company
Act
The Securities and Exchange Act;
the rules and regulations promulgated
by the Financial Supervisory
Commission; the listing rules of the
Taiwan Stock Exchange (TWSE) and
the GreTai Securities Market (GTSM)
Corporate
Governance Best-
Practice Principles
for TSE/GTSM
Listed Companies
(2010)
Hong Kong,
China
The
Companies
Ordinance
(CO)
The Securities and Futures Ordinance
(SFO); The Rules Governing the Listing
of Securities on The Stock Exchange
of Hong Kong Limited; Financial
Reporting Council Ordinance
Hong Kong Code on
Corporate
Governance (2012)
India
The
Companies
Act 1956
and the
Companies
Act 2013
Regulations issued by the Securities and
Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
Guiding Principles
of Corporate
Governance
Voluntary Guidelines
on Corporate
Governance 2009
Indonesia
New
Company
Law (2007)
Undang-Undang Pasar Modal (Capital
Market Law); Bapepam-LK Rules
Guidelines of Good
Corporate
Governance 2006
Malaysia
The
Companies
Act 1965
and
amendments
in 2007
Banking and Financial Institution Act
1989; Development Financial Institution
Act 2002; The Financial Reporting Act
of 1997; Capital Markets and
Services Act 2007; Bursa
Malaysia Listing Requirements; The
Securities Commission Act 1993
Malaysian Code on
Corporate
Governance 2012
Mongolia
The
Company
Act (2011)
The Securities Act; Listing Rules; Banking
Act
The Corporate
Governance Code
of Mongolia (2007)
Pakistan
Companies
Ordinance
1984
Banking Companies Ordinance 1962;
Prudential Regulations for
Corporate/Commercial Banking
The Code for
Corporate Governance
2002

Table 1. The three pillars of the corporate governance framework (cont.)
Jurisdiction First Pillar Second Pillar Third Pillar
Philippines
The Corporation
Code of the
Philippines
Revised Securities Act; Securities
and Exchange Commission
Memoranda
The Revised Code
of Corporate
Governance (2009)
Singapore
Companies Act
(CA)
The Securities and Futures Act (SFA);
SGX Listing Rules
The Code of
Corporate
Governance (2012)
South Korea
Commercial
ActFair Trade Act
Financial Investment Services and
Capital Market Act
Code of Best Practices
for Corporate
Governance 2003
Thailand
The Public
LimitedCompany
Act 1992
The Securities and Exchange Act;
The Stock Exchange of Thailand’s
Listing and Disclosure Rules; The
Accounting Law 2000
The Principles of
Good Corporate
Governance for
Listed Companies
(2006)
Vietnam
Law on
Enterprises
(2001)
Securities Law (2006)
Ministry of
Finance Circular
52/2012/TT-BTC on
Corporate
Governance
Source: Author’s research
Related-party transactions
Asian business relationships are often informal and predominantly
consist of family or state-run business groups. In such cases related-party
transactions are perhaps inevitable. While most such transactions are not
abusive and may play an important and legitimate role in business,
under certain conditions, they may allow controlling shareholders to
benefit at the expense of non-controlling shareholders. The perception
is that related-party transactions in Asian capital markets pose a challenge
to the integrity of these markets and must be monitored and curbed.1
Corporate governance frameworks have sufficient company and
securities laws, as well as listing rules, to address related-party
transactions. Directors are expected to declare the nature of their interests
to the board and must declare any conflict of interest and provide details of
the nature, character and extent of the conflict. Some jurisdictions clearly
prohibit interested directors from participating in meetings when matters
involving conflicts of interest are under discussion and also prohibit

them from voting on contracts or proposed contracts. In most
jurisdictions, company laws also specifically prohibit certain types of
related-party transactions such as loans or guarantees to directors. Some
jurisdictions may even require shareholders' approval for related-party
transactions above certain thresholds.
The rules and regulations regarding related-party transactions are
generally divided into three categories:
(a) Rules that require disclosure of related-party transactions
These require listed companies to make an immediate announcement
of any related-party transaction of a value equal to or more than a
certain percentage of the group’s latest audited net tangible assets, or
a n other relevant threshold. On an annual basis, a company is further
required to disclose the aggregate value of related-party transactions
entered into during the financial year under review in the annual report.
The name of the interested person or related party under the
corresponding aggregate value must also be disclosed.
(b) Rules that require the approval of shareholders (or board of
directors)
Shareholders’ approval is required when the transaction value is higher
than a given percentage (usually 5%) of the company’s latest audited net
tangible assets or other relevant threshold. It is usually also required when
the transaction is not in the company’s ordinary course of business or not
undertaken in market conditions. In general, company law provisions state
that every director of a company must declare related-party transactions
(the fact, nature, character and extent of the conflict) to the board of
directors. Company laws also stipulate that transactions between a
company and its directors are subject to the explicit approval by the
board of directors. Moreover, company laws usually state that a director
who is directly or indirectly interested in a contract entered into or
proposed to be entered into by the company is not allowed to participate in
any discussion on the matter at the board meeting. Such parties must also
abstain from voting on the contract or proposed contract. If they do so, then
action can be taken against the director concerned. In some jurisdictions,
transactions obtained without shareholders’ approval are deemed to be void.
In Chinese Taipei, if the transaction amount reaches a threshold of 10% of
the total assets, 20% of the paid-up capital or USD10 million, the company
must obtain an appraisal report from a professional appraiser or a certified
public accountant’s opinion.

(c) Rules that prohibit certain related-party transactions
Company laws may contain provisions that prohibit specific related-
party transactions, such as loans or credit by the company to a director of the
company or of a related company. Companies are also prohibited from
entering into any guarantee or providing any security in connection with a
loan made to a director by any other person.
Good practices
Hong Kong, China; India; Malaysia; Singapore; and Thailand have
comprehensive laws governing related-party transactions. It is sufficient for the
company to make an announcement where the percentage ratio of the value of the
transaction is small; for example, 0.25% compared to the value of the listed
issuer. As the percentage ratio increases, the requirements become stricter and
range from mandating a circular in the form of notice to shareholders, obtaining
their approval, appointing an independent adviser to comment on whether the
terms are fair and reasonable and on the impact of the transaction on minority
shareholders, to appointing a main advisor. The audit committee has to give its
opinion on the transaction. In Thailand, it is being proposed that if the audit
committee’s opinion differs from that of the independent advisor, each board
member’s opinion about the transaction has to be recorded to ensure
accountability.
In addition, the Malaysian Companies Act 1965, Thailand’s Public Limited
Company Act and the Korean Commercial Act prohibit companies from granting
loans, giving credit or providing a guarantee or any form of security in connection
to a loan made to a director.
Disclosure of ownership and control
The main control structures in Asian companies are simple majority
ownership, commonly found in family or state-owned holding companies.
These companies c a n own a significant portion of a listed company,
or consist of complicated network ownership comprising a nexus of
shareholder agreements or interlinked boards that grant control over a
listed company to a family. Simple majority and complicated network
ownership structures may result in subservient boards, as directors have
been selected by controlling shareholders without robust debate.2
Definitions of ultimate beneficial ownership are part of the legal
and regulatory framework (particularly securities laws and regulations) that
governs the disclosure requirements for listed companies. The legal and
regulatory framework ensures that timely and accurate disclosure is
made of substantial beneficial ownership (and control structures) in listed

companies. Certain jurisdictions have gone further and require companies
to maintain a register of shareholders that is open to inspection by
members and also a separate register of substantial shareholders. In
addition, listed companies may require their members to disclose any
voting shares that they hold as a beneficial owner or trustee.
Securities regulations in most participating jurisdictions govern the
disclosure of interested directors, chief executive officers and substantial
shareholders. It is the norm in these jurisdictions to require ultimate
beneficial owners to disclose direct or indirect shareholdings of a class
of securities in publicly listed companies, based on thresholds of a
minimum of 5%. Shareholder agreements and acting-in-concert
arrangements that result in parties holding 5% or more of accumulated
voting rights in shares must be disclosed. In some participating jurisdictions
(Chinese Taipei, Mongolia, Pakistan and Philippines), the threshold is 10%.
Custodians and intermediaries holding shares as a nominee or an omnibus
account holder are required to obtain (through special application forms),
verify and retain records on beneficial ownership (including the identity of
beneficial owners).
The Listing Requirements in Malaysia state that companies
must make immediate announcements when they receive notice relating
to substantial shareholding or any change of control or ownership. Listed
companies are required to list in their annual report the names of
significant shareholders and their direct and deemed interests, stating the
number and percentage of shares in which they have an interest as shown
in the register of significant shareholders; direct and deemed interests of
each director including number and percentage of shareholdings; the
number of holders of each class of equity securities and any convertible
securities, and the voting rights attached to each class; distribution
schedule of each class of equity securities and any convertible securities
setting out the number of holders and their percentage stake in the
company; names of the 30 securities account holders having the largest
number of securities from each class of equity securities and convertible
securities; and the number and2
percentage held. Similarly, In India,
Securities and Exchange Board of India ( SEBI) regulations require public
announcements relating to substantial changes in shareholding and changes
of control or ownership.
Rules on disclosing beneficial ownership are sometimes difficult to
enforce. In some cases, it is hard to detect non-disclosure. Opaque
structures may be used that make it virtually impossible to detect
beneficial owners, in particular where the interest is held by companies
incorporated in off-shore tax-haven jurisdictions that do not require or
facilitate disclosure.

Owing to statutory or practical limitations, supervisory and enforcement
authorities may find it difficult to rely on the quality of disclosed
information, especially where the companies or shareholders resist
disclosure if they are not fully convinced of its benefits or conceal
beneficial ownership by the use of nominee shareholders, foreign corporate
vehicles or equity derivatives. In order to increase in the quality of
information, enforcement norms should deal more effectively with non-
compliance.
Good practices
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) Regulations 2011
(Substantial Acquisition of Shares and Takeovers) require a person who is the
beneficial owner of more than 5% of certain equity securities to disclose
information relating to such ownership. The Regulations also make it mandatory
for investors to disclose shareholder agreements and acting-in-concert
arrangements if they, together with other shareholders, control 5% or more of the
company’s outstanding shares. It should be noted that the disclosure rules in most
jurisdictions require substantial beneficial owners in the first, second or
subsequent layers of shareholdings to disclose information. The disclosure
requirement in India corresponds to the rules in China, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Singapore and Thailand, where beneficial owners over the 5% threshold are
required to disclose changes in the ultimate beneficial ownership arrangements
(including acting-in-concert arrangements) to the company, the threshold in
Chinese Taipei, Pakistan and the Philippines is 10%.
The Securities Industry (Central Depositories) Act 1991 in Malaysia provides
that every securities account with the central depository should be opened in the
name of the beneficial owner of the deposited securities or in the name of an
authorized nominee. Where such accounts are opened in the name of the
authorized nominee, the name of the beneficial owner and other relevant
information relating to the beneficial owner must be disclosed by the authorized
nominee, failing which securities account may be suspended.
Fiduciary duties of directors
The fiduciary duties of directors are open-ended standards of
performance that can be separated into duty of care and loyalty, duty to
disclose information, duty to abstain from self-dealing transactions and
duty of good faith and fair dealing. In order to increase awareness and
add certainty, boards should clearly stipulate the roles and responsibilities
of directors in complying with their fiduciary duties.

Breaches of fiduciary duties on the part of directors may result in
criminal action against them, especially if there is an element of fraud.
In some cases action is taken by the Registrar of Companies or its
equivalent, while in others it is taken by the statutory regulator (Securities
and Exchange Commission or its equivalent).
Good practices
Pakistan’s Code of Corporate Governance requires directors to confirm, at the
time of their election, that they are aware of their duties under the law, company
by-laws and listing rules. The Code also makes it mandatory for directors to
attend accredited training programs.
The Corporate Governance Codes in Bangladesh and Malaysia explicitly state
that the board should establish clear roles and responsibilities in complying with
their fiduciary duties.

ENFORCEMENT – 17
Enforcement
Enforcement is the most challenging aspect of the regulator’s role
because it often takes place in an environment where the damage is
already done and the regulator’s credibility is affected by perceptions
that it was slow in detecting and preventing the breaches.
Capital markets operate within a framework of laws, but there must
be adequate supervision to ensure compliance. Enforcement is an
extension of supervision, with the purpose of penalizing non-
compliance. These three elements – laws, supervision and enforcement - of
a securities market are interdependent. Hence, capital markets with sound
laws are ineffective if supervision and enforcement are inadequate. Laws
must be sufficiently well-designed to permit supervision and enforcement
to be conducted easily and effectively. Adequate supervision may prevent
problems from erupting into breaches that require enforcement. As part of
supervision, active surveillance by regulators through early monitoring,
regular assessments and engagements with listed companies allow
regulatory authorities to monitor companies for possible breaches, make
informed decisions on governance aspects of companies and determine if
there is need to introduce further regulatory measures. Supervision and
enforcement are different aspects of the same spectrum: the purpose of
supervision is early detection or prevention of breaches, while the aim of
enforcement is to punish violations that have occurred, coupled with the
aim deterring future offences by the offender and other parties.
This report focuses on public enforcement by analyzing the structure,
authority and capacity of regulators, as well as the adequacy and
disclosure of enforcement sanctions. It also assesses the role of the
judiciary in enforcement and the practice of sharing information
between domestic and foreign enforcement authorities.
In Asian jurisdictions, various institutions often share enforcement
of corporate governance. Some of these institutions have the power to
impose civil and criminal sanctions, while others have the power to
o n l y impose either type of sanction but not both. Stock exchanges
as front-line regulators have, for the most part, been given power to impose

18 – ENFORCEMENT
civil sanctions ranging from caution letters, private or public reprimands,
fines, suspension or de-listing among others, while the capital market
statutory regulator, usually the Securities and Exchange Commission or its
equivalent, may seek to impose criminal remedies through the judicial
process.
The relationship between various enforcement authorities (the
Securities and Exchange Commission or its equivalent, the Stock
Exchange, Company Registrar, Central Bank and police) is an important
element of effective enforcement of capital market laws. Overlapping
jurisdiction between these authorities poses a challenge. Table 2 depicts the
supervisory and enforcement authorities in participating jurisdictions.
Table 2. Supervisory and enforcement authorities: Securities regulators and exchanges
Country Enforcement authorities (discussed in the questionnaires)
Bangladesh
Bangladesh Securities and Exchange Commission (BSEC)
Other enforcement authorities for companies
China
China Securities Regulatory Committee (CSRC)
State-owned Assets Supervision and Administrative Commission
(SASAC)
Stock Exchanges (Shanghai and Shenzhen)
State-owned Assets Supervision and Administrative Commission
(SASAC)
Stock Exchanges (Shanghai and Shenzhen)
Chinese Taipei
Financial Supervisory Commission (FSC)
Stock Exchange, Ministry of Economic Affairs (MEA)
Hong Kong,
China
Securities and Futures Commission (SFC)
Hong Kong Exchange and Clearing Limited (the Listing
Department and the Listing Committee)
The Companies Registry
India
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
Serious Fraud Investigations Office (SFIO)
The Stock Exchanges
Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA)
Indonesia Otoritas Jasa Keuangan (OJK) (Bapepam LK until 31 December 2012)
Malaysia
Companies Commission of Malaysia (CCM)
Securities Commission Malaysia(SC)
Bursa Malaysia
Central Bank of Malaysia
Mongolia
Financial Regulatory Commission (FRC)
Mongolian Stock Exchange (MSE)

ENFORCEMENT – 19
Table 2. Supervisory and enforcement authorities: Securities regulators
and exchanges (cont.)
Country Enforcement authorities (discussed in the questionnaires)
Pakistan
State Bank of Pakistan (SBP)
The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP)
Karachi Stock Exchange (KSE)
Lahore Stock Exchange (LSE)
Islamabad Stock Exchange (ISE)
Philippines
Securities Exchange Commission ( SEC)
Philippines Stock Exchange (PSE)
Singapore
Accounting and Corporate Regulatory Authority (ACRA)
Commercial Affairs Department (CAD)
Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS)
Singapore Exchange(SGX)
South Korea
Ministry of Justice
Fair Trade Commission
Korean Stock Exchange
Thailand
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Stock Exchange Thailand (SET)
Vietnam
State Securities Commission (SSC)
Vietnam Stock Exchange

STRUCTURE AND CAPACITY OF ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITIES – 21
Structure and capacity of enforcement authorities
Jurisdiction and expertise of enforcement authorities
Recommendations
• Countries with multiple enforcement authorities should have a
Memorandum of Understanding to formalize co-ordination and should
have frequent meetings to discuss enforcement issues. These meetings
should be coordinated by one agency with dedicated personnel to
oversee and co-ordinate activities of all enforcement authorities and
should, from time to time, involve senior management of all the
enforcement agencies.
• Requests for information should be handled transparently and
efficiently and should be attended to within a specified time. Sound
reasons should be given when requests for information are rejected.
• There should be dedicated divisions within the police or public
prosecutors to investigate and initiate criminal actions for breach of
securities regulations. In addition, statutory regulators should be
equipped with powers of prosecution.
The structure of enforcement authorities in participating
jurisdictions may be either fragmented or concentrated within a single
regulator. There are advantages and disadvantages in both systems. The
structure alone is insufficient to determine the quality of enforcement, which
also depends upon the level of experience, skills and training of the
supervisory and enforcement staff. Where enforcement staff are
experienced and are given adequate powers to carry out their role,
enforcement may be more effective regardless of the enforcement-body
structure.
Enforcement systems in participating jurisdictions are, for the most
part, fragmented among multiple agencies at different levels. Most
participating jurisdictions have a statutory regulator commonly known as
the Securities (and Futures) Commission, Securities and Exchange

22 – STRUCTURE AND CAPACITY OF ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITIES
Commission or Securities and Exchange Board. Stock exchanges play the
role of front-line regulators. The statutory regulator has broad statutory
investigation and enforcement powers to uphold laws and regulations that
govern the issuance of and trading in securities. It has the power to
investigate and prosecute or start a legal action.
Front-line regulators in most participating jurisdictions are
responsible for ensuring that the market is fair, orderly and informed. In
undertaking this role, stock exchanges enforce their own listing rules
through monitoring activities such as vetting announcements, circulars and
financial reports; monitoring market activities and taking action when they
detect a breach. Statutory regulators have wider authority but at times must
consult other authorities such as the Commercial Crimes Division within
the police force or the public prosecutor’s office in order to obtain
information or to prosecute offenders.
Thus the advantage of a fragmented enforcement structure is that
it may foster specialization, as each enforcement authority deals with
problems within its respective authority. Another advantage is that it
provides better checks and balances, as power is not concentrated in the
hands of one enforcement authority. Fragmented structures may, however,
lead to overlapping areas of enforcement and even conflicting requirements
imposed on companies. This usually does not pose a challenge if there is an
agreement or arrangement as to the accountability of each regulator where
there is overlapping jurisdiction and when this is made clear to the market.
Overlapping jurisdiction involving the principal or front-line regulator with
other bodies such as the Central Bank or the Companies Registrar may,
nevertheless, pose challenges for co-ordinating enforcement. If this
relationship is not properly structured, principal or front-line regulators
may be perceived as inefficient. Some jurisdictions like India permit
parallel enforcement action, which allows enforcement authorities of
overlapping jurisdictions to take action simultaneously.
One of the biggest challenges that regulators face is co-ordinating
investigations and sharing information. Although dialogues, inter-agency
meetings and other methods of co-operation may reduce problems,
different enforcement authorities may have different priorities or
methods of achieving their aims. This may lead to failure or delays in
detection and enforcement. For example, in some jurisdictions, cases
involving fraud must be dealt with by the police within a range of
numerous priorities that may hamper the investigations’ effectiveness.
Securities regulators in some jurisdictions are not granted powers to
prosecute but rather must go through public prosecutors, who may lack in-
depth knowledge about the intricacies of securities laws or have competing
claims on their time.

While over-fragmentation is undesirable given the problems in
respect of co-ordination, establishing a single ‘super-regulator’ might
not be the solution. A single super-regulator could also face capacity
problems to effectively supervise and enforce the wide range of possible
infractions, from a breach of listing requirements to money laundering
and corruption.
There is no one-size–fits-all enforcement structure; both fragmented
and super-regulators have their advantages and disadvantages.
Nevertheless it would be advisable to require regulators in a fragmented
structure to address the problem of a lack of co-ordination. The preferred
format would be to have a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to
formalize co-ordination among regulators. There should be frequent
meetings at which downstream organizations responsible for further
investigations and prosecutions explain their reasons for failure to
pursue a particular course of action. This would ensure
accountability.
Frequent meetings among enforcement authorities from different
organizations builds close networks, but there is a possibility that regulators
may not respond adequately to personnel who are not part of this network.
To avoid this, there should be clear timelines to respond to requests for
information, followed by clear reasons as to why a certain request has not
been acceded to. In other words, requests for information should be
addressed in a transparent and efficient manner. The roles and
responsibilities of the different regulators should also be clear so as to ensure
smooth co-ordination.
Regardless of whether a jurisdiction has a single or multiple
regulator(s), it is important that emphasis be not only on rule-making but
also on adequate supervision and strong enforcement. The supervisory and
enforcement divisions should be streamlined to ensure cohesiveness.

Good practices
In Singapore meetings are conducted every quarter among the enforcement
authorities - the Singapore Exchange (SGX), Accounting and Corporate
Regulatory Authority (ACRA), Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) and the
Commercial Affairs Division (CAD) - to exchange information and obtain
updates on enforcement actions. Similarly, the National Law Enforcement
Coordinating Committee (NALECC) in the Philippines maintains close co-
ordination and co-operation among member agencies on enforcement matters.
Unlike other jurisdictions, the NALECC acts as a co-ordinator of the activities of
enforcement agencies. The Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC)
in India plays a similar role. Pakistan has introduced a co-ordination committee
which has been formed under an MoU between the Securities and Exchange
Commission of Pakistan (SECP) and the State Bank of Pakistan. The SECP is
introducing a Sector Monitoring Division (CSMD). CSMD will be responsible
for regular off-site surveillance and monitoring of corporate and regulated
entities, as well as for conducting on-site inspections and investigations to assess
the overall financial health of companies and check compliance.
In Chinese Taipei, the Ministry of Justice has designated a prosecutor to sit at
the FSC. In the event that the FSC discovers criminal activities such as insider
trading, related-party-transaction or stock-price manipulation, the FSC consults
the prosecutor, who will provide an opinion on whether there is enough evidence
to prosecute. This improves timelines, mutual understanding between the
regulator and prosecutor, and the quality of the prosecution.
The CAD, which is part of the Singapore police force, is in charge of
investigating a wide spectrum of commercial and financial crimes. Securities
regulators refer cases to the CAD for further investigations.
The Securities Commission of Malaysia has the authority to prosecute
breaches of securities laws following consent from the public prosecutor.
The independence of enforcement authorities
Recommendations
• Regulators should be free from political interference and should be
commercially independent, while being accountable and receiving full
support by the government to enable them to carry out their duties
effectively.
• Demutualised stock exchanges should ensure independence of their
regulatory function through being subjected to oversight by a statutory
regulator or equivalent independent body.

Independence is important to secure and maintain trust in the
enforcement system. Four indicators ensure that regulators operate
independently from political and commercial influence: the source of
funding, checks and balances and transparency of the same, the right of legal
recourse and appeal by the errant party, and the expertise and independence
of the courts and judicial system.
The source of regulators’ funding may lead to conflicts of interest.
There are different funding sources for regulators consisting of funding
by market participants, funding through government sponsorships, and
third-party sponsorships. Most stock exchanges in participating
jurisdictions are funded by market participants, while statutory
regulators are either partly or fully funded through government
sponsorships or completely market funded. The Securities Commission
of Malaysia and Bursa Malaysia, the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, the
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan, the Taiwan Stock
Exchange in Chinese Taipei and regulators in Singapore are funded by
market participants. SEBI, Otoritas Jasa Kewangan (OJK) in Indonesia,
t he Financial Supervisory Service and Financial Supervisory Committee
in Korea, the Financial Supervisory Commission in Chinese Taipei and the
CAD in Singapore are publicly funded. The Securities and Futures
Commission (SFC) in Hong Kong, China is also self-funded, although it
may request the government to fund their activities. In Vietnam, the State
Securities Commission is affiliated with and funded by the Ministry of
Finance; in Mongolia, the Financial Regulatory Commission is also
funded by the government.
Table 3 shows that most regulators and enforcement authorities have
sources of self-funding (by market participants) at their disposal,
indicating that they operate at least partially independently from
government institutions.
Regulators should be free from political interference, financially
independent and should receive full support by the government and the
market in carrying out their duties. 2
Statutory regulators can maintain their
independence by being self-funded and report directly to Parliament or its
equivalent in their jurisdiction. Most regulators, regardless of how they are
funded, have taken steps to ensure their independence.

Table 3. Funding of enforcement authorities
Main funding resource
Self-funding Public funding Third party
transaction
Bangladesh BSEC * - -
China
CSRC
SACAC
Stock Ex.
Chinese
Taipei
FSC * * -
TWSE * - -
GTSM * - -
Hong Kong,
China
SFC * * -
CR * - -
HKEx *
India
SEBI * * -
MCA - * -
Stock Ex. * - -
Indonesia OJK * * -
Malaysia
CCM * * -
SC * - -
BURSA * - -
Mongolia FRC - * -
Pakistan
SBP
SECP
Philippines SEC * * -
Singapore
MAS * - -
ACRA * - -
CAD - * -
SGX * - -
Korea
FTC
Korea Ex.
Thailand
SEC * - -
SET *
Vietnam SSC - * -

The regulators’ method or source of funding is pertinent, as it may
influence or give rise to conflicts of interest or a lack of independence and
accountability. These are issues of concern with respect to the
effectiveness of regulators in properly discharging their regulatory
function. In addition, where the government is involved in business through
state investment funds and companies, as is common in many Asian
countries, the risk of political interference or distortion of competition is
a real concern. There is a perception that enforcement authorities funded
by the government might not be willing to take action against
government-owned or government-linked companies.
There is also a risk that regulators will not receive full support from the
government owing to a fear that strong enforcement in emerging markets
could prompt the exit of some listed companies and discourage the entry of
new ones.3
On this basis, regulators are not given full autonomy to enforce
their rules and instead must rely on other organizations within various
ministries to help them carry out their duties, thus affecting the ability and,
indirectly, the independence of enforcement.
Conflicts of interest may arise when regulators hold a dual role of
developing and regulating the market. For example, demutualized
exchanges carry out commercial activities while regulating the market.
The danger is that commercial pressures may cause exchanges to
compromise their regulatory role. The methods of funding, conflicts of
interest, lack of independence and accountability are genuine concerns.4
The International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO)
highlighted the conflict of interest in demutualized exchanges as they may
compromise their regulatory role to remain attractive and focus on year-on-
year earnings growth and increasing profits. The conflict between
commercial and regulatory objectives gives rise to the risk of the exchanges’
reducing regulation (including challenging breaches of its rules) so as to
reduce regulatory costs and thus enhance its attractiveness to issuers and
intermediaries. This may also give rise to exchanges’ reducing the
resources spent on regulatory functions, which may in turn increase the risk
of regulatory failure.
Demutualized stock exchanges should ensure that conflicts of interest
are adequately disclosed and that there is no compromise in the
discharge of their regulatory role. They can also preserve their
independence by being subjected to the oversight of the statutory regulator,
which should approve all rules made or amended by the exchange.
Alternatively, they can organize their regulatory structure so as to permit
their regulatory function to operate independently of the commercial or
business activities of the exchange.5

Good Practices
Statutory regulators maintain their independence in several ways. SEBI in
India and SEC in Thailand are autonomous bodies constituted under an act of
parliament and enjoy operational and financial autonomy. In Pakistan the SECP
commissioners are appointed under the SECP Act, and they cannot be removed
from their position other than in circumstances outlined in the Act.
Bursa Malaysia is an example of a demutualized exchange subject to oversight
by the Securities Commission Malaysia, and it has an internal framework for
managing conflicts of interest. Bursa is required to submit an Annual Regulatory
Report (ARR) to the Securities Commission with details on the extent and scope
of its compliance with its statutory duties and obligations. The Securities
Commission conducts a regulatory audit upon submission of the ARR.
Checks and balances in the enforcement system
Recommendations
• Independent bodies or committees should be put into place as checks and
balances to ensure proper discharge of the functions of enforcement
authorities, and these procedures should be publicized.
• There should be a right to appeal from or a review of the decisions of
enforcement authorities, including in courts of law.
Statutory regulators have been granted wider powers than front-
line regulators, but it remains necessary to have in place checks and
balances to ensure that they exercise their power properly. Some
statutory regulators in participating jurisdictions are subject to
oversight by external authorities such as p arliament or a relevant
m inistry, while others have instituted internal checks and balances such
as ensuring that decisions to enforce cases are not vested in a single
person or division but rather subject to a committee consisting of external
independent members.
It is particularly pertinent for a front-line regulator that plays a dual role
as a commercial entity to put into place appropriate and effective checks
and balances. Most regulators are mindful of conflicts of interest and
have taken measures to prevent them. While ensuring appropriate

checks and balances is important, such arrangements must also be
transparent and effective.
Some front-line regulators have regulatory committees or an
independent body to oversee major enforcement actions. This could be a
Listing Committee comprising independent members who preside over
matters relating to alleged breaches by companies, their directors or senior
management. It may also be an internal structure such as an
Enforcement Committee that oversees the investigation and enforcement
of decisions. There may be an internal panel to review internal
procedures and operational guidelines on regulatory functions. Where
stock exchanges are concerned, the committees may pursue actions for
breaches of listing rules, but their actions are often subject to scrutiny by
the statutory regulator.
Some front-line regulators have regulatory committees or an
independent body to oversee major enforcement actions. This could be a
Listing Committee comprising independent members who preside over
matters relating to alleged breaches by companies, their directors or senior
management. It may also be an internal structure such as an
Enforcement Committee that oversees the investigation and enforcement
of decisions. There may be an internal panel to review internal
procedures and operational guidelines on regulatory functions. Where
stock exchanges are concerned, the committees may pursue actions for
breaches of listing rules, but their actions are often subject to scrutiny by
the statutory regulator.
All participating jurisdictions have an appeal process for aggrieved
parties, ranging from appeals to an Appeals Committee within the same
regulator but with different committee members, appeals to a statutory
regulator or appeals to the courts. Although it is not common in all
participating jurisdictions, some – such as Singapore; Hong Kong, China;
and Malaysia - have commercial courts that specialize in judicial review
applications from capital market regulators. Usually, parties who
challenge due process are expected to file an appeal. The
aforementioned jurisdictions have devised key performance indicators in
an effort to ensure that the courts dispose of cases quickly and
efficiently. Efficiency and speed of appeals processes is an important
issue that can render enforcement ineffective if too slow.

Good Practices
In Vietnam, the Inspections Department affiliated with the Ministry of Finance
monitors and supervises the enforcement activities of the statutory regulator, which
is the State Securities Commission in Vietnam. In Chinese Taipei sanctions against
material violations of financial regulations are subject to a review process by the
Financial Supervisory Commission Committee comprising Ministers of Finance,
Economic Affairs, Energy, Justice and people in financial professions and with
financial experience. In Mongolia, the review process is delegated to the supervisory
board of the Financial Regulatory Commission (FRC).
The Securities and Futures Act in Singapore places a legal obligation on the
Singapore Stock Exchange’s board and management to establish effective governance
arrangements, which include a Regulatory Conflicts Committee of the Board to ensure
that conflicts are managed properly. The Philippines Securities and Exchange
Commission requires its employees to adhere to a Code of Conduct under the
Implementing Rules and Regulations of the Securities Regulation Code. A resident
ombudsman has jurisdiction over the commission’s activities. In Thailand, an Internal
Enforcement Committee comprising non-investigating members has to review
enforcement decisions before formal approval is granted to proceed with enforcement,
and in Hong Kong, China the decision to commence disciplinary actions is made and
approved at meetings of the Disciplinary Co-ordination Meeting.
The Hong Kong Stock Exchange has internal procedures in place for making
decisions about the commencement of disciplinary actions. At the core of the
decision-making process is a regular meeting chaired by the Head of Listing and
attended by senior staff of the Listing Department, at which proposals for the
disposal of disciplinary business are discussed and agreed to. The procedure is
documented in the Operating Manual of Listing Enforcement.
The right of appeal is accorded in all the participating jurisdictions. In Hong
Kong, China for example, regulated persons who are dissatisfied with the Securities
and Futures Commission’s disciplinary decisions may appeal to the Securities and
Futures Appeal Tribunal, which is an independent Tribunal chaired by former and
current High Court judges and assisted by panel members from the legal, accounting
and financial industries. If the Listing Committee of the Hong Kong Stock
Exchange imposes public sanctions, following a first review before the Listing
Committee (constituted by members not involved in the earlier decision and not
conflicted), a further review is available before the Listing Appeals Committee,
which comprises the chair and two other directors of Hong Kong Exchanges and
Clearing Limited, parent company of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange.
In India, any entity aggrieved with the enforcement action of SEBI may appeal to
the Securities Appellate Tribunal, which is an independent Tribunal presided by a
former judge of the Supreme Court or of the High Courts.
Bursa Malaysia has an Appeals Committee to hear and decide on appeals against
decisions from the Listing Committee. The decisions of the Appeals Committee are
final but are subject to judicial review by the courts of law.

Budget for enforcement authorities
Recommendations
• Regulators should have adequate resources to employ staff with the
necessary skills, knowledge and experience.
• Regulators should invest adequately in technology to facilitate supervision
and enforcement, such as tools to conduct real-time surveillance and to
capture unstructured financial and non-financial information.
Most regulators in participating jurisdictions think that attracting and
retaining talent is challenging. Budget constraints in the enforcement
system lead to understaffing and a lack of sufficient training, affecting
staff competency and effectiveness and thus giving rise to delays and
perhaps even in an inability to enforce. There is evidence to suggest that
budgets and staffing of regulators correlates significantly with capital
market development, which is why training and budgetary constraints should
be taken seriously. 6
It is imperative that supervisory and enforcement units be staffed
adequately with people who understand financial markets and have the
necessary level of skill, integrity and experience. It is often difficult to
recruit people with the necessary skills as the remuneration does not
compare favourably with that of the private sector. Regulators’ salary
levels in some jurisdictions are equivalent to salary scales of
government employees. Even when staff is paid adequately, their
experience often makes them very marketable in the private sector.
Some participating jurisdictions attract high-quality employees by
providing performance-based compensation through substantial
additional allowances and bonuses. Not all enforcement authorities
favour performance-based remuneration, however, on the grounds that it
could create perverse incentives. It might be more effective for staff to be
rewarded based on whether they effectively promote compliance in a
positive manner by pre-empting breaches and obtaining the co-operation of
companies in the capital market rather than by being reactive through a
focus on the number of companies that are ‘caught’ breaching the rules.7
Another aspect of budget constraints is the amount spent on
technology to help enforcers carry out the supervision and investigation of
breaches of capital market laws. IOSCO has expressed concern over
problems that regulators face in supervising and enforcing breaches owing
to increased use of technology. Staff should be trained in the latest

technology, and regulators should utilize latest technological hardware and
software to conduct real-time market surveillance in order to remain one
step ahead of those perpetrating fraud.8
They should also focus on
obtaining tools to capture unstructured financial and non-financial
information to capture market trends and assess the quality of listed
companies. Such tools should be able to detect financial ratios and
anomalies. It may be worthwhile for regulators to co-operate with each
other to develop and use technological tools such as computerized
surveillance systems in order to reduce costs.
One reason for the lack of access to the latest technological tools is
that the cost is high; it requires a lot of data input and constant updates
to be effective. Yet it is imperative for regulators to have access to such
tools as a high priority. Regulators should find cost-effective ways where
possible to purchase such tools, which go a long way in assisting them.
Good Practices
In Hong Kong, China; India; Pakistan; Singapore; and Chinese Taipei, the
enforcement authorities have implemented an effective recruitment and selection
process that ensures employees come from multi-disciplinary backgrounds such
as legal, accounting, IT and finance.
The Securities and Futures Commission in Hong Kong, China observes market
trends and strives to keep staff compensation competitive. The SECP in Pakistan
has implemented a performance-based annual appraisal system that has had a
positive impact on the retention rate of employees.
Bursa Malaysia has implemented a new surveillance system that enhances
surveillance capabilities, as it comes with ‘capacity-enhancing’ features better
designed to detect market manipulation and abusive practices, provide faster
access to historical information and make data highly available.

AUTHORITY TO MONITOR, SUPERVISE, INVESTIGATE, ENFORCE AND IMPOSE SANCTIONS – 33
Authority to monitor, supervise, investigate, enforce
and impose sanctions
Recommendations
• Statutory regulators should be given adequate powers to:
− Prosecute criminal cases
− Investigate all aspects of breaches falling within their
jurisdiction
− Compel unregulated persons to assist in investigations as
long as there are reasonable grounds to believe that their
assistance is necessary to the investigation
− Enter the premises of regulated entities to conduct
investigations
− Request relevant documents or information that is
relevant to investigation of the breach
− Decide the type/mode of proceedings (i.e.
administrative, civil or criminal) in effective
enforcement of a breach
• Statutory regulators should be given adequate support by other authorities
or regulators who have an obligation to grant assistance.
• Clear arrangements should be put into place, with accountability for
reporting on cases referred from one regulator to another.
Enforcement is the most visible element in securities regulation and
has a considerable impact on market perception of the regulator. When
enforcement is weak or delayed, it fails in its role as a sufficient deterrent.
It is imperative that enforcement authorities act swiftly to penalize
breaches, using their powers to decide the mode of proceedings and the

34 – AUTHORITY TO MONITOR, SUPERVISE, INVESTIGATE, ENFORCE AND IMPOSE SANCTIONS
nature of the actions taken, whether criminal or administrative, and using a
wide range of sanctions, from warnings or caution letters to imprisonment.
Statutory regulators have the power to investigate and access relevant
information. These powers are usually exercised when there is reason
to believe that regulated persons are involved in fraud; disclosure
breaches, such as disclosure of false and misleading financial information;
misappropriation or misuse of company funds in connection with the
purchase of securities or fund raising by public companies. The
statutory regulator may compel regulated persons to produce documents
and records stipulated by the regulator; they may also be given power to
enter the premises of regulated entities without prior notice or b e given a
search warrant to seize documents and records as long as they have
reasonable grounds to believe that a securities offence has been committed
or that evidence of the breach would be destroyed unless they went into
the premises immediately. They may also compel the officers of regulated
entities to assist in the investigation.
Some statutory regulators, however, do not have sufficient powers
of investigation and must work with the police to conduct investigations.
They must obtain a court order or have a police presence when entering the
premises of regulated entities to obtain documents and other relevant
evidence. They may also have to work with other regulators such as the
Central Bank to obtain information about a company or its officers’ or
directors’ bank accounts. While this is an important check on the authority
of the regulator, it becomes an impediment if the judicial system is slow
or if the police or public prosecutors are inadequately trained in
commercial crimes or do not have enough resources to make such
crimes a priority. Delayed investigations not only permit companies to
dispose of evidence if they suspect they are about to be investigated, they
also create a perception that the regulator is ineffective.
A challenging task for regulators is to gain access to information
held by unregulated persons. For example, regulators may need to
interview investors who have participated in transactions by listed
companies that the regulators are investigating, or they may want to
obtain information from Internet service providers, telecommunications
companies or banks. Information provided by these parties is crucial,
especially in cases involving insider trading. In some jurisdictions,
statutory regulators are vested with powers to obtain information from
unregulated natural and non-natural persons as long as it is related to
dealings in securities and the regulator has reasonable cause to believe that
the person has relevant information. The power may also be exercised to
compel such persons to attend interviews and provide statements and,
where the regulator has reasonable grounds to believe that evidence may

be removed or destroyed, it may apply for a warrant from the courts to
conduct a search of the unregulated person’s premises. Nevertheless, such
powers are not widespread. Many participating jurisdictions do not give
statutory regulators powers to prosecute, so regulators must go through
the public prosecutor’s office to initiate legal action.
The power of stock exchanges in most participating jurisdictions is
limited to enforcing breaches of listing rules. Stock exchanges may have
the power to compel listed companies to surrender documents and
information related to an investigation, but they do not have the power to
enter the premises of these companies to ensure compliance or conduct
investigations without prior notice. Where companies or their officers do
not comply with directives from the stock exchange, there is little it can do
to enforce compliance other than take disciplinary action and impose
sanctions for non-compliance, or to refer the case to the statutory
regulator or the courts of law to compel performance where relevant.
Most stock exchanges do not have power over unregulated persons
and cannot compel them to give evidence, which may impede
investigations into breaches of listing rules. In cases of related-party
transactions, for example, there are significant challenges in monitoring
compliance with disclosure of indirect shareholdings and nominee
structures. It is difficult to link the parties involved, even when the
regulator has strong suspicions of a related-party transaction.
As the stock exchanges are commercial entities, it may not be
appropriate to grant them the wide powers that statutory regulators have.
In cases where the stock exchange’s powers are curtailed or there is a
limitation to address or enforce the breach, it is beneficial to have a system
in place for referral of cases to the statutory regulator. The system
should also incorporate an arrangement where the stock exchange is
kept informed of the outcome of the referral.

Good Practices
The Fair Trade Commission of South Korea, Securities and Futures
Commission in Hong Kong, China and the Securities Commission in Malaysia
have powers to institute criminal prosecution against regulated persons. They also
have power over unregulated persons to compel them to assist in investigations.
The Securities and Exchange Commission in Thailand has the power to order the
freezing of the assets of companies in breach, subject to certain requirements.
SEBI in India has been empowered under the SEBI Act 1992 with the powers
of a civil court to, inter alia; require inspection of books and the summoning and
enforcing attendance of persons. Further, the recently promulgated Securities
Laws (Amendment) Ordinance 2013 gives SEBI the powers to search and seize,
as well as enhanced recovery powers including arresting a person, attaching bank
accounts and selling properties, without having to approach the courts.
Sanctions
Recommendations
• The penalties imposed by regulators and the courts should be proportionate
to the severity of the violation and sufficiently deterrent.
• Regulators should be given powers to take pre-emptive action.
• Regulators should publicize action taken on individual cases.
• Regulators should have the power to impose a wide range of sanctions.
The effectiveness of regulatory action depends on a mixture of
enforcement powers and the ability to induce voluntary compliance. Even
within formal enforcement procedures, leniency provisions for those who
co-operate are useful.
Securities laws can be enforced by various authorities, either through
administrative or civil proceedings or by the instituting of criminal
charges against companies. Most jurisdictions devote significant
resources to public enforcement, but the way that enforcement is carried
out might not be effective. The effectiveness of enforcement is measured
in terms of the nature of the actions taken (i.e. whether to initiate criminal,
civil or administrative proceedings and, where appropriate, to agree to a
settlement process to expedite proceedings against the alleged offender etc.);
the type of sanction sought, whether a fine or imprisonment or even
disqualification of directors; and its severity, whether the fine is high or the

term of imprisonment is long enough to act as a deterrent. For
example, India’s Securities Laws (Amendment) Ordinance 2013 gives
SEBI the power to issue direction to a person to disgorge an amount
equal to the wrongful gain made or losses caused by that person’s breach.
In Mongolia, companies may be liable for fines equal to the minimum
wage multiplied by 30 to 40 times, while officers of the company would
be liable for the minimum wage multiplied by 10 to 15 times.
Sanctions vary from the banning of a person from acting as a
director or senior management in company, administrative fines and
other monetary penalties, restriction or suspension of voting rights or
share transfers, warning or caution letters, injunctive relief or preliminary
remedies, or imprisonment. Regulators may at times require wrongdoers
to remedy the consequences of their breach. Statutory regulators
usually obtain their powers to impose sanctions from statutes while stock
exchanges incorporate it into their listing rules.
Regulators have the option of using a ‘soft’ approach, comprising
information requests, norm enhancing reprimands and warning letters.
The informality of these mechanisms makes it possible for supervisory
authorities to save on the costs of administrative proceedings that may
result from the imposition of more formal sanctions. This approach
provides the opportunity to respond quickly and more effectively to non-
compliance and to alert companies to deficiencies in their compliance
systems before these escalate into significant violations of law. It also
serves to stimulate dialogue with the business community, which adds
to the experience of regulators and supervisory authorities. Furthermore,
imposing informal enforcement sanctions offers the possibility of better
detecting beneficial ownership and control structures that fall into the
grey area of the applicable rules and regulations (such as contractually
acquired ownership and control structures). The informal and co-
operative approach offers a variety of mechanisms to manage specific
problems, leading to a higher level of compliance with the spirit and intent
of the disclosure requirements.
Some regulators may prefer to impose stringent sanctions even if it
will increase the length and cost of the procedure, probably due to a
common belief that compliance with corporate governance rules and
regulations will improve if the sanctions are sufficiently severe. Delays in
enforcement action arising from lengthy or slow processes dilute the
effectiveness of enforcement. Regulators should bear in mind that the
ability to reach an out-of-court settlement is also an effective enforcement
method because it sends a message that the regulator is serious about
enforcement and has saved the time and cost of going through the entire
judicial process.

Regulators must be credible and have a track record of successful
enforcement actions in order for out-of-court settlements to be an
effective deterrent. The outcome of such settlements must also reflect the
gravity of the offense, or the regulator will be perceived as settling the case
because it does not have enough political will or the necessary evidence
to prosecute.9
It is also essential for the regulator to disclose the terms of
the out-court-settlement, if possible, in order to gain investors’ confidence.
The effectiveness of the regulators depends not only on sanctions but
also on the regulator’s ability to impose injunctive relief and take pre-
emptive action expeditiously. The actions range from applications to
the court to freeze the assets of the company allegedly in breach of
securities laws owing to real concerns that it may transfer those assets out
of the jurisdiction or dispose of it, to suspension in order to prevent further
violation and damage that could have a significant impact on the capital
market. It is important to develop an efficient method of measuring
the seriousness of each violation quickly (‘seriousness test’). Under
certain circumstances, the supervisory or enforcement authority may issue
a direct preliminary order, such as suspending trading in a listed issuer’s
securities, to protect investors or to maintain an orderly market. This is not
always the first option, though, especially where the violation is not very
serious. If the severity of the violation is low, the enforcement authorities
may decide to increase the amount of the fine rather than impose heavy
sanctions.
In some participating jurisdictions, the supervisory authority may
initiate civil proceedings seeking injunctive or preliminary relief from
the courts. Injunctive relief not only gives enforcement authorities the
option of acting immediately to prevent further damage to investors or the
market, it may also induce the companies concerned to seek out
settlements that could otherwise end up in further expensive, unwanted
litigation. Another example of remedial civil orders is a disqualification
order preventing the company or its officers from dealing with the securities.
Statutory regulators in participating jurisdictions have varying levels of
power to seize or prohibit the disposal of or dealing in any property in
respect of which an offence is suspected to have been committed. The
benefit of pre-emptive action is that it gives regulators the opportunity to
take action before there is more damage either to investors or to the market
as a whole. There are claims that broad investigation and enforcement
powers may increase the risk of abuse, but this can be guarded against
when enforcement actions are transparent. In other words, disclosure of
enforcement actions is an important step in addressing any potential abuse of
power.

Good Practices
The China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC) has the power to
confiscate illegal income of individuals and companies where they have benefited
from a breach.
In India, SEBI has been vested with pre-emptive powers to pass interim orders
to immediately prevent damage to investors and the market. These orders range
from barring entities from accessing the capital market, restraining companies
from raising funds, and freezing transactions in specific securities held with the
depositories. The Securities Commission in Malaysia has similar powers.

DISCLOSURE OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS AND PRACTICES – 41
Disclosure of enforcement actions and practices
Recommendations
• Regulators should disclose their enforcement philosophy, objectives,
internal structures, legal powers and procedures used to address cases.
• Regulators should annually provide details of enforcement actions and
should disclose the outcome of court actions including out-of-court
settlements as soon as they are able.
• Regulators should ensure adequacy of information in disclosure of
enforcement actions, including the basis of such actions.
Regulators have developed the practice of disclosing, in the press and
on their website, the details of their enforcement actions and decisions
against regulated parties. The benefits of publicizing a breach is that it
promotes proper behaviour within the capital market as other regulated
parties will know what is unacceptable to the regulators and the
repercussions of non-compliance, thus deterring them from committing
similar acts. Publishing enforcement actions also promotes greater
accountability on the regulators while providing access to foreign
enforcement authorities with ‘local’ information, especially when it is
published in English and available online. This procedure may also guide
regulators in determining the finding of a breach and sanctions against
parties for similar types of breaches.
Additional disclosure of the regulator’s philosophy, objectives,
structure and processes involved will go a long way in enhancing investor
confidence. This may be accompanied by a flowchart describing the
structure and procedures involved in enforcement. The checks and
balances should include communication to the public of enforcement
actions and of decisions and the basis for these, so as to create greater
market awareness and understanding. At a minimum, there should be
disclosure of the number of breaches prosecuted, the adjudication of cases
and the outcomes. Disclosure of expenditures and resources allocated for
different enforcement authorities should also be made transparently.
It is important for enforcement actions or practices taken by
regulators to be transparent as this ensures accountability, provides

42 – DISCLOSURE OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS AND PRACTICES
checks and balances and helps to focus on and create a better
understanding and awareness of the roles and actions of various
enforcement authorities, which is especially useful in a fragmented
enforcement structure. Regulators should also be open and
professional in their disclosure of the internal structures, policies and
procedures they have established when addressing cases and should
include straightforward and clear information in a timely manner. Their
communication with the public should be in simple and clear terms,
written in an international language like English so that investors from
other jurisdictions can understand.
Regulators have to look at their actions from the regulated parties’
perspective as well as take into account shareholders’ and investors’
interests in making public the contents of the disclosure. They should
build confidence in their fairness, level of competence, commitment to the
rule of law, and professionalism and should ensure that there is no
misconception about their enforcement actions. In addition, it should be
made clear whether the enforcement actions disclosed would result in
administrative or criminal sanctions, and great care and prudence should be
exercised when disclosing the contents and wording of enforcement
actions.10
There should also be certainty in enforcement actions, which
will have the benefit acting as a deterrent against future violations of laws
and regulations.
Good Practices
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has placed its polices,
procedure and processes of enforcement on its website, while the Securities and
Futures Commission (SFC) in Hong Kong, China has outlined the disciplinary,
investigation, appeal and settlement measures available to the Commission. The
SFC publicizes all enforcement measures through press releases, which are
subsequently displayed on its homepage. Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand
have similar practices.
Specifically, the SFC has outlined on its website ‘Disciplinary Proceedings at
a Glance’ and ‘Disciplinary Fining Guideline’. It also posts the dates and places
of upcoming hearings, with the names of parties and status of the hearings.
The Financial Services Authority of Japan publishes an annual plan and
strategy to highlight the focus area of the supervision and enforcement practices.
The Taiwan Stock Exchange (TWSE) and Gre-Tai Securities Market (GTSM)
have an Information Disclosure Ranking System that ranks every listed
company’s adequacy of disclosures and transparency. The ranking system ranges
from A++ to C-. When a company receives a rank of C or below, the TWSE and
GTSM intervene by offering assistance to enhance their compliance.

COURTS AND THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM – 43
Courts and the judicial system
Recommendations
• Specialized business courts should be established and staffed with
adequately remunerated judges and prosecutors trained specifically in
capital market laws and procedures, to enable them to prosecute and
dispose of complex cases efficiently. If there are no specialized courts,
panels of judges with proper expertise should be set up within the
ordinary court systems.
• The judiciary should be independent, with integrity and respect for the
transparency of the judicial process. Decisions should be published.
• Ongoing training should be a permanent feature to build credibility
and competence of the judicial process.
It is important to have a credible, independent and efficient judicial
system to enforce corporate governance. A common problem, however, is
the lack of judges’ and prosecutors’ expertise in corporate governance
matters and financial market rules, plus a backlog attributable to the sheer
volume of cases. While there may be a temptation to bypass the judicial
system as much as possible, the complication is that the system is a
foundation for public and private enforcement and is the ultimate legal
authority in most jurisdictions.
There are several solutions to the problem of a lack of judicial
expertise or long, drawn-out cases filed in court. The first would be to
ensure that regulators have additional powers, such as full investigative
power, administrative alternatives including injunctions to stop and reverse
actions short of or before going to court, and power to initiate enforcement
actions against board members. This would reduce the burden on the courts
to be involved in each step and improve timeliness for disposal of cases.
The second solution would be to establish specialized business
courts with the power to address civil and criminal breaches of securities
laws. The advantage of specialized courts is that judicial officers’

44 – COURTS AND THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM
knowledge and experience are continually enhanced. Indonesia’s
experience with specialized courts dealing with corruption has contributed
to the success of anti-corruption efforts by its Corruption Eradication
Commission.
The High Court in Malaysia has three new commercial courts to
deal with banking, finance, insurance, admiralty and sale of goods cases,
which has reduced time and costs for litigants. Empirical evidence shows
that specialized business courts play an important role in providing a
high level of minority-investor protection.11
Another solution is to improve court procedures by encouraging judges
to dispose of minor cases without unnecessary delays through setting key
performance indicators for judges. It is important that judges’ decisions be
well-written and published, to ensure their quality and integrity. Other
methods to enhance quality would be to raise judges’ salaries, conduct
performance management assessments established and monitored within the
judiciary, and take steps to ensure their independence in order to insulate
the judicial system from outside influence and interference. Regulators and
ministries of justice should also work with judges and prosecutors to
increase their knowledge of new laws and programs. Judges, prosecutors
and the police should be given training to improve their understanding,
which regulators can be facilitate through participation in international
and domestic meetings, roundtable discussions, workshops and inter-
agency task forces. Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) could also be
explored. The Singapore International Arbitration Centre and the Hong
Kong Market Misconduct Tribunal are examples of specialized entities that
dispose of cases faster than conventional courts.
Good practices
Regulators in Thailand and Malaysia work closely with the Judges’
Organisation and the Judicial and Legal Training Institute in their respective
jurisdictions to enhance judges’ knowledge on securities laws and related issues.
Hong Kong’s Market Misconduct Tribunal is headed by a Chair who is a judge
or former judge of the High Court. It determines whether market misconduct has
occurred (insider dealing, false trading, price rigging, stock market manipulation,
disclosure of information relating to prohibited transactions and disclosure of
false or misleading information inducing transactions in securities and futures
contracts).

CROSS-BORDER ENFORCEMENT – 45
Cross-border enforcement
Recommendations
• Cross-border co-operation should be improved through bilateral and
multilateral arrangements.
• Inter-agency meetings and working committees should be established
among regulators from different jurisdictions.
• Information sharing provisions in national laws should be reviewed to
enhance cross-border co-operation.
Regulators are operating in a challenging environment owing to the
internationalization of capital markets. A company might be listed in one
jurisdiction while its board, management and operations operate from
another jurisdiction, or they might use offshore corporate entities or
international holding structures to conceal the identity of controlling
beneficial owners. Offenders are able to move money across borders and to
execute transactions simultaneously in several jurisdictions. Consequently,
sanctioning these offenders may be a difficult task, which allows them to
take advantage of the gaps in regulatory co-operation. The problem can be
addressed only with effective cross-border collaboration. Enforcement
cooperation necessarily requires that regulators have the legal authority to
exchange non-public information and to protect the confidentiality of such
information. It’s important to note that laws and regulations in some
jurisdictions require regulated entities to provide the relevant regulator with
certain types of information or documents, regardless of where they are
located, as a condition for being registered or licensed in their jurisdictions.
However, due to laws relating to sovereignty and information access,
regulators in some cases may not be fully aware or appreciate whether a
regulated entity is complying with those requirements without the assistance
of local regulatory counterparts. The enforcement cooperation mechanism
typically does not provide for the exchange of information for prudential or
supervisory purposes absent a specific violation(s) being suspected or

46 – CROSS-BORDER ENFORCEMENT
alleged; in these cases, it may be necessary for regulators to enter into a
separate agreement or MoU providing for cross-border supervisory
cooperation.
In spite of this cross-border co-ordination between co-ordinators, there
are challenges attributable to legal limits on information that can be shared,
inadmissibility in court of information that has been obtained through
informal channels, regulators with different priorities, and the difficulty of
optimal co-ordination when there are strict time constraints and
disincentives to share information, especially when regulators are self-
funded. Some regulators in foreign jurisdictions for reasons that are not
always clear take a ‘protectionist’ approach and will not co-operate even
if they are co-signatories to the IOSCO Multilateral MoU (MMoU). The
speed of response will depend on the relationship between countries
and regulators in those countries. Some regulators remain unwilling to
assist or are slow in giving assistance, as mentioned above. The IOSCO
monitoring group can only apply pressure; there is no obligation on
signatory jurisdictions to co-operate.
The enforcement authorities in some corresponding jurisdictions
have developed several strategies for closer cross-border co-operation,
comprising bilateral and MMoU, information-sharing provisions in
national laws and membership in associations and organizations.
Strategies to stimulate cross border co-operation are shown below.
Strategies to stimulate cross-border collaboration
Strategies
• Membership in association and organisations
• Bilateral memoranda of understanding
• Multilateral memoranda of understanding
• Information-sharing provisions in national laws
MoUs have been signed between member countries of the ASEAN
Capital Markets Forum and IOSCO. The parties to these MoU are shown in
Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4. ASEAN Capital Markets Forum – members (responding countries)
Country Enforcement authorities
(discussed in the questionnaire)
Indonesia Otoritas Jasa Keuangan (OJK)
Malaysia Securities Commission Malaysia (SC)
Philippines Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Singapore Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS)
Thailand Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Vietnam State Securities Commission (SSC)
Table 5. IOSCO MMoU – Signatories (responding countries)
Country Enforcement authorities
(discussed in the questionnaire)
Bangladesh Bangladesh Securities and Exchange Commission
China China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC)
Chinese Taipei Financial Supervisory Commission (FSC)
Hong Kong, China Securities and Futures Commission (SFC)
India Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
Indonesia Organisation?
Malaysia Securities Commission Malaysia (SC)
Pakistan Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan
(SECP)
Singapore Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS)
Thailand Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Vietnam State Securities Commission (SSC)
Cross-border co-operation is encouraged through MoUs, as well as
bilateral and multilateral arrangements. The benefit of MoUs is that they
help facilitate cooperation and the exchange of non-public information in a
manner consistent with national or domestic laws. Also, depending on their
scope and how broadly they are written, MoUs typically allow sufficient
flexibility for the regulators to address emerging regulatory issues that may

48 – CROSS-BORDER ENFORCEMENT
have not been contemplated at the time they were executed. The inherent
disadvantage of MoUs is they can take a great deal of time to negotiate,
particularly when done on a bilateral basis. Being a signatory to IOSCO
MMoUs is a good place for regulators to start although there are
challenges, as mentioned earlier. While most jurisdictions do not prohibit
information-sharing, in some countries personal data protection laws
should be examined to determine if they prevent information-sharing
among regulators. In addition, evidence obtained in one jurisdiction might
not be admissible in the courts of another jurisdiction. Another impediment
is a lack of authority to obtain or share banking information with
regulators in other jurisdictions owing to banking secrecy laws and the
requirement that regulators assist regulators in another jurisdiction only if
the breach is an offense in their own jurisdiction.
Another method for improving collaboration is by having inter-
agency meetings and working committees. There may be problems with
travel costs and incidental expenses, but these can be alleviated through
technology that permits virtual discussions, especially
teleconferencing and videoconferencing.
Furthermore, information-sharing mechanisms are lacking in spite of
MoUs that have been signed, as many jurisdictions do not have the
technical capacity to provide assistance. At other times, although there
are bilateral agreements in place to share information, the regulator has to
make the request through another enforcement authority that then passes
the request to its counterparts in the foreign jurisdiction (e.g. when
regulators require information about bank accounts in a foreign
jurisdiction), all of which extends the time frame to conduct investigations.
Although information- sharing problems can be dealt with if there
is enough support and co-operation, the real problem lies with cross-
border enforcement, as regulators might not be ready to take action even
on the basis of concrete evidence provided by a foreign counterpart.
Cross-border or bilateral arrangements notwithstanding, many
regulators still face legal barriers that prevent them from fully co-
operating at the international level. Hence reforms should be geared
towards improvement of intra-governmental collaboration, not only to share
information but also to detect and deter market misconduct. The
introduction of information-sharing provisions in national laws and
regulations may also enhance cross-border co-operation.

Good Practices
The Securities and Futures Commission in Hong Kong, China is able to
provide confidential information to IOSCO MMOU members and to securities
regulators in other countries with which the SFC has an MOU. It is able to
provide investigatory assistance such as obtaining trade or bank records,
telephone records and beneficial owner information. It is also able to compel
interviews and statements from regulators in Hong Kong. There are similar
arrangements in Chinese Taipei and Pakistan.
The Securities Commission in Malaysia may, upon receiving a written request
from a foreign supervisory authority for assistance to investigate into an alleged
breach of a legal or regulatory requirement, offer assistance to the foreign
supervisory authority by carrying out investigations of the alleged breach of the
legal or regulatory requirement or provide such other assistance to the foreign
supervisory authority as the Securities Commission Malaysia sees fit.

50 – NOTES
Notes
1. OECD, “Guide on Fighting Abusive Related Party Transactions in Asia”,
Sept. 2009, pp.9-10.
2. Ana Carvajal and Jennifer Elliott, ‘The Challenge of Enforcement
in Securities Markets: Mission Impossible?’ International Monetary
Fund Working Paper, WP/09/168.
3. John C. Coffee, (2007) ‘Law and the Market: The Impact of
Enforcement’, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 156,
pp. 229-311.
4. Hans Christiansen and Alissa Koldertsova (2009), ‘The Role of
Stock Exchanges in Corporate Governance’, OECD Journal: Financial
Market Trends Vol. 2009/1.
5. Technical Committee of the International Organisations of Securities
Commissions (2006), ‘Consultation Report: Regulatory Issues Arising
From Exchange Evolution’, at
http://www.iosco.org/library/pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD225.pdf accessed on
9 October 2013
6. Howell E. Jackson and Mark E. Rowe (2009), ‘Public and private
enforcement of securities laws: Resource-based evidence’ in
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1000086 accessed on 8 Oct. 2013.
7. OECD (2013), ‘Better Practice Principles for Improving Regulatory
Enforcement and Inspections’, Draft Report submitted to the public for
comments at http://www.oecd.org/gov/regulatory-policy/enforcement-
inspections.htm accessed on 10 Oct. 2013.
8. IOSCO (2009), ‘Approaches to Market Surveillance in
Emerging Markets’, Final Report at
http://www.iosco.org/library/pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD313.pdf accessed
on 30 Oct. 2013.
9. Ana Carvajal and Jennifer Elliott, ‘The Challenge of Enforcement
in Securities Markets: Mission Impossible?’ International Monetary
Fund Working Paper, WP/09/168.
10. Financial Services Authority (FSA) (2009), Decision Procedure and
Penalties Manual and Enforcement Guide Review 2010, Consultation
Paper 10/23.
11. McCahery, Joseph A. and Vermeulen, Erik P. M. (2009), ‘Conflict
Resolution and the Role of Corporate Law Courts: An Empirical
Study’, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1448192; Vermeulen, Erik P M and
Zetzsche, Dirl (2010), ‘The Use and Abuse of Investor Suits: An
Inquiry into the Dark Side of Shareholder Activism’. At
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1428901

BIBLIOGRAPHY – 51
Bibliography
Carvajal, Ana and Elliott, Jennifer (2009) ‘The Challenge of Enforcement in
Securities Markets: Mission Impossible?’ International Monetary Fund
Working Paper, WP/09/168.
Coffee, John C. (2007) ‘Law and the Market: The Impact of Enforcement’,
University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 156, pp. 229-311.
Christiansen, Hans and Koldertsova, Alissa (2009), ‘The Role of Stock
Exchanges in Corporate Governance’, OECD Journal: Financial Market
Trends Vol. 2009/1, Paris.
McCahery, Joseph A. and Vermeulen, Erik P. M. (2009), ‘Conflict
Resolution and the Role of Corporate Law Courts’, ECGI - Law
Working Paper No. 132/2009, Brussels.
IOSCO (International Organisations of Securities Commissions) (2009),
‘Approaches to Market Surveillance in Emerging Markets’, IOSCO,
Madrid.
IOSCO, Technical Committee (2006), ‘Consultation Report: Regulatory
Issues Arising From Exchange Evolution’, IOSCO, Madrid.
Jackson, Howell E. and Rowe, Mark E. (2009), ‘Public and private
enforcement of securities laws: Resource-based evidence’, Harvard Law
School John M. Olin Center for Law, Economics and Business
Discussion Paper Series, Boston.
OECD (2013), Better Practice Principles for Improving Regulatory
Enforcement and Inspections, Consultation Report, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2012) Disclosure of Beneficial Ownership and Control: Policy
Options for Indonesia, OECD, Paris.
OECD (2009), Guide on Fighting Abusive Related Party Transactions in
Asia, OECD, Paris.
UK Financial Services Authority (FSA) (2009), Decision Procedure and
Penalties Manual and Enforcement Guide Review 2010, Consultation
Paper 10/23.

ANNEX A – 53
Annex A
Task force members
BANGLADESH
• Farhad Ahmed, Executive Director, Bangladesh Securities and Exchange
Commission
CHINESE TAIPEI
• Ms. Brenda Hu, Section Chief of Corporate Finance Division, Securities and
Futures Bureau, Financial Supervisory Commission, Chinese Taipei
• Mr. Mike Yeh, Specialist of Corporate Finance Division, Securities and
Futures Bureau, Financial Supervisory Commission, Chinese Taipei
FRANCE
• Dr. Rainer Geiger, Member of the Board, Association internationale de droit
économique
HONG KONG, CHINA
• Ms Cecilia Liew, Director, Corporate Finance, Securities and Futures
Commission
INDIA
• Mr V.S. Sundaresan, Chief General Manager, Securities and Exchange Board
of India, SEBI
INDONESIA
• Mr. Sarjito, Deputy Commissioner, Indonesia Financial Services Authority
• Ms Etty Wulandary, Senior Specialist to the Chairman, Indonesia Financial
Services Authority
MALAYSIA
• Mr Ahmad Fairuz Bin Zainol Abidin, Executive Director, Enforcement
Division, Securities Commission Malaysia
• Ms Selvarany Rasiah, Chief Regulatory Officer, Regulations, Bursa Malaysia
Bhd
MONGOLIA
• Mr J. Unenbat, Executive Director, Corporate Governance Development
Center, CGDC

54 – ANNEX A
NETHERLANDS
• Prof. Erik Vermeulen, Department of Business Law, Tilburg University,
Center for Company Law
PAKISTAN
• Mr Fuad Hashimi, President and CEO, Pakistan Institute of Corporate
Governance
• Mr Imran Iqbal Panjwani, Executive Director, Securities Market Division,
Securities Commission, Pakistan
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
• Mr. Shiguang Liao, Senior Manager, Research & Development Center,
Shanghai Stock Exchange
• Dr Zhengjun Zhang, Managing Partner and CEO, King Parallel Consulting
Co, Ltd
PHILIPPINES
• Mrs Justina Callangan, Director, Philippine Securities and Exchange
Commission
SINGAPORE
• Mr Yao Loong NG, Executive Director, Monetary Authority of Singapore
(MAS)
THAILAND
• Ms Supa Thamthitivat, Director, Enforcement Department, Securities and
Exchange Commission
• Ms Waratchya Srimachand, Assistant Secretary General, Corporate
Monitoring, CG and Financial Literacy Development, Securities and
Exchange Commission
VIETNAM
• Mr. Bui Hoang Hai, Deputy Director, State Securities Commission of Vietnam
PRIVATE INSTITUTION
• Mr. Kha Loon Lee, Former Senior Policy Director, Standards, and Financial
Market Integrity, CFA Institute, Hong Kong, China
OECD SECRETARIAT
• Ms. Fianna Jurdant, Senior Policy Analyst, Corporate Affairs Division, OECD

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Public Enforcement and Corporate
Governance in Asia
Guidance and Good Practices
Contents
Background and scope of the report
Legal framework and adequacy of laws
Enforcement
Structure and capacity of enforcement authorities
Authority to monitor, supervise, investigate, enforce and impose sanctions
Disclosure of enforcement actions and practices
Courts and the judicial system
Cross-border enforcement
9HSTCQE*cbhdjd+
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