publish paper in a multi-disciplinary journal

Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and Technology (JMEST)
ISSN: 3159-0040
Vol. 2 Issue 12, December - 2015
www.jmest.org
JMESTN42351299 3574
A Review Of Moringa Oleifera Seed Oil As
Feedstock For Biodiesel Production
Tertsegha John-Paul Ivase
Renewable Energy Unit,
BIODEC Centre,
National Biotechnology
Development Agency,
P.M.B 2140 Katsina,
Katsina State, Nigeria.
ivasejpp@gmail.com
Hadiza Bobbo
Department of Quantity
Surveying, Federal
Polytechnic Bauchi,
Bauchi State,
Nigeria.
hadizabobbo@yahoo.com
Tanimu A. Tagago
Renewable Energy
Unit, BIODEC Centre,
National Biotechnology
Development Agency,
P.M.B 2140 Katsina,
Katsina State,
Nigeria.
Denen D. Nyakuma
Directorate of ICT,
University of Calabar,
P.M.B 1115 Calabar,
Cross River State,
Nigeria.
denennyax@gmail.com
Abstract—The rapid depletion of fossil fuels
and the threat of climate change have influenced
researchers to seek alternative energy sources.
This paper is aims to review and highlight the
fuel properties, extraction methods, and potential
applications of Moringa oleifera seed oil (MSO)
based biodiesel as a viable alternative to
petroleum derived diesel. The results submit that
Moringa oleifera Methyl Ester (MOME) biodiesel
can be utilised as a suitable substitute for
petroleum diesel. In comparison, the MOME fuel
qualities performed favourably against other
biodiesel fuels derived from other vegetable oil.
Furthermore, the fuel properties of MOME were
observed to be within ASTM standard limits and
comparable fatty acid profile with respect to
other species. However, results of engine
performance and emissions are marginally higher
than NOx emission compared to petroleum diesel.
Keywords—Moringa Oleifera; oilseeds;
Biodiesel; feedstock; transesterification.
I. INTRODUCTION
The global energy mix is currently dominated by
fossil fuel sources. However, the rapid depletion,
price volatility and environmental concerns about
fossil based fuels have reignited the search for
cleaner alternatives [1, 2]. Consequently, numerous
clean energy, green fuels and sustainable
technologies have been investigated and proposed
for the establishment of future green energy
economy [3-6]. This can be achieved through the
development, adoption and diffusion of renewable
energy technologies such as biomass, wind, solar,
ocean thermal, hydrogen, and geothermal energy.
Biomass is considered to be the most promising
source of future energy due to its carbon neutrality,
global abundance and conversion flexibility [7-10].
Consequently, biomass sources can be readily
converted into gaseous (bio-syngas), solid (biochar,
biocoal) and liquid (biodiesel, bioethanol, bio-
methane) biofuels for future clean energy
applications [11-14].
The utilization and implementation of biofuels
such as biodiesel presents a clean, renewable and
sustainable alternative to petroleum-based
conventional diesel fuel [15]. Biodiesel is a mono
alkyl ester of fatty acid produced from the
transesterification of vegetable oil and animal fat with
an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce a
form of biofuel from agricultural products [16, 17].
Biodiesel can be produced from numerous vegetable
oils, such as canola (rapeseed), cottonseed, palm oil,
peanut, soybean and sunflower oils as well as a
variety of less common oils [17-20]. Biodiesel can be
utilized directly or blended with petroleum diesel for
powering diesel engines [1, 2]. Consequently, several
blends of biodiesel such as B5, B7, B10, and B20 are
currently used as transportation fuels around the
world [21-24]. Studies have indicated that biodiesel
blends such as B20 can be used in nearly all diesel
equipment and are compatible with most storage and
distribution equipment. Furthermore, biodiesel blends
reportedly reduce engine wear, produce less harmful
emissions [25] and do not require engine
modifications for utilization as transportation fuel [26].
Globally, biodiesel is produced from different
sources which significantly depend on factors such
as price, climate and availability of feedstocks [27].
Other factors include the controversial food for fuel
debates about the biofuels and biodiesel production
from edible sources like soybeans, sunflower seeds
and cotton seeds [28, 29]. The highly controversial
dilemma has been linked to larger global problems of
deforestation, poverty and hunger. Hence, critics of
biofuels fear that the use of food (edible oil) as a feed
feedstock in the production of biodiesel could result
in a global food crisis. Consequently, current
research is focused on biodiesel production non-
edible or less conventional sources of feedstock oils.
Currently, the non-edible sources utilized for
biodiesel production include tobacco [30], Pongamia
pinnata [31], waste cooking [32], Jatropha curcas
[33], rubber seed [34, 35] oils.
Consequently, analysts posit that the use of non-
edible oils [36, 37], waste oil streams [38] as well as
waste agricultural residues [39-42] as feedstock for
biodiesel production can potentially eliminate the

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controversies surrounding biodiesel production [43,
44]. In addition, this will potentially catalyse the
establishment of a global energy economy based on
the clean, renewable and sustainable energy
systems. Based on this premise, Moringa oleifera
oilseed will be highlighted as a promising feedstock
for biodiesel production [45].
II. BIODIESEL OVERVIEW
Biodiesel refers to any diesel fuel substitute
derived from renewable biomass. More specifically,
biodiesel refers to a family of products made from
vegetable oils or animal fats and alcohol, such as
methanol or ethanol, called alkyl esters of fatty acids.
The most common process for producing biodiesel is
known as transesterification [16, 46]. This is a
chemical reaction which involves the conversion of
vegetable oil or animal fat into a mixture of fatty acid
methyl esters in the presence of an alcohol and
catalyst at selected temperatures to form fatty acid
alkyl esters (FAME) and glycerol. In other words, this
reaction converts an ester (vegetable oil or animal
fat) into a mixture of esters of the fatty acids that
makes up the oil (or fat). During this process, alcohol
is displaced from an ester by another in a process
similar to hydrolysis, except that alcohol is used
instead of water. The reaction reduces the high
viscosity of triglycerides present in vegetable oil or
animal fat. Consequently, the biodiesel is obtained
from the purification of the mixture of fatty acid
methyl esters (FAME) [2, 46]. The catalysts used for
transesterification are typically acidic, basic, or
enzymatic [46, 47]. A generic transesterification
reaction is presented in Equation 1; RCOOR
1
indicates an ester, R
2
OH an alcohol, R
2
OH another
alcohol (glycerol), RCOOR
1
an ester mixture and cat
a catalyst:
Catalyst
RCOOR
1
+ R
2
OH R
2
OH + RCOOR
1
Ester Alcohol Alcohol Ester
When methanol is the alcohol used in the
transesterification process, the product of the
reaction is a mixture of methyl esters; similarly, if
ethanol were used, the reaction product would be a
mixture of ethyl esters. In both cases, glycerin will be
the co-product of the reaction. Oils and fats, known
as lipids, are hydrophobic substances insoluble in
water and are of animal or vegetal origin. They differ
in their physical states at room temperature. From a
chemical viewpoint, lipids are fatty glycerol esters
known as triglycerides (TAG) consisting of long chain
fatty acids chemically bound to a glycerol (propane-1,
2, 3-triol) backbone. However, for biodiesel to be
considered as practical renewable transportation fuel
certain stringent quality standards are required.
Firstly, it possess a lower rate of emission compared
to petro diesel. It must emit little or no greenhouse
gases (GHGs) on combustion in ignition engines.
Biodiesel offers full blending potential with
conventional diesel, a high cetane number giving
improved combustion in compression ignition
engines, and low emissions of sulphur and
particulates [46]. These blends indicated as ‘‘Bx’’,
where ‘‘x’’ is the percentage of biodiesel in the blend.
For instance, ‘‘B5’’ indicates a blend with 5%
biodiesel and 95% diesel fuel; in consequence, B100
indicates pure biodiesel [18, 21]. It is a fuel with lower
rate of emission compared to petro diesel because it
emits little or no greenhouse gases on combustion in
ignition engines. It is safe to handle because of its
relatively high flash point. Furthermore, biodiesel has
a low soot emission as it contains little or no sulphur
as well as the carcinogenic poly aromatic
components. Using recycled oils and animal fats
reduces the CO2 emissions [48]. Further the energy
input and overall emissions form biodiesel production
depends on the feedstock and process. In addition,
biodiesel has higher lubricating property than petro
diesel thus very promising maintenance potentials to
industries that use diesel as fuel. Biodiesel is
biodegradable, non-toxic and has low emission
profile compared to petroleum-based diesel [15].
Overall, the use of biodiesel will allow balance to be
sought between agriculture, economic development
and the environment [15, 38].
III. MORINGA OLEIFERA BIODIESEL
FEEDSTOCK
Moringa oleifera is an essential oil seed and
perennial crop widely cultivated in many tropical and
subtropical countries [49]. It is a fast growing
deciduous tree shrub which grows up to 12 m in
height and 30 cm in diameter with open umbrella-
shaped crown [50]. Its pods are triangular in cross-
section (30 to 50 cm long) and legume-like in
appearance [51]. All the parts of Moringa oleifera tree
have been found to be medicinal particularly in
African and South Asia folk medicine [52-54]. In
addition, it has been reportedly used for machine
lubrication, bio-fuel (biodiesel), haircare, and perfume
products [18, 55, 56]. It is also used as a fodder for
livestock due to its high biomass yield of 24 tons
ha/yr of total dry matter (DM) yield and crude protein
(CP) content in fresh leaves varying from 193-264
g/kg DM [57, 58]. It is a rich oil seed belonging to the
monogeneric family which can be cultivated on
marginal lands with high temperatures and low water
availability or where cultivation of other crops is
difficult. Furthermore, M. oleifera can be cultivated
under tropical dry forest conditions, when
phosphorus and potassium are available in the soil
[59]. The oil extracted from Moringa oleifera seed,
also known as Ben oil, has reasonable percentage oil
yield of about 45 %, which is reach in oleic acid
around 73 % with a low amount of polyunsaturated
fatty acids ( < 1 %), resulting in a high tendency to
resist oxidation [60]. In addition, the seeds kernel
contain about 30-50 % oil [1]. Oleic acid from
Moringa oleifera seed oil (MSO) is an 18-carbon long
monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA). In addition,
Oleic acid is an essential omega-9 fatty acid that was

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found to be responsible in hindering the occurrence
of adrenoleukodystrophy (ADL), a fatal disease that
affects the brain and adrenal glands [61]. However,
due to the oxidative stability of oleic acid in MSO,
compared with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs),
it has found use in the food industry, as it allows for
longer storage and high-temperature frying
processing [62]. Consequently, MSO derived
biodiesel has been found to have a high cetane
number [18]. In addition, biodiesel derived from
vegetable oils with a high fraction of
monounsaturated fatty acids possess satisfactory
balance between different fuel properties [63].
Therefore, MSO is a new promising feedstock for
biodiesel production with the added advantage of the
edibility of the other parts of the tree. Consequently,
Moringa oleifera tree can potentially substitute the
other conventional non-edible feedstock for biodiesel
production such as Jatropha curcas which is
inherently toxic [64].Hence, the main objective of this
paper is to briefly review the intrinsic properties,
extraction methods, and potential applications of
Moringa oleifera seed oil (MSO) based biodiesel. The
paper will also highlight the qualities of MSO
biodiesel compared to petroleum biodiesel. Lastly,
the composition of Moringa oleifera methyl esters as
a determinant of biodiesel properties and the
economic viability will be examined.
IV. MORINGA OLEIFERA OILSEED
EXTRACTION
Moringa oleifera seeds typically contain between
33% and 41% oil by weight [65]. This oil resembles
olive oil in its fatty acid composition and is oleic acid
rich, which makes it suitable for edible purposes [66].
Moringa oleifera is therefore particularly suitable for
the production of biodiesel. Extraction of seed oils
can be carried out using different methods and
solvents [67]. However, the most effective and
commonly used method is Soxhlet extraction which
has a 31.3% an oil extraction rate [62, 68]. This
method is suitable for oil extraction in laboratories,
whereas leaching may be used in large-scale
industrial preparations because of its very limited
energy consumption. For this paper, extraction of
Moringa oleifera oil (MSO) from dried Moringa
oleifera seeds using n-hexane in a Soxhlet extraction
as presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Soxhlet for solvent extraction [62].
Moringa oleifera methyl esters can be produced
on a small scale by crushing Moringa oleifera seeds
into small pieces and extraction using a laboratory
scale 1 L batch reactor. The set comprises a reflux
condenser, a magnetic stirrer, a thermometer and a
sampling outlet [69]. The first step for biodiesel
preparation from Moringa oleifera oil seed is the
transesterification of Moringa oleifera oil which
reduces the molecular size of the component
(triglycerides). Hence, the resultant esterified oil can
be used in diesel engine for a prolonged period
without any serious issues like carbon buildups,
scum formation [62, 69].
Although transesterification is the most important
step in biodiesel production (since it originates the
mixture of esters), additional steps are necessary to
obtain a product that complies with international
standards as presented in Figure 2 [38, 70]. The
transesterification process is as follows: one liter of
Moringa Oleifera cooking oil is heated up to 110 °C in
order to remove the moisture content. Base catalyst
NaOH of approximately 7.5 g is dissolved in methyl
alcohol (200 ml) and maintained at the reaction
temperature about 65 °C for a period of 60 minutes.
The use of basic catalysts in triglycerides with high
content of free fatty acids is not advisable since part
of the latter reacts with the catalyst to form soaps;
basic transesterification is viable only when the free
fatty acids (FFAs) content is less than 2 %.

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Figure 2: Schematic pathway for biodiesel production from Moringa oleifera oilseed [70].
The reaction products are usually allowed to settle
under gravity in separating funnel for 24 hours to
separate methyl esters and glycerol. Due to the
higher density of glycerol, it settle at the bottom of the
funnel while the Moringa oleifera methyl esters
(MOME) occupies the top surface. Subsequently, the
MOME is washed with warm water to remove un-
reacted methanol, catalyst, and impurities. The
washed MOME is again heated to 110
0
C to remove
the moisture content. Various bio diesel-diesel blends
(B10, B30, B50, and B70) were prepared for the
experimental work [71].
V. COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES
OF MORINGA OLEIFERA BIODIESEL
The composition and fuel properties of the
biodiesel are very important for consideration as
engine fuel. However biodiesel properties are largely
determined by numerous factors. Table 1 presents
the fuel properties of the Moringa oleifera methyl
esters (MOME) compared with other biodiesels such
as palm oil and petroleum fuel. The flashpoint
temperature of the Moringa oleifera oil is 162 °C
which is lower than the typical flash point 200 °C
reported for pure methyl esters based on the ASTM
D975 standards [16]. The high flashpoint temperature
of the Moringa oleifera methyl esters (MOME) is a
beneficial safety feature indicating it can be safely
stored at room temperature. However, one of the
major problems associated with the use of biodiesel
is its poor temperature flow property measured in
terms of cloud point and pour point temperatures.
It has high values of cloud and pour points at 17
°C comparable to palm oil biodiesel (14-15 °C). With
unsaturated fatty acid content of 72.2 %, Moringa
oleifera methyl esters (MOME) possesses good
cloud, flash and pour point. However, the relatively
high content of behenic acid, C22 (7.2%) which
possesses an even higher melting point than palmitic
acid, C16:0 (6.5%) or stearic acid, C18:0 (6.0%) is
likely to exert a greater effect on the cloud, flash and
pour point.
Treatment of Moringa oleifera
oilseed extract
Alcohol-catalyst mixing
(i.e. methanol + sodium or potassium
methoxides or
Methylates or NaOH)
Chemical reaction
(transesterification reaction)
Separation of the reaction products
through decantation
Purification of the reaction products
through the use of ion exchange resins or
silicates or washing

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Table 1: Fuel properties of Moringa oleifera methyl esters (MOME) compared with other biodiesel and ASTM
standards [18, 72, 73].
Fuel property
Unit
Moringa oil
(MOME)
Palm oil Fossil diesel ASTM
Standard
Limits
Density at 15ºC (Kg/ms)
875 879.3 820 - 860 ASTMD1298 880.0
Viscosity at 40ºC (cSt)
4.80 4.9 2.0 - 4.5 ASTMD445 1.9 – 6.0
Calorific value (MJ/kg) 43.28 40.2 44.8 - -
Cetane number 67.0 52 46 ASTMD4737 47min
Flash point (°C) 162 181 60 - 80 ASTMD975 130
Pour point (°C)
17.0 14 -35 to -15 ASTMD975 -15 to 16
Cloud point (°C)
17.0 15 -15 to 5 ASTMD975 -3 to 12
Ash content % (m/m)
0.010 0.0066 100 max
m
ASTMD482 -
Lubricity HFRR;um
139.0 - 0.460 mm ASTMD450 520
The cetane number of Moringa oleifera methyl
esters (MOME) was determined to be 67.07 using an
Ignition Quality Tester TM (IQTTM) described in
literature [72, 74]. As can be observed in Table 1,
MOME possess the highest cetane numbers reported
for a biodiesel fuel. Hence, MOME meets the
minimum cetane number requirements in the ASTM
D6751 biodiesel standards which is 47. Furthermore,
the kinematic viscosity at 40 °C of MOME was
determined to be 4.83 mm
2
/s at 40 °C [72, 75]. This
is in good agreement with the viscosity values of the
individual fatty ester components. Consequently,
MOME meets the requirements of ASTM D445
biodiesel standards which prescribes viscosity in the
ranges 1.9–6.0 and 3.5–5.0 mm
2
/s, respectively. For
the lubricity, MOME displays excellent lubricity which
is in accordance with the results on lubricity for
biodiesel derived from other oils or fats [74].
According to Atabani el al., [72]; and Pinzi, et al., [75]
MOME has a cloud point and pour point of 17 °C.
These values are rather high, albeit comparable to
palm oil which also contains even higher amounts of
saturated fatty acids. However, the relatively high
content of C22:0 which possesses an even higher
melting point than C16:0 or C18:0 in Moringa oleifera
oil likely has the effect of compensating for the higher
amounts of saturated fatty acids in palm oil. The
reason is that the cold flow properties of biodiesel are
determined by the amounts of higher-melting
components (usually the saturated esters) and not
their nature [76]. Thus, decreasing the amounts of
higher-melting saturated fatty esters is the only
method for improving cold flow properties. The cloud
point is the parameter contained in the biodiesel
standard ASTM D6751. The cloud point can be
correlated with tests such as the CFPP and is more
stringent as it relates to the temperature at which the
first solids form in the liquid fuel [77].
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presented an overview review the
intrinsic properties qualities, extraction methods, and
potential applications of Moringa oleifera seedoil
(MSO) based biodiesel. This findings suggest that
Moringa oleifera Methyl ester (MOME) biodiesel is an
acceptable substitute for petroleum diesel. In
comparison, MOME compared favourably against
other biodiesel fuels derived from other vegetable oil.
Furthermore, the fuel properties of MOME were
observed to be within ASTM standard limits and
comparable fatty acid profile with respect to other
species except oleic acid (72.2%). However, results
of engine performance and emissions showed that

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MSO biodiesel extracted exhibits lower performance
and slightly higher NOx emission compared to
petroleum diesel.
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