![Praise for Real Time UML, Third Edition
"I found [Real Time UML, Third Edition] to provide an informative and practical
application of UML 2.0 to the development of real-time systems, and well
worth the read by systems and software engineers. It is written in plain
English and provides the right balance of depth and breadth."
�Sanford Friedenthal
Deputy, Corporate Systems Engineering,
Lockheed Martin Corporation
Chair: OMG Systems Engineering
Domain Special Interest Group
"Douglass has again made highly technical material accessible to every one.
This book is an excellent introduction to the new UML 2.0, and if you want to
learn what modeling for real-time environments is like, this is the book to
read. His witty, conversational style should be a model for all authors of
technical material."
�Gary K. Evans
Founder and Object Evangelist,
Evanetics, Inc. (www.evanetics.com)
"Douglass has been a co-chair of the OMG's group interested in quality of
service issues and, therefore, has valuable insights into the usefulness of
these emerging technologies. His clear presentation of this information helps
those applying these advanced technologies to extract the most benefit for
their organizations and products, not only for the intended real-time
embedded product, but also for products whose quality of performance, while
not critical, is nevertheless of interest."
�Thérèse M. Smith
President and CEO,
Air Traffic Software Architecture, Inc.
(USA and Canada)
"The author presents an excellent overview of UML in the real-time space with
plenty of colorful examples. This book is an excellent teaching tool for a
newcomer or a reference for an expert!"
�Soma Chatterjee
Senior Product Manager,
I-Logix](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-17-320.jpg)
![About the Author
Bruce was raised by wolves in the Oregon wilderness. He taught himself to read at
age 3 and calculus before age 12. He dropped out of school when he was 14 and
traveled around the US for a few years before entering the University of Oregon as a
mathematics major. He eventually received his M.S. in exercise physiology from the
University of Oregon and his Ph.D. in neurophysiology from the USD Medical School,
where he developed a branch of mathematics called autocorrelative factor analysis
for studying information processing in multicellular biological neural systems.
Bruce has worked as a software developer in real-time systems well in excess of 20
years and is a well-known speaker and author in the area of real-time embedded
systems. He is on the Advisory Board of the Embedded Systems and UML World
conferences where he has taught courses in software estimation and scheduling,
project management, object-oriented analysis and design, communications
protocols, finite state machines, design patterns, and safety-critical systems design.
He has developed and taught courses in real-time object-oriented analysis and
design for many years. He has authored articles for a number of journals and
periodicals in the real-time domain.
He is the Chief Evangelist[1]
for i-Logix, a leading producer of tools for real-time
systems development. Bruce worked with Rational and the other UML partners on
the specification of the UML. He is one of the co-chairs of the Object Management
Group's Real-Time Analysis and Design Working Group, which is currently examining
the UML for possible future real-time extensions. He also consults, trains, and
mentors a number of companies building large-scale real-time safety-critical
systems. He is the author of several other books on software, including Doing Hard
Time: Developing Real-Time Systems with UML, Objects, Frameworks, and Patterns
(Addison-Wesley, 1999) and Real-Time Design Patterns: Robust Scalable
Architecture for Real-Time Systems (Addison-Wesley, 2002), as well as a short
textbook on table tennis.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-37-320.jpg)
![[1] Being a Chief Evangelist is much like being a Chief Scientist, except for the burning bushes and stone tablets.
Bruce enjoys classical music and has played classical guitar professionally. He has
competed in several sports, including table tennis, bicycle racing, running, and full-
contact Tae Kwon Do, although he currently only fights inanimate objects that don't
hit back. He and his two sons contemplate epistemology in the Frozen North. He can
be reached at bpd@ilogix.com.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-38-320.jpg)
![Principles, which hitherto have not been admissible for Patents,
would be likewise excluded from rewards. There could be also no
premiums for new modes of manufacture, such as simpler or
cheaper manufacture of materials already known, and in the same
manner manufacture of new articles directly going into consumption,
because, in the first case, the secret use of the invention would
present an equivalent, while in the latter cases the start which the
inventor has with regard to manufacturing, as well as disposal,
before and over his competitors, in most cases is more than
sufficient reward for the merit of having given mankind new means of
satisfying human enjoyments and necessities. It was consequently a
timely Convention between the States of the Zollverein, which
already, under date of 21st September, 1842, acknowledged the
principle that the granting of a Patent henceforth could establish no
right to prohibit either the import or the sale, nor the use of articles
agreeing with those patented, as far as articles of consumption are
concerned, and that a right of that nature was only applicable to
machinery and tools for manufacturers and artisans.[10] Accordingly,
the granting of rewards would have to be restricted to inventors of
useful machinery and tools, who do not use them solely in their own
interest and keep their construction a secret, but, on the contrary,
make them accessible to everybody by multiplication.
With such regulations as to Patent-right in force in Germany, it will
be observed that here, as in other countries, the great disadvantage
arises from this, that by the patenting of an invention its utilisation or
trial is prohibited to home industry, while the foreigner is quite at
liberty to make use of it and to bring the articles in question to market
in the country where the Patent exists.
In this manner foreign industry is actually enjoying a preference, to
the detriment of the industry of that country in which the Patent is
granted; consequently even the patentee, through such foreign
competition, loses the intended reward partially. The example
furnished by the Patent on the manufacture of aniline colours in
France illustrates the case. On the whole, it is not to be denied that
those advantages which the Patent monopoly should guarantee are
often not in harmony either with the value or the importance of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-49-320.jpg)
![patented invention; just as often these advantages do not reach the
author of the invention at all, but flow into the pockets of such people
as make it a business either to purchase Patent-rights, and so work
them for their own account, or in partnership with the patentee,
taking care to secure for themselves the lion’s share. It is further
proved by experience that insignificant and most simple inventions
have often brought extraordinary advantages to the patentee, while
the discoverers of important novelties (we instance only Reissel, who
introduced the screw as a motor in navigation), in spite of Patent-
rights, could not find gratitude nor reward for what they
accomplished.
We arrive, consequently, at the conclusion, that the partly
imaginary advantages of Patents are outweighed by the
disadvantages attached, and that, as the industrial condition of
Switzerland exemplifies, no further use of such means is any longer
required in helping to elevate industry in all its branches to a very
high standard, or to keep pace with the development of other
countries in that direction.
[10] I cannot but think the patenting of machinery a great
disadvantage to any community. Yet if importing were allowed in
spite of the Patent, the exaction of heavy royalties, and of
royalties graduated according to work performed (which is the
greatest source of evil), would be impossible, and the
disadvantage be neutralised.—R. A. M.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-50-320.jpg)
![untenable; that discovery is not the work of one man, but the ripe
fruit of industrial development.
From the difficulty and complexity of the subject, men would do
away with Patent-Laws; but the real cause of the agitation against
them lies in the enormous development which our international
commerce has undergone in the last ten years through free-trade,
steam-boats, and railways.
As the complete abolition of the “customs-limits,” with the German
Zollverein [customs-union], was not made without a direct
transformation of the Patent-Laws and a positive limitation of Patent
protection, so is—through the concluding of the treaties of commerce
made during the last ten years between the Zollverein and France,
Great Britain, Belgium, and Italy—a total reform in the Patent-Law
rendered necessary.
All countries, with the single exception of Switzerland, recognise
by their existing laws the necessity of Patent protection; and this
case of Switzerland is particularly brought forward by those opposed
to the Patent movement. The Commission which was appointed of
Swiss experts (and which said that Patent protection is unnecessary
and tends to nothing good) was impartial enough to avow that the
particular advantages which Switzerland draws from existing
circumstances arise from the fact that in all the adjoining countries
the protection of Patents does exist, but in Switzerland alone not so.
Swiss industry, which is exceedingly small, is placed in the position
of imitating all foreign Patents which find a market in Switzerland,
and getting the benefit of the discoveries made under the protection
of foreign Patents. Switzerland is just in the position of a man who
keeps no cats because he can use his neighbours’.
HOLLAND.
I have before me a series of valuable illustrative documents
printed by the Government of the Netherlands, which are too long to
introduce here. The movement for abolishing Patents in that country,
already referred to on pages 196-230, was consummated by a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-57-320.jpg)
![NOTES ILLUSTRATIVE OF MR.
MACFIE’S SPEECH.
[Page 17.]
The views taken in the text as to the meaning of the word
“manufacture” receive confirmation from the following extract from
the Engineer of June 4, 1869:—
THE AMERICAN PATENT-LAW.
... Accordingly, in the first general Patent-Law passed by
Congress, the subject for which Patents were to be granted were
described as the invention or discovery of “any useful art,
manufacture, engine, machine, or device, or any improvement
therein not before known or used.” In the next statute—that of 21st
February, 1793—the phraseology was first introduced which has
been ever since employed—namely, “any new and useful art,
machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and
useful improvement in any art, machine, manufacture, or
composition of matter, not known or used before the application for a
Patent.”... We have, then, the following four heads of subjects
suitable for Patents—viz., an art, a machine, a manufacture, and a
composition of matter.... In England, to make a new process the
subject of a Patent, the word “manufacture” would be used, and
would have to be interpreted somewhat liberally. Thus, in some
cases, there might not be a perfect distinction between the thing
itself and the art or process of making the thing.... With regard to the
head “manufacture,” we cannot do better than give the definition
which Mr. Curtis has added as a note to his work. He says a
manufacture “would be any new combination of old materials,
constituting a new result or production in the form of a vendible
article, not being machinery.”...](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-61-320.jpg)
![As well as from the following extract from—
HINDMARCH ON “VENDING OR SELLING.”
“The sole privilege of making the invention as expressed ... is in
truth the same in substance as the sole privilege of using and
exercising it.... By the first section of the Statute of Monopolies,
patents granting ‘the sole buying, selling, making, working, or using
of anything’ are declared to be void, and the proviso in favour of
inventions contained in the sixth section only extends to ‘grants of
privilege of the sole working or making of any manner of new
manufactures,’ leaving the sole buying or selling of anything within
the prohibition.... The sole privilege granted by a Patent for an
invention authorises the inventor ‘to make, use, exercise, and vend’
the invention.... And as no one can use the invention except the
patentee, no one besides him can lawfully have such articles for
sale.... Every part of the privilege granted by a Patent for an
invention, when thus explained (!) is therefore clearly within the
meaning of the exception contained in the Statute....”
I demur. Is there anything in the Statute to prevent a person
importing articles and vending them though the same as the
privileged person is alone allowed to make or work? In point of fact
that surely might, when the statute was passed, be done from
Scotland and Ireland as to manufactures not patented in these
countries, but patented in England.
[Page 18.]
The number of Patents granted in the first fifty years after the
Statute of Monopolies was seventy-two, or at the rate of less than
one and a-half per annum.
[Page 19.]
The following list of applications for Patents up to the end of 1862,
in several classes, is abridged from Mr. Edwards’ interesting treatise
on, or rather against, “Letters Patent for Inventions:”—](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-62-320.jpg)
![Oct., 1852, to
Dec. 31, 1862.
Before
Oct., 1852.
Total.
Railways and Railway
Carriages
1,418 630 2,018
Telegraphs 558 109 667
Steam and Steam Boilers 1,293 377 1,670
Steam-engines 1,228 704 1,932
Spinning 1,837 1,120 2,957
Electricity, Galvanism, and
Electroplating
662 38 700
Sewing and Embroidery 352 40 392
Heating and Evaporating 1,108 373 1,481
Fireplaces, Grates 317 169 481
Flues and Chimneys 278 75 353
Fuel 227 129 356
Ventilating Buildings,
Carriages, Ships, &c.
392 81 473
SUGGESTIVE EXTRACTS FROM DR. PERCY’S
WORKS ON METALLURGY.
[Page 34.]
The Copper Trade.
It would be sheer waste of time even to notice many of the mis-
called improvements in copper—something for which Patents have
been granted in this country during the last twenty years. Some of
the patentees display such deplorable ignorance of the first
principles of chemistry, and such utter want of practical knowledge,
as would seem hardly possible with the present facilities of acquiring
information.
Various Patents have been granted for alleged improvements in
the treating of copper ores, of certain products obtained in the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-63-320.jpg)
![attendant annoyance and anxiety. The preliminary examination
before the Attorney or Solicitor-General is in many cases an absolute
farce, and nothing less. The present system, although confessedly
an improvement on the old one, is yet in many cases highly
obstructive and injurious to national interests.
[Page 50.]
The following passage from the Engineer of May 28, proves
clearly that the Bessemer Patents do raise prices of iron:—
The present royalty on rails is 2l. per ton; on each ton a drawback
of 1l. is nominally allowed, but the nature of Mr. Bessemer’s
arrangements with regard to scrap, crop ends, waste, &c., is such
that the true royalty on every ton of Bessemer rails delivered to a
railway company—in other words, sold—amounts to about 1l. 5s. 6d.
After the lapse of Mr. Bessemer’s Patents in February, 1870, this
sum, all but 2s. 6d. per ton royalty on plant, will be saved; and,
therefore, in March next year, rails may be bought for at least 1l. 3s.
per ton less than they cost now.
WORKING MEN AS INVENTORS.
[Page 62.]
Somewhat to my surprise, I am led to apprehend that the interest
of working men will be represented as coinciding with retention of
invention monopoly. I hope they are too wide awake to believe such
a fallacy, and too upright to approve of the continuance of a proved
national disadvantage, even though it were not a fallacy. If Patents
are injurious to the community by raising prices of articles of
consumption and utility, then the operative and labouring classes,
inasmuch as they constitute the bulk of the population, must be the
chief sufferers. If Patents interfere with labour in any direction, and
tend to drive trade away from our island, they, as the mainstays of
industry, must be the chief sufferers. The only pretence for such an
allegation as I am combating is this: some inventions in all trades,
many inventions in some trades, are made by artisans, who
therefore will lose this form of reward. True enough; but is the reward](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/43761-250224151950-083932cb/85/Real-Time-UML-Advances-in-The-UML-for-Real-Time-Systems-Third-Edition-Bruce-Powel-Douglass-65-320.jpg)
Real Time UML Advances in The UML for Real Time Systems Third Edition Bruce Powel Douglass
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- 5. Real Time UML Advances in The UML for Real Time Systems Third Edition Bruce Powel Douglass Digital Instant Download Author(s): Bruce Powel Douglass ISBN(s): 9780321160768, 0321160762 File Details: PDF, 14.88 MB Year: 2004 Language: english
- 6. • Table of Contents Real Time UML: Advances in The UML for Real-Time Systems, Third Edition By Bruce Powel Douglass Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 20, 2004 ISBN : 0-321-16076-2 Pages : 752 Slots : 2.0 "I found Real Time UML, Third Edition, to provide an informative and practical application of UML 2.0 to the development of real-time systems, and well worth the read by systems and software engineers. It is written in plain English and provides the right balance of depth and breadth." -Sanford Friedenthal, Deputy, Corporate Systems Engineering, Lockheed Martin CorporationChair, OMG Systems Engineering Domain Special Interest Group The increasing complexity of embedded and real-time systems requires a more premeditated and sophisticated design approach for successful implementation. The object- based Unified Modeling Language (UML) can describe the structural and behavioral aspects critical to real-time systems and has come to the fore as an outstanding medium for effective design.
- 7. Like its best-selling predecessors, Real Time UML, Third Edition, provides an overview of the essentials of real-time systems and an introduction to UML that focuses on the use of the ever-evolving standard in design and development. This accessible book examines requirements analysis, the definition of object structure and behavior, architectural and mechanistic design, and more detailed designs that encompass data structure, operations, and exceptions. Numerous figures help illustrate UML design techniques, and detailed, real-world examples show the application of those techniques to embedded systems. This significantly revised edition features the new UML 2.0 standard, which dramatically improves the clarity of the UML for capturing architectures and improving its scalability. Real Time UML, Third Edition, also introduces the UML Profile for Schedulability, Performance, and Time (STP Profile). The STP Profile provides a standardized way to capture schedulability and performance constraints of systems. This allows analysis tools to read and analyze UML models. Key topic coverage includes: The Rapid Object-Oriented Process for Embedded Systems (ROPES) Concurrency and resource modeling with the Real-Time (SPT) UML Profile Tapping action semantics for greater executability Scenario modeling with timing diagrams Key strategies for object identification
- 8. Defining object state behavior Representing and identifying threads Mechanistic design patterns
- 9. • Table of Contents Real Time UML: Advances in The UML for Real-Time Systems, Third Edition By Bruce Powel Douglass Publisher : Addison Wesley Pub Date : February 20, 2004 ISBN : 0-321-16076-2 Pages : 752 Slots : 2.0 Copyright Praise for Real Time UML , Third Edition The Addison-Wesley Object Technology Series The Component Software Series Figure List About the Author Foreword to the Third Edition Foreword to the Previous Editions Preface to the Third Edition Audience Goals Preface to the Second Edition Audience Goals Preface to the First Edition Goals Audience Organization Examples Acknowledgments Chapter 1. Introduction to the World of Real-Time and Embedded Systems
- 10. Section 1.1. What Is Special about Real-Time Systems? Section 1.2. Time, Performance, and Quality of Service Section 1.3. Systems Engineering vs. Software Engineering Section 1.4. What Do We Mean by Architecture ? Section 1.5. The Rapid Object-Oriented Process for Embedded Systems ( ROPES ) Process Section 1.6. MDA and Platform-Independent Models Section 1.7. Scheduling Model-Based Projects Section 1.8. Model Organization Principles Section 1.9. Working with Model-Based Projects Section 1.10. Looking Ahead Section 1.11. Exercises Section 1.12. References Chapter 2. Object Orientation with UML 2.0�Structural Aspects Section 2.1. Object Orientation with UML Section 2.2. Small Things: Objects, Classes, and Interfaces Section 2.3. Relations Section 2.4. Big Things: Packages, Components, and Subsystems Section 2.5. Advanced: UML Metamodel of Structural Elements (for the Advanced Modeler) Section 2.6. Additional Notations and Semantics Section 2.7. Looking Ahead Section 2.8. Exercises Section 2.9. References Chapter 3. Object Orientation with UML 2.0�Dynamic Aspects Section 3.1. Behavior and the UML Section 3.2. Types of Behavior Section 3.3. Behavior Primitives: Actions and Activities Section 3.4. Behavior and the Single Object Section 3.5. Interactions Section 3.6. Summary Section 3.7. Exercises Section 3.8. References Chapter 4. UML Profile for Schedulability, Performance, and Time Section 4.1. UML Profiles Section 4.2. "RT UML " Profile Section 4.3. Looking Ahead Section 4.4. Exercises
- 11. Section 4.5. References Chapter 5. Requirements Analysis of Real-Time Systems Section 5.1. Requirements Section 5.2. Use Cases Section 5.3. Detailing the Use Cases Section 5.4. Looking Ahead Section 5.5. Exercises Section 5.6. References Chapter 6. Analysis: Object Domain Analysis Section 6.1. The Object Discovery Process Section 6.2. Connecting the Object Model with the Use Case Model Section 6.3. Key Strategies for Object Identification Section 6.4. Identify Object Associations Section 6.5. Object Attributes Section 6.6. Discovering Candidate Classes Section 6.7. Class Diagrams Section 6.8. Looking Ahead Section 6.9. Exercises Section 6.10. References Chapter 7. Analysis: Defining Object Behavior Section 7.1. Object Behavior Section 7.2. Defining Object State Behavior Section 7.3. Interactions Section 7.4. Defining Operations Section 7.5. Looking Ahead Section 7.6. Exercises Section 7.7. References Chapter 8. Architectural Design Section 8.1. Overview of Design Section 8.2. What Is Architectural Design? Section 8.3. Software Meets Hardware: Deployment Architecture in UML Section 8.4. Concurrency and Resource Design Section 8.5. Looking Ahead Section 8.6. Exercises Section 8.7. References Chapter 9. Mechanistic Design Section 9.1. What Is Mechanistic Design?
- 12. Section 9.2. Mechanistic Design Patterns Section 9.3. The Observer Pattern Section 9.4. The Proxy Pattern Section 9.5. Reliable Transaction Pattern Section 9.6. Smart Pointer Pattern Section 9.7. Guarded Call Pattern Section 9.8. Container Pattern Section 9.9. The Rendezvous Pattern Section 9.10. Looking Ahead Section 9.11. Exercises Section 9.12. References Chapter 10. Detailed Design Section 10.1. What Is Detailed Design? Section 10.2. Data Structure Section 10.3. Associations Section 10.4. Operations Section 10.5. Visibility Section 10.6. Algorithms Section 10.7. Exceptions Section 10.8. Summary Section 10.9. Exercises Section 10.10. References Chapter 11. Special Topic: C 4 ISR Architecture and the UML Section 11.1. Introduction Section 11.2. What Is C 4 ISR? Section 11.3. Required Products of C 4 ISR Section 11.4. Supporting Products Section 11.5. Summary Section 11.6. Acknowledgments Section 11.7. References Notational Summary
- 14. Copyright Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and Addison-Wesley was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein. The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in quantity bulk purchases and special sales. For more information, please contact: U.S. Corporate and Government Sales (800) 382-3419 corpsales@pearsontechgroup.com For sales outside of the U.S., please contact: International Sales (317) 581-3793 international@pearsontechgroup.com Visit Addison-Wesley on the Web: www.awprofessional.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Douglass, Bruce Powel. Real time UML : advances in the UML for real-time systems / Bruce Powell Douglass.�3rd ed. p. cm.�(The Addison-Wesley object technology series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-321-16076-2 (alk. paper) 1. Embedded computer systems�Programming. 2. Real-time data processing. 3. Object-oriented methods (Computer science) I. Title. II. Series. QA76.6D658 2004 005.1'17�dc22 2003022902 Copyright © 2004 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Published simultaneously in Canada.
- 15. For information on obtaining permission for use of material from this work, please submit a written request to: Pearson Education, Inc. Rights and Contracts Department 75 Arlington Street, Suite 300 Boston, MA 02116 Fax: (617) 848-7047 Text printed on recycled paper 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10�CRS�0807060504 First printing, February 2004 Dedication This book is dedicated to my family�Scott and Blake, my two wonderful sons�of whom I am extremely proud�and Sarah, the most beautiful, sexy, wonderful, and geeky woman in the world. :-x
- 17. Praise for Real Time UML, Third Edition "I found [Real Time UML, Third Edition] to provide an informative and practical application of UML 2.0 to the development of real-time systems, and well worth the read by systems and software engineers. It is written in plain English and provides the right balance of depth and breadth." �Sanford Friedenthal Deputy, Corporate Systems Engineering, Lockheed Martin Corporation Chair: OMG Systems Engineering Domain Special Interest Group "Douglass has again made highly technical material accessible to every one. This book is an excellent introduction to the new UML 2.0, and if you want to learn what modeling for real-time environments is like, this is the book to read. His witty, conversational style should be a model for all authors of technical material." �Gary K. Evans Founder and Object Evangelist, Evanetics, Inc. (www.evanetics.com) "Douglass has been a co-chair of the OMG's group interested in quality of service issues and, therefore, has valuable insights into the usefulness of these emerging technologies. His clear presentation of this information helps those applying these advanced technologies to extract the most benefit for their organizations and products, not only for the intended real-time embedded product, but also for products whose quality of performance, while not critical, is nevertheless of interest." �Thérèse M. Smith President and CEO, Air Traffic Software Architecture, Inc. (USA and Canada) "The author presents an excellent overview of UML in the real-time space with plenty of colorful examples. This book is an excellent teaching tool for a newcomer or a reference for an expert!" �Soma Chatterjee Senior Product Manager, I-Logix
- 19. The Addison-Wesley Object Technology Series Grady Booch, Ivar Jacobson, and James Rumbaugh, Series Editors For more information, check out the series web site at www.awprofessional.com/otseries. Ahmed/Umrysh, Developing Enterprise Java Applications with J2EE™ and UML Arlow/Neustadt, Enterprise Patterns and MDA: Building Better Software with Archetype Patterns and UML Arlow/Neustadt, UML and the Unified Process: Practical Object-Oriented Analysis and Design Armour/Miller, Advanced Use Case Modeling: Software Systems Bellin/Simone, The CRC Card Book Bergström/Råberg, Adopting the Rational Unified Process: Success with the RUP Binder, Testing Object-Oriented Systems: Models, Patterns, and Tools Bittner/Spence, Use Case Modeling Booch, Object Solutions: Managing the Object-Oriented Project Booch, Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications, 2E Booch/Bryan, Software Engineering with ADA, 3E Booch/Rumbaugh/Jacobson, The Unified Modeling Language User Guide Box/Brown/Ewald/Sells, Effective COM: 50 Ways to Improve Your COM and MTS- based Applications Carlson, Modeling XML Applications with UML: Practical e-Business Applications Collins, Designing Object-Oriented User Interfaces Conallen, Building Web Applications with UML, 2E D'Souza/Wills, Objects, Components, and Frameworks with UML: The Catalysis(SM) Approach Douglass, Doing Hard Time: Developing Real-Time Systems with UML, Objects, Frameworks, and Patterns Douglass, Real-Time Design Patterns: Robust Scalable Architecture for Real-Time Systems Douglass, Real Time UML, 3E: Advances in The UML for Real-Time Systems
- 20. Eeles et al.,Building J2EE™Applications with the Rational Unified Process Fontoura/Pree/Rumpe, The UML Profile for Framework Architectures Fowler, Analysis Patterns: Reusable Object Models Fowler et al., Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code Fowler, UML Distilled, 3E: A Brief Guide to the Standard Object Modeling Language Gomaa, Designing Concurrent, Distributed, and Real-Time Applications with UML Graham, Object-Oriented Methods, 3E: Principles and Practice Heinckiens, Building Scalable Database Applications: Object-Oriented Design, Architectures, and Implementations Hofmeister/Nord/Dilip, Applied Software Architecture Jacobson/Booch/Rumbaugh, The Unified Software Development Process Jordan, C++ Object Databases: Programming with the ODMG Standard Kleppe/Warmer/Bast, MDA Explained: The Model Driven Architecture™: Practice and Promise Kroll/Kruchten, The Rational Unified Process Made Easy: A Practitioner's Guide to the RUP Kruchten, The Rational Unified Process, 3E: An Introduction Lau, The Art of Objects: Object-Oriented Design and Architecture Leffingwell/Widrig, Managing Software Requirements, 2E: A Use Case Approach Manassis, Practical Software Engineering: Analysis and Design for the .NET Platform Marshall, Enterprise Modeling with UML: Designing Successful Software through Business Analysis McGregor/Sykes, A Practical Guide to Testing Object-Oriented Software Mellor/Balcer, Executable UML: A Foundation for Model-Driven Architecture Mellor et al., MDA Distilled: Principles of Model-Driven Architecture Naiburg/Maksimchuk, UML for Database Design Oestereich, Developing Software with UML, 2E: Object-Oriented Analysis and Design in Practice Page-Jones, Fundamentals of Object-Oriented Design in UML Pohl, Object-Oriented Programming Using C++, 2E
- 21. Pollice et al. Software Development for Small Teams: A RUP-Centric Approach Quatrani, Visual Modeling with Rational Rose 2002 and UML Rector/Sells, ATL Internals Reed, Developing Applications with Visual Basic and UML Rosenberg/Scott, Applying Use Case Driven Object Modeling with UML: An Annotated e-Commerce Example Rosenberg/Scott, Use Case Driven Object Modeling with UML: A Practical Approach Royce, Software Project Management: A Unified Framework Rumbaugh/Jacobson/Booch, The Unified Modeling Language Reference Manual Schneider/Winters, Applying Use Cases, 2E: A Practical Guide Smith/Williams, Performance Solutions: A Practical Guide to Creating Responsive, Scalable Software Stevens/Pooley, Using UML, Updated Edition: Software Engineering with Objects and Components Unhelkar, Process Quality Assurance for UML-Based Projects van Harmelen, Object Modeling and User Interface Design: Designing Interactive Systems Wake, Refactoring Workbook Warmer/Kleppe, The Object Constraint Language, 2E: Getting Your Models Ready for MDA White, Software Configuration Management Strategies and Rational ClearCase®: A Practical Introduction
- 23. The Component Software Series Clemens Szyperski, Series Editor For more information, check out the series web site at www.awprofessional.com/csseries. Allen, Realizing eBusiness with Components Apperly et al., Service- and Component-based Development: Using the Select Perspective™ and UML Atkinson et al., Component-Based Product Line Engineering with UML Cheesman/Daniels, UML Components: A Simple Process for Specifying Component- Based Software Szyperski, Component Software, 2E: Beyond Object-Oriented Programming Whitehead, Component-Based Development: Principles and Planning for Business Systems
- 25. Figure List Figure 1-1: Synchronization Patterns Figure 1-2: «active» Objects and Threads Figure 1-3: Required and Offered Quality of Service Figure 1-4: Priority Inversion Model Figure 1-5: Priority Inversion Scenario Figure 1-6: ROPES Spiral Macrocycle Figure 1-7: ROPES SemiSpiral Lifecycle Figure 1-8: ROPES Spiral Figure 1-9: ROPES Process Artifacts Figure 1-10: MDA Overview Figure 1-11: The MDA Approach Figure 1-12: Sample Schedule Figure 1-13: Resource Histogram Figure 1-14: Use Case-Based Model of Organization Figure 1-15: Framework-Based Model Organization Figure 1-16: Logical Model-Based Model Organization Figure 1-17: Physical Model-Based Model Organization Figure 1-18: Model Execution Figure 2-1: Object Abstraction Figure 2-2: Objects and Classes Figure 2-3: Objects and Classes in Use Figure 2-4: Interfaces
- 26. Figure 2-5: Sending Messages Figure 2-6: Simple Association Figure 2-7: Association, Aggregation, and Composition Figure 2-8: Composition and Parts Figure 2-9: Generalization Figure 2-10: Dependency Figure 2-11: Packages Figure 2-12: Structured Classes Figure 2-13: Interfaces, Connections, and Ports Figure 2-14: Components Figure 2-15: Subsystems Figure 2-16: Subsystem Example Figure 2-17: Nodes and Deployment Figure 2-18: Levels of Abstraction in Architecture Figure 2-19: Subset of UML Metamodel for Structural Elements Figure 2-20: Constraints in Action Figure 3-1: State Machine for an Object Figure 3-2: Telephone Statechart Figure 3-3: State Internal Features Figure 3-4: Statechart of Object with And-States Figure 3-5: UML Pseudostates Figure 3-6: Branches and Junctions Figure 3-7: History
- 27. Figure 3-8: Forks and Joins Figure 3-9: Referencing State Machine; OnHook and OffHook Submachines Figure 3-10: Inherited Statecharts Figure 3-11: Ill-Formed Statechart Figure 3-12: Pacemaker Class Diagram Figure 3-13: Communications Subsystem Figure 3-14: Pacing Engine Subsystem Figure 3-15: ReedSwitch State Model Figure 3-16: CoilDriver State Model Figure 3-17: Communications Manager State Model Figure 3-18: Processing Statechart Figure 3-19: Chamber Model State Model Figure 3-20: Atrial Model State Model Figure 3-21: Ventricular Model State Model Figure 3-22: Protocol State Machine Context and Machines Figure 3-23: Activity Chart Figure 3-24: Additional Activity Diagram Notations Figure 3-25: Sequence Diagram Figure 3-26: Additional Sequence Diagram Annotations Figure 3-27: Partial Ordering Figure 3-28: Loops and Branches Figure 3-29: Parallel Regions Figure 3-30: Assert, Consider, Ignore?
- 28. Figure 3-31: Referencing Sequence Diagram Figure 3-32: Lifeline Decomposition Figure 3-33: Referenced Interaction Fragment Figure 3-34: Simple State Timing Diagram Figure 3-35: Timing Diagram with Multiple Lifelines Figure 3-36: Simple Task Timing Diagram Figure 3-37: Task Timing Diagram with Shading Figure 3-38: Timing Diagram with Continuous Values Figure 4-1: UML Stereotypes Figure 4-2: Tagged Values and Constraints Figure 4-3: Representing Tagged Values Figure 4-4: RT UML Profile Use Cases Figure 4-5: Usage Paradigm for the RT Profile Figure 4-6: RT UML Profile Organization Figure 4-7: Client-Server Basis of the GRM Figure 4-8: Core Resource Model Figure 4-9: Static Resource Usage Model Figure 4-10: Causality Loop Figure 4-11: Dynamic Resource Usage Model Figure 4-12: Timing Marks Figure 4-13: Concurrency Subprofile Domain Model Figure 4-14: Concurrency Subprofile Stereotypes Example Figure 4-15: Schedulability Domain Model
- 29. Figure 4-16: Schedulability Subprofile Example (Global RMA) Figure 4-17: Schedulability Subprofile Example (Scenario Analysis) Figure 4-18: Performance Domain Model Figure 4-19: Performance Model Example (Structure) Figure 4-20: Performance Model Example (Deployment) Figure 4-21: Performance Model Example (Scenario) Figure 4-22: Broker Pattern Figure 4-23 Real-Time CORBA Domain Model Figure 5-1: Requirements Taxomomy Figure 5-2: Use Case Diagram Figure 5-3: Air Traffic Control System Use Cases Figure 5-4: Anesthesia Machine Use Cases Figure 5-5: Anesthesia Subsystems Figure 5-6: Decomposition of Deliver Anesthesia Use Case Figure 5-7: Use Case Activity Breakdown Figure 5-8: Ventilator Use Cases Figure 5-9: User Interface Use Cases Figure 5-10: Vaporizer Use Cases Figure 5-11: SPO2 Monitor Use Cases Figure 5-12: CO2 Monitor Use Cases Figure 5-13: Agent Monitor Use Cases Figure 5-14: Breathing Circuit Use Cases Figure 5-15: Bad Use Case Modeling
- 30. Figure 5-16: Textual Characterization of Use Cases Figure 5-17: Use Case Relations Figure 5-18: ECG Use Cases Figure 5-19: Use Cases in Development Figure 5-20: Relating Text and Scenarios Figure 5-21: Use Case Sequence Diagram Figure 5-22: Deliver Anesthesia Collaboration Figure 5-23: Elaborated Scenario Part 1 Figure 5-24: Elaborated Scenario Part 2 Figure 5-25: Alarm On Critical Event Requirements Figure 5-26: Alarm On Critical Event Statechart Figure 5-27: Statecharts and Text Figure 5-28: Statecharts and Sequence Diagrams Figure 5-29: Display Waveform Activity Diagram Figure 5-30: Use Case Timing Diagram Figure 6-1: ROPES Nanocycle for Domain Analysis Figure 6-2: Use Cases, Collaborations, and Objects Figure 6-3: Domains Figure 6-4: Information Flows Figure 6-5: Elevator Central Station Main View Figure 6-6: Elevator Central Station Menu View Figure 6-7: Elevator Central Station Zoom View Figure 6-8: Pace the Heart in AAI Mode (Use Case Level)
- 31. Figure 6-9: Pacemaker Object Collaboration Figure 6-10: Pace the Heart in AAI Mode (Object Level) Figure 6-11: First-Cut Elevator Object Diagram Figure 6-12: Modeling Nonprimitive Attributes Figure 6-13: Session Associative Class Figure 6-14: Button Subclasses Figure 6-15: Generalization and Constraints Figure 6-16: Extending and Specializing Figure 6-17: Positioning Attributes in the Generalization Hierarchy Figure 6-18: Repositioned Attributes Figure 7-1: Token-Flow Semantics Figure 7-2: Retriggerable One-Shot Timer FSM Figure 7-3: Message Transaction Structure Figure 7-4: Message Transaction Behavior Figure 7-5: Pacemaker Use Cases Figure 7-6: Pacemaker Class Diagram Figure 7-7: ReedSwitch State Model Figure 7-8: CoilDriver State Model Figure 7-9: Communications Gnome State Model Figure 7-10: Chamber Model State Model Figure 7-11: Chamber Model SelfInhibited Statechart Figure 7-12: Chamber Model SelfTriggered Statechart Figure 7-13: AtrialModel Dual Mode Statechart
- 32. Figure 7-14: VentricularModel Dual Mode Statechart Figure 7-15: Calculator Use Cases Figure 7-16: Calculator Classes Figure 7-17: CharParser Statechart Figure 7-18: Tokenizer Statechart Figure 7-19: Evaluator Statechart Figure 7-20: Stimulator Statechart Figure 7-21: Event Hieracrchy/Reception Figure 7-22: HeartChamber Actor Statechart Figure 7-23: Inserting Events Figure 7-24: Debugging with a Web Browser Figure 7-25: Debugging View Figure 7-26: CardioNada Sequence 1�Creation and Initialization Figure 7-27: CardioNada Sequence 2�Pacing Figure 7-28: CardioNada Sequence 3�Inhibiting Figure 7-29: Debug Configuration Figure 7-30: Calculator Scenario 2* (3+4) page 1 Figure 7-31: Calculator Scenario 2* (3+4) page 2 Figure 7-32: Calculator Scenario 2* (3+4) page 3 Figure 7-33: Calculator Scenario 2* (3+4) page 4 Figure 7-34: Calculator Scenario 2* (3+4) page 5 Figure 8-1: Three Levels of Design Figure 8-2: Logical and Physical Architecture
- 33. Figure 8-3: Logical Domain Architecture Figure 8-4: Relating Logical and Physical Architecture Figure 8-5: Levels of Architectural Abstraction Figure 8-6: The Five Views of Architecture Figure 8-7: System View Figure 8-8: Subsystem View Figure 8-9: Component View Figure 8-10: Concurrency and Resource View Figure 8-11: Distribution View Figure 8-12: Safety and Reliability View Figure 8-13: Deployment View Figure 8-14: Elevator Architecture Figure 8-15: OSI Model Layered Architecture Figure 8-16: Vertical Slices Figure 8-17: Deployment Diagram Notation Figure 8-18: Telescope Position Controller Deployment Diagram Figure 8-19: Elevator Task Diagram Figure 8-20: Concurrency in Active Objects Figure 9-1: Observer Pattern Figure 9-2: Observer Pattern Example Structure/Scenario Figure 9-3: Proxy Pattern Figure 9-4: Proxy Example Structure Figure 9-5: Proxy Example Scenario
- 34. Figure 9-6: Transaction Pattern Figure 9-7: Sender/Receiver Transaction Statechart Figure 9-8: Reliable Transaction Example Structure/Scenario Figure 9-9: Basic Smart Pointer Pattern/Wrapper Variant Figure 9-10: Smart Pointer Cycles Figure 9-11: Smart Pointer Pattern Structure/Scenario Figure 9-12: Guarded Call Pattern Structure Figure 9-13: Guarded Call Pattern Structure/Scenario Figure 9-14: Container Pattern Figure 9-15: Container Pattern Example Figure 9-16: Rendezvous Pattern Structure Figure 9-17: Thread Barrier Synch Policy Statechart Figure 9-18: Rendezvous Pattern Scenario Example Figure 10-1 Role Constraints and Qualified Associations Figure 10-2: Detailed Design of Multivalued Roles Figure 10-3: Balanced In-Order Tree Figure 10-4: Unbalanced Tree after Adding Node 9 Figure 10-5: Rebalanced Tree Figure 10-6: Left Rotation Figure 10-7: Activity Diagram for Add Node Operation Figure 11-1: Report on Model for AV-1 Overview Figure 11-2: AV-2 Integrated Dictionary Figure 11-3: OV-1 Operation Concept Diagram with Standard Notation
- 35. Figure 11-4: OV-1 Operational Concept Diagram in Rhapsody with Icons Figure 11-5: OV-2 Operational Node Connectivity with Classes Figure 11-6: OV-2 Operational Node Connectivity with Deployment Diagram Figure 11-7: OV-3 Data Information Exchange Figure 11-8: SV-1 System Interface Description Figure 11-9: SV-1 Intrasystem Perspective Figure 11-10: OV-4 Command Relationship Chart Figure 11-11: OV-5 Operational Activity Model Figure 11-12: OV-5 Operational Activity Mode with Swim Lanes Figure 11-13: OV-5 Operational Activity Model with Two Agencies Figure 11-14: OV-6a Logical Data Model for Operational Rules Figure 11-15: OV-6b Statechart for Operation State Transition Description Figure 11-16: OV-6c Event-Trace Description with Sequence Diagram Figure 11-17: OV-7 Logical Data Model Figure 11-18: SV-3 Systems-Systems Matrix with Class Diagram Figure 11-19: SV-4 Systems Functionality Description Figure 11-20: SV-6 Data Flow on Class Diagram Figure 11-21: SV-7 Systems Performance on Class Diagram Figure 11-22: SV-7 Systems Performance in Reports and Browser Figure 11-23: SV-8 Systems Evolution Description Figure 11-24: SV-11 Physical Schema with Deployment Figure 11-25: SV-11 Physical Schema with Components Additional figures appear in the Appendix.
- 37. About the Author Bruce was raised by wolves in the Oregon wilderness. He taught himself to read at age 3 and calculus before age 12. He dropped out of school when he was 14 and traveled around the US for a few years before entering the University of Oregon as a mathematics major. He eventually received his M.S. in exercise physiology from the University of Oregon and his Ph.D. in neurophysiology from the USD Medical School, where he developed a branch of mathematics called autocorrelative factor analysis for studying information processing in multicellular biological neural systems. Bruce has worked as a software developer in real-time systems well in excess of 20 years and is a well-known speaker and author in the area of real-time embedded systems. He is on the Advisory Board of the Embedded Systems and UML World conferences where he has taught courses in software estimation and scheduling, project management, object-oriented analysis and design, communications protocols, finite state machines, design patterns, and safety-critical systems design. He has developed and taught courses in real-time object-oriented analysis and design for many years. He has authored articles for a number of journals and periodicals in the real-time domain. He is the Chief Evangelist[1] for i-Logix, a leading producer of tools for real-time systems development. Bruce worked with Rational and the other UML partners on the specification of the UML. He is one of the co-chairs of the Object Management Group's Real-Time Analysis and Design Working Group, which is currently examining the UML for possible future real-time extensions. He also consults, trains, and mentors a number of companies building large-scale real-time safety-critical systems. He is the author of several other books on software, including Doing Hard Time: Developing Real-Time Systems with UML, Objects, Frameworks, and Patterns (Addison-Wesley, 1999) and Real-Time Design Patterns: Robust Scalable Architecture for Real-Time Systems (Addison-Wesley, 2002), as well as a short textbook on table tennis.
- 38. [1] Being a Chief Evangelist is much like being a Chief Scientist, except for the burning bushes and stone tablets. Bruce enjoys classical music and has played classical guitar professionally. He has competed in several sports, including table tennis, bicycle racing, running, and full- contact Tae Kwon Do, although he currently only fights inanimate objects that don't hit back. He and his two sons contemplate epistemology in the Frozen North. He can be reached at bpd@ilogix.com.
- 40. Foreword to the Third Edition Bruce Douglass' book has only improved with time. The main change, of course, is that it now caters to the new version of the the language, UML 2.0. As with the first edition, this edition too is one of the clearest and most valuable texts for engineers who want to model and specify systems using the UML, especially reactive and real- time ones. Hence, I applaud Bruce for updating the text and presenting to the public another valuable product of his prolific pen (keyboard?...). Still, I should say a few words about the UML itself, especially relating to the following two passages from the earlier foreword�one a prediction and one an opinion: The recent wave of popularity that the UML is enjoying will bring with it not only the official UML books written by Rational Corporation authors, but a true flood of books, papers, reports, seminars, and tools, describing, utilizing, and elaborating upon the UML, or purporting to do so. Readers will have to be extra careful in finding the really worthy trees in this messy forest. I have no doubt that Bruce's book will remain one of those.... Despite all of this, one must remember that right now UML is a little too massive. We understand well only parts of it; the definition of other parts has yet to be carried out in sufficient depth to make crystal clear their relationships with the constructive core of UML (the class diagrams and the statecharts).... As to the first of these quotes, it wasn't too hard to predict the flood, which has materialized above all expectations. Here is one small statistic: A search at amazon.com for books with "UML" in the title results in 213 items, and the same search limited to 1998 and on yields 198 items. That is, there were 15 UML books when the first edition of this book was published, and there are some 200 more now! Nevertheless, I maintain that Bruce's book indeed remains one of the few really worthy ones. As to the second remark, about the UML being a little too massive, things have not really improved much. With version 2.0 almost ready to be launched, a fact that is doubtless a milestone in the development of the UML, we may ask ourselves whether it has become leaner and meaner, or larger and messier. Many people hoped that a new version of of something that was so multifaceted and complex, but which had been adopted as a standard to be used worldwide, would concentrate on its most important aspects. It would improve and sharpen them and narrow down or discard those things that turned out to be inessential or less well-defined. This could have resulted in a language that was easier to learn, easier to use, easier to implement responsibly, and thus would carry a lot more "punch." While UML 2.0 contains several exciting new features, especially for the realm relevant to this book�real-time and reactive systems�the new version of UML is larger and more complex.
- 41. As mentioned in the 1997 foreword, object-orientation is here to stay and so is the UML, probably in a big way. Let us thus hope that version 3.0 of the language will remove, intergrate, clarify, and solidify more than it adds. In any case, good books about a language are almost as important as the language itself, and in this respect the present book is one of only a handful that can be heartily recommended. David Harel The Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel November 2003
- 43. Foreword to the Previous Editions Embedded computerized systems are here to stay. Reactive and real-time systems likewise. As this book aptly points out, one can see embedded systems everywhere; there are more computers hidden in the guts of things than there are conventional desktops or laptops. Wherever there are computers and computerized systems, there has to be software to drive them�and software doesn't just happen. People have to write it, people have to understand and analyze it, people have to use it, and people have to maintain and update it for future versions. It is this human aspect of programming that calls for modeling complex systems on levels of abstraction that are higher than that of "normal" programming languages. From this also comes the need for methodologies to guide software engineers and programmers in coping with the modeling process itself. There is broad agreement that one of the things to strive for in devising a high-level modeling approach is good diagrammatics. All other things being equal, pictures are usually better understood than text or symbols. But we are not interested just in pictures or diagrams, since constructing complex software is not an exclusively human activity. We are interested in languages of diagrams, and these languages require computerized support for validation and analysis. Just as high-level programming languages require not only editors and version control utilities but also�and predominantly!�compilers and debugging tools, so do modeling languages require not only pretty graphics, document generation utilities, and project management aids, but also means for executing models and for synthesizing code. This means that we need visual formalisms that come complete with a syntax to determine what is allowed and semantics to determine what the allowed things mean. Such formalisms should be as visual as possible (obviously, some things do not lend themselves to natural visualization) with the main emphasis placed on topological relationships between diagrammatic entities, and then, as next-best options, geometry, metrics, and perhaps iconics, too. Over the years, the main approaches to high-level modeling have been structured analysis (SA), and object orientation (OO). The two are about a decade apart in initial conception and evolution. SA started in the late 1970s by DeMarco, Yourdon, and others, and is based on "lifting" classical, procedural programming concepts up to the modeling level. The result calls for modeling system structure by functional decomposition and flow of information, depicted by (hierarchical) data-flow diagrams. As to system behavior, the early- and mid-1980s saw several methodology teams (such as Ward/Mellor, Hatley/Pirbhai, and the STATEMATE team from i-Logix) making detailed recommendations that enriched the basic SA model with means for capturing behavior based on state diagrams or the richer language of statecharts. Carefully defined behavioral modeling is especially crucial for embedded, reactive, and real-time systems. OO modeling started in the late 1980s, and, in a way, its history is very similar. The basic idea for system structure was to "lift" concepts from object-oriented programming up to the modeling level. Thus, the basic structural model for objects
- 44. in Booch's method, in the OMT and ROOM methods, and in many others, deals with classes and instances, relationships and roles, operations and events, and aggregation and inheritance. Visuality is achieved by basing this model on an embellished and enriched form of entity-relationship diagrams. As to system behavior, most OO modeling approaches adopted the statecharts language for this (I cannot claim to be too upset about that decision). A statechart is associated with each class, and its role is to describe the behavior of the instance objects. The subtle and complicated connections between structure and behavior�that is, between object models and statecharts�were treated by OO methodologists in a broad spectrum of degrees of detail�from vastly insufficient to adequate. The test, of course, is whether the languages for structure and behavior and their interlinks are defined sufficiently well to allow the "interpretation" and "compilation" of high- level models�full model execution and code synthesis. This has been achieved only in a couple of cases, namely in the ObjecTime tool (based on the ROOM method of Selic, Gullekson, and Ward), and the Rhapsody® tool (from i-Logix, based on the Executable Object Modeling method of Gery and the undersigned). In a remarkable departure from the similarity in evolution between the SA and OO paradigms for system modeling, the last two or three years have seen OO methodologists working together. They have compared notes, debated the issues, and finally cooperated in formulating a general Unified Modeling Language (UML) in the hope of bringing together the best of the various OO modeling approaches. This sweeping effort, which in its teamwork is reminiscent of the Algol60 and Ada efforts, is taking place under the auspices of Rational Corporation, spearheaded by G. Booch (of the Booch method), J. Rumbaugh (codeveloper of the OMT method), and I. Jacobson (czar of use cases). Version 0.8 of the UML was released in 1996 and was rather open-ended, vague, and not nearly as well defined as some expected. For about a year, the UML team went into overdrive, with a lot of help from methodologists and language designers from outside Rational Corporation (the undersigned contributing his 10 cents worth, too), and version 1.1, whose defining documents were released in early 1997, is much tighter and more solid. The UML has very recently been adopted as a standard by the object management group (OMG), and with more work there is a good chance that it will become not just an officially approved, if somewhat dryly documented, standard, but the main modeling mechanism for the software that is constructed according to the object-oriented doctrine. And this is no small matter, as more software engineers are now claiming that more kinds of software are best developed in an OO fashion. For capturing system structure, the UML indeed adopts an entity-relationship-like diagrammatic language for classes and objects. For early-stage behavioral thinking it recommends use cases and utilizes sequence diagrams (often called message sequence charts or MSCs). For the full constructive specification of behavior it adopts statecharts. In this book, Bruce Douglass does an excellent job of dishing out engineering wisdom to people who have to construct complex software�especially real-time, embedded, reactive software. Moreover, it does this with UML as the main underlying vehicle, a fact which, given the recent standardization of the UML and its fast-spreading usage, makes the book valuable to anyone whose daily worry is the expeditious and smooth development of such systems. Moreover, Bruce's book is clear and very well written, and it gives the reader the confidence boost that stems
- 45. from the fact that the author is not writing from the ivy-clouded heights of an academic institution or the religiously-tainted vantage point of a professional methodologist, but that he has extensive experience in engineering the very kinds of systems the book discusses. The recent wave of popularity that the UML is enjoying will bring with it not only the official UML books written by Rational Corporation authors, but a true flood of books, papers, reports, seminars, and tools, describing, utilizing, and elaborating upon the UML, or purporting to do so. Readers will have to be extra careful in finding the really worthy trees in this messy forest. I have no doubt that Bruce's book will remain one of those. Despite all of this, one must remember that right now UML is a little too massive. We understand well only parts of it; the definition of other parts has yet to be carried out in sufficient depth to make crystal clear their relationships with the constructive core of UML (the class diagrams and the statecharts). For example, use cases and their associated sequence and collaboration diagrams are invaluable to users and requirements engineers trying to work out the system's desired behavior in terms of scenarios. In the use case world we describe a single scenario (or a single cluster of closely related scenarios) for all relevant objects�we might call it interobject behavior. In contrast, a statechart describes all the behavior for a single object�intraobject behavior. I would like to term this stark difference as the grand duality of system behavior. We are far from having a good algorithmic understanding of this duality. We don't know yet how to derive one view from the other, or even how to efficiently test whether descriptions presented in the two are mutually consistent. Other serious challenges remain, for which only the surface has been scratched. Examples include true formal verification of object-oriented software modeled using the high-level means afforded by the UML, automatic eye-pleasing and structure- enhancing layout of UML diagrams, satisfactory ways of dealing with hybrid systems that involve discrete as well as continuous parts, and much more. As a general means for dealing with complex software, OO is also here to stay, and hence, so is the UML. OO is a powerful and wise way to think about systems and to program them, and will for a long time to come be part and parcel of the body of knowledge required by any self-respecting software engineer. This book will greatly help in that. On the other hand, OO doesn't solve all problems, and hence, neither does the UML. There is still much work to be done. In fact, it is probably no great exaggeration to say that there is a lot more that we don't know and can't achieve yet in this business than what we do and can. Still, what we have is tremendously more than we would have hoped for five years ago, and for this we should be thankful and humble. David Harel The Weizmann Institute of Science Rehovot, Israel October 1997
- 46. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 47. invention of it would have been made shortly after by B, and by him possibly would have been brought to light in still greater perfection. If the invention of A, however, is patented, the inventive perfectioning of the object by B must rest until the expiration of A’s Patent. The more an invention is to the purpose for general adaptability, the more reasonable appears the supposition that others would have arrived at the same invention. In spite of the contrary intention, Patents proved themselves an impediment to the progress of human ingenuity, and by each newly- granted Patent an unrelenting “halt” is shouted to the competition in that direction. On closer reflection, even persons who move in circles which, from personal interest, have hitherto used their influence to give the greatest possible stability to Patent-rights, will come to the conviction that the disadvantages outweigh by far the advantages. The Patent system, viewed from a standpoint of political economy, produces a similar influence as the Lottery. The “grand prize” dazzles all; however, only one can have it, and the multitude of those who contributed to the solving of the problem lose very often a not inconsiderable stake in uselessly-incurred costs, and lost time and trouble. Many have been induced by the system to rush after doubtful reward in the shape of a Patent, instead of steadily applying their ability and knowledge to regular industry. Besides, it is not sufficient to make up one’s mind to make an invention capable of being patented; such proceedings lead to a success in the most rare cases. The most important discoveries have proceeded, on the contrary, from those who thoughtfully prosecute their regular avocations. The fear that with abolition of Patents the ingenuity of mankind would slacken, we cannot share, because the germ of progress is embodied in human nature, and because the joy over an invention made, and the satisfaction felt at a new discovery, in themselves are powerful impulses for the employment of energies in such directions. A strong proof of the
- 48. correctness of this assertion the men of science furnish, whom we have to thank for the most important discoveries, in so far as the application of physical and chemical laws to industry are concerned —which have been always handed over immediately to the public with the utmost liberality. Others have based their inventions on such laws, and managed to acquire for this one or that other a Patent, and thus, to their own advantage and to the cost of the public, made an invasion of territory hardly legitimately theirs. They reaped where others had sowed. Let us take, for instance, all the lighting apparatuses during the last twenty-five years. The different lamp contrivances during this period for which Patents have been granted by the industrial States of Europe will number several hundreds. Now, if we sift the matter, we will find that all these patented combinations are simply variations of a principle which Berzelius established and applied to his spirit- lamp. Similar is the experience with the invention of Bunsen, who reduced the costs of the electric battery considerably, by applying a hard sort of coke in place of the platinum in Grove’s Battery. In a still higher degree has Morse acted meritoriously. It is true, Morse, in consideration of the signal importance of his invention, has received a public reward in the shape of money, and this mode of acknowledging real merit in the province of inventions recommends itself for adoption even in individual States. After the abolition of Patents, apart from such acknowledgments as aforesaid, very soon associations of the various interested parties who, by each discovery, would be equally benefited, will be formed for the purpose of rewarding new inventions made in accordance with indicated problems, the solution of which may be felt to be most important to them. For State rewards only such inventions should be taken cognizance of as, according to their nature, cannot be kept secret, and are not of a kind that will ensure to the inventor an adequate reward by his own use of them.
- 49. Principles, which hitherto have not been admissible for Patents, would be likewise excluded from rewards. There could be also no premiums for new modes of manufacture, such as simpler or cheaper manufacture of materials already known, and in the same manner manufacture of new articles directly going into consumption, because, in the first case, the secret use of the invention would present an equivalent, while in the latter cases the start which the inventor has with regard to manufacturing, as well as disposal, before and over his competitors, in most cases is more than sufficient reward for the merit of having given mankind new means of satisfying human enjoyments and necessities. It was consequently a timely Convention between the States of the Zollverein, which already, under date of 21st September, 1842, acknowledged the principle that the granting of a Patent henceforth could establish no right to prohibit either the import or the sale, nor the use of articles agreeing with those patented, as far as articles of consumption are concerned, and that a right of that nature was only applicable to machinery and tools for manufacturers and artisans.[10] Accordingly, the granting of rewards would have to be restricted to inventors of useful machinery and tools, who do not use them solely in their own interest and keep their construction a secret, but, on the contrary, make them accessible to everybody by multiplication. With such regulations as to Patent-right in force in Germany, it will be observed that here, as in other countries, the great disadvantage arises from this, that by the patenting of an invention its utilisation or trial is prohibited to home industry, while the foreigner is quite at liberty to make use of it and to bring the articles in question to market in the country where the Patent exists. In this manner foreign industry is actually enjoying a preference, to the detriment of the industry of that country in which the Patent is granted; consequently even the patentee, through such foreign competition, loses the intended reward partially. The example furnished by the Patent on the manufacture of aniline colours in France illustrates the case. On the whole, it is not to be denied that those advantages which the Patent monopoly should guarantee are often not in harmony either with the value or the importance of the
- 50. patented invention; just as often these advantages do not reach the author of the invention at all, but flow into the pockets of such people as make it a business either to purchase Patent-rights, and so work them for their own account, or in partnership with the patentee, taking care to secure for themselves the lion’s share. It is further proved by experience that insignificant and most simple inventions have often brought extraordinary advantages to the patentee, while the discoverers of important novelties (we instance only Reissel, who introduced the screw as a motor in navigation), in spite of Patent- rights, could not find gratitude nor reward for what they accomplished. We arrive, consequently, at the conclusion, that the partly imaginary advantages of Patents are outweighed by the disadvantages attached, and that, as the industrial condition of Switzerland exemplifies, no further use of such means is any longer required in helping to elevate industry in all its branches to a very high standard, or to keep pace with the development of other countries in that direction. [10] I cannot but think the patenting of machinery a great disadvantage to any community. Yet if importing were allowed in spite of the Patent, the exaction of heavy royalties, and of royalties graduated according to work performed (which is the greatest source of evil), would be impossible, and the disadvantage be neutralised.—R. A. M.
- 51. EXTRACTS FROM M. VERMEIRE. After most of this fasciculus is in type, I am favoured with a copy of M. Vermeire’s “Le Libre Travail,” Brussels, 1864, from which I subjoin three extracts. The first, a noble passage quoted by that gentleman from M. Bastiat’s “Harmonies Economiques:”— “C’est la concurrence qui fait tomber dans le domains commun toutes les conquêtes dont le génie de chaque siècle accroît le trésor des générations qui le suivent. Tant qu’elle n’est pas intervenue, tant que celui qui a utilisé un agent naturel est maître de son secret, son agent naturel est gratuit sans doute, mais il n’est pas encore commun; la conquête est réalisée, mais elle l’est au profit d’un seul homme ou d’une seule classe. Elle n’est pas encore un bienfait pour l’humanité entière. Si les choses devaient rester ainsi avec toute invention, un principe d’inégalité indéfinie s’introduirait dans le monde; mais il n’en est pas ainsi, Dieu, qui a prodigué a toutes ses créatures la chaleur, la lumière, la gravitation, l’air, l’eau, la terre, les merveilles de la vie végétale, l’électricité et tant d’autres bienfaits innombrables, Dieu, qui a mis dans l’individualité l’intérêt personnel qui, comme un aimant, attire toujours tout à lui, Dieu, dis-je, a placé aussi au sein de l’ordre social un autre ressort anquel il a confié le soin de conserver à ses bienfaits leur destination primitive, la gratuité, la communauté. Ce ressort, c’est la concurrence. “Ainsi l’intérêt personnel est cette indomptable force individualiste qui nous fait chercher le progrès qui nous le fait découvrir, qui nous y pousse l’aiguillon dans le flanc, mais qui nous porte aussi a le monopoliser. La concurrence est cette force humanitaire non moins indomptable qui arrache le
- 52. progrès, à mesure qu’il le réalise, des mains de l’individualité, pour en faire l’héritage commun de la grande famille humaine. Ces deux forces qu’on peut critiquer, quand on les considère isolément, constituent dans leur ensemble, par le jeu de leurs combinaisons, l’harmonie sociale. “Et, pour le dire en passant, il n’est pas surprenant que l’individualité, représentée par l’intérêt de l’homme en tant que producteur, s’insurge depuis le commencement du monde contre la concurrence, qu’elle la réprouve, qu’elle cherche à la détruire, appelant à son aide la force, la ruse, le privilége, le sophisme, la restriction, la protection gouvernementale, le monopole.” The second, portion of an interesting letter by M. Paillottet, éditeur- commentateur of Bastiat’s works, (written in May, 1863):— “Cette connaissance, résultat de son travail, est pour toujours à lui; nul ne peut la lui enlever ni ne doit l’empêcher de s’en servir. “Seulement, comme la nature permet à d’autres hommes de se livrer à la même recherche, qu’elle les y excite et souvent même leur en fait une nécessité, le jour doit arriver où la notion que cet homme possédait seul est aussi possédée par d’autres. Ce jour-là, je dis que le premier inventeur n’a plus seul le droit de se servir d’une notion qu’il n’est plus seul à posséder. Prétendez-vous que je le dépouille du résultat de son travail? J’ai à vous répondre: Si je dépouille le premier, vous, vous dépouillez le second, le troisième, le centième inventeur peut-être; si je dépouille le Chinois, vous, vous dépouillez Guttemberg! “Un mot maintenant sur le droit à la réciprocité de services. “Je crois fermement, avec Bastiat, que ‘la véritable et équitable loi des hommes, c’est: Echange librement débattu de service contre service.’
- 53. “Si un inventeur me rend service, je lui dois un service équivalent; Dieu me garde d’en disconvenir. Mas de même que je n’exige pas de l’inventeur ses services et ne l’oblige pas à en recevoir de moi, j’entends qu’il n’exige pas les miens et ne m’impose pas les siens. Entre lui et moi, l’échange doit être précédé d’un libre débat amenant le consentement des deux parties. M. Le Hardy de Beaulieu oublie ou supprime la nécessité du libre débat.” The third, a narrative by my able and ardent Belgian fellow- labourer in this great cause, the Abolition of Patents, M. Vermeire himself, to whose work I refer readers. He will allow me to say I impute it to no deficiency in courtesy on his part that it escaped earlier and due notice. He there gives the Chambers of Commerce of this kingdom credit for opinions which they have not generally embraced up to this hour:— “M. Eugène Flachat attaque la loi des brevets comme une lépre industrielle. M. Arthur Legrand ne critique pas moins vivement cette législation surannée ainsi que M. Michel Chevalier, que l’on peut considérer, à juste titre, comme le chef des économistes français. “Quand l’opinion de ces hommes érudits me fut connue je n’hésitai plus et je publiai l’exposé de ma doctrine du Libre travail dans l’Economiste Belge du 28 Mars, 1863.—Plus tard M. Macfie, president de la Chambre de Commerce de Liverpool, fit connaître ses idées sur la matière et le congrès des économistes allemands réuni à Dresde en Septembre, 1863, émit la résolution suivante qui fut adoptée à une forte majorité: “‘Considérant que les brevets d’invention n’encouragent pas les progrès des inventions et mettent plutôt obstacle à la réalisation de celles-ci. “‘Considérant, que les brevets d’invention entravent plutôt qu’ils ne favorisent la prompte exploitation des inventions
- 54. utiles et qu’ils ne sont pas un mode convenable de récompense. “‘Le congrès a résolu que les brevets d’invention sont nuisibles au développement de la prospérité publique.’ “Cet avis des hommes de la science a été écouté en Allemagne par les hommes de la pratique; car sur les 47 Chambres de Commerce que renferme la Prusse, 31 viennent de se prononcer pour l’abolition des brevets d’invention d’après ce que je viens de lire dans les journaux, au moment même où j’écris ces lignes.— “Le libre travail qui fut suivi, de mon Examen critique de la garantie légale des modèles et dessins de fabrique provoqua une ardente discussion,” &c.
- 55. MOVEMENTS IN GERMANY, BELGIUM, AND HOLLAND. A Belgian projet de loi in favour of copyright of models and designs in manufacture, having been defeated, in consequence, as is alleged, of M. Vermeire’s efforts through the press and otherwise, we are told— “This fact demonstrates once more that in Belgium, as everywhere else, opinions in favour of intellectual property within the domain of industry are declining, and that so far from legislation tending in the direction of giving such property increased proportions, it will soon be proposed to demolish entirely the superannuated legislation which interposes so many and so serious obstacles to the progress of industrial operations. “The tactics of the partisans of such property consist in identifying or assimilating it with material property. This similarity permits the conclusions and deductions to be drawn which form the basis of Patent legislation. “The pretended identity or similarity has been completely overthrown by M. Vermeire in his ‘Le Libre Travail.’ His ‘Examen Critique de la Garantie Légale des Modèles et Dessins de Fabrique’ deals a fresh blow against the confounding of property in a thing and property in an idea.” EXTRACT OF LETTER, BRUSSELS, JUNE 11, 1869.
- 56. There is in Belgium, as in England and all other countries, a feeling antagonistic to Patent-rights. It is even shared in by many eminent political economists. I think, however, I may venture to assert that in this country the Government, far from participating in this feeling, would rather be inclined, in the event of a revision of the Patent-Laws, to secure in a more effectual way the rights of inventors. GERMANY. EXTRACT FROM LETTER OF AN EMINENT HOUSE IN COLOGNE. Although we think it rather difficult to form a general opinion on this matter, we still believe that most Industrials would welcome abolition of Patents for Inventions. The Cologne Chamber of Commerce expressed, in September, 1863, its opinion in the same sense. German legislation regarding Patents will probably be reformed. A proposition made in this direction by Count Bismarck to the Bundesrath, contained in the “Annalen des Norddeutschen Bundes,” by Dr. George Hirth, 1ster Heft Jahrgang, 1869, page 34, 42, II., would interest you much, as it coincides, we believe, with your motion. The latest publications in German literature on the subject are Klostermann “Die Patents Gesetzgebung aller Lander,” Berlin, 1869; Barthel “Die Patent-frage,” Leipzig, 1869. EXTRACT FROM “DIE PATENTS GESETZGEBUNG ALLER LANDER,” BY DR. R. KLOSTERMANN (BERLIN, 1869). A short time since, in the course of the present decade, the public has spoken out, following numerous and important persons who wished the entire abolition of Patents for inventions, because they allege that the existence of such is incompatible with the free-trade movements. They said that such impede industry instead of advancing it; that the claim of the first inventor to a monopoly is
- 57. untenable; that discovery is not the work of one man, but the ripe fruit of industrial development. From the difficulty and complexity of the subject, men would do away with Patent-Laws; but the real cause of the agitation against them lies in the enormous development which our international commerce has undergone in the last ten years through free-trade, steam-boats, and railways. As the complete abolition of the “customs-limits,” with the German Zollverein [customs-union], was not made without a direct transformation of the Patent-Laws and a positive limitation of Patent protection, so is—through the concluding of the treaties of commerce made during the last ten years between the Zollverein and France, Great Britain, Belgium, and Italy—a total reform in the Patent-Law rendered necessary. All countries, with the single exception of Switzerland, recognise by their existing laws the necessity of Patent protection; and this case of Switzerland is particularly brought forward by those opposed to the Patent movement. The Commission which was appointed of Swiss experts (and which said that Patent protection is unnecessary and tends to nothing good) was impartial enough to avow that the particular advantages which Switzerland draws from existing circumstances arise from the fact that in all the adjoining countries the protection of Patents does exist, but in Switzerland alone not so. Swiss industry, which is exceedingly small, is placed in the position of imitating all foreign Patents which find a market in Switzerland, and getting the benefit of the discoveries made under the protection of foreign Patents. Switzerland is just in the position of a man who keeps no cats because he can use his neighbours’. HOLLAND. I have before me a series of valuable illustrative documents printed by the Government of the Netherlands, which are too long to introduce here. The movement for abolishing Patents in that country, already referred to on pages 196-230, was consummated by a
- 58. striking majority, in the First Chamber, of no less than 29 to 1; the abolition to take effect from 1st January next, existing rights, of course, to be respected.
- 59. ON PERPETUITY OF PATENT-RIGHT. The following observations, abridged from a review, by M. Aug. Boudron, of M. le Hardy de Beaulieu’s La Propriété et sa Rente, are from the Journal des Economistes for May:— The author assimilates the inventor’s privileges to proprietorship of a field. Nevertheless there is a fundamental difference between the two kinds of property. Independently of State privileges, the originator of a discovery may use it as his own, and even to the exclusion of all others, provided he keep it secret, so that he shall have no competitor to encounter; whereas the owner of a field, if he is deprived of his right, loses all. The advantages of an invention may be enjoyed simultaneously by many persons; the produce of a field by one only. Now for a difference of importance affecting the interests of the public. Give the possessor of a field his right in perpetuity, and you have circumstances the most favourable for its yielding all the produce which it can. Not so with the privilege of an inventor, for it essentially consists in hindering others from bringing the methods or materials that are patented into use. From the time of invention and first exploitation the privilege is an obstacle; it limits the amount of good that society would in its absence enjoy. What, then, is the motive of certain States in conceding this exclusive privilege?... The legislators who have created the right thought that there would in consequence be a larger number of useful inventions and improvements, and that, on the whole, society would be a greater gainer than if there were no Patents.... As there are innumerable instruments and processes for which Patents have been and might still be taken, there must, if perpetuity of privilege be granted, be a prodigious number of monopolies, and almost no operation could be performed, nothing done, without people being obliged to pay tribute to some privileged person. There would be a countless host of administrators like receivers of tolls and pontages, diminishing wealth in place of creating it; the world would soon
- 60. produce too little to sustain the monopolists and their employés. We thus arrive at an impossibility. But conceive all this possible, and the world must yet miss a great number of inventions and improvements, that would under the system of perpetuity be prevented. This is seen by the obstacles which even privileges of limited duration throw in the way of new inventions. In actual practice progress is often attained only by the use of previous inventions. But what if these are the subject of Patents the holder of which will not come to terms or cannot be treated with? Retardation, if the privilege is temporary; a full stop, if perpetual.
- 61. NOTES ILLUSTRATIVE OF MR. MACFIE’S SPEECH. [Page 17.] The views taken in the text as to the meaning of the word “manufacture” receive confirmation from the following extract from the Engineer of June 4, 1869:— THE AMERICAN PATENT-LAW. ... Accordingly, in the first general Patent-Law passed by Congress, the subject for which Patents were to be granted were described as the invention or discovery of “any useful art, manufacture, engine, machine, or device, or any improvement therein not before known or used.” In the next statute—that of 21st February, 1793—the phraseology was first introduced which has been ever since employed—namely, “any new and useful art, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement in any art, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, not known or used before the application for a Patent.”... We have, then, the following four heads of subjects suitable for Patents—viz., an art, a machine, a manufacture, and a composition of matter.... In England, to make a new process the subject of a Patent, the word “manufacture” would be used, and would have to be interpreted somewhat liberally. Thus, in some cases, there might not be a perfect distinction between the thing itself and the art or process of making the thing.... With regard to the head “manufacture,” we cannot do better than give the definition which Mr. Curtis has added as a note to his work. He says a manufacture “would be any new combination of old materials, constituting a new result or production in the form of a vendible article, not being machinery.”...
- 62. As well as from the following extract from— HINDMARCH ON “VENDING OR SELLING.” “The sole privilege of making the invention as expressed ... is in truth the same in substance as the sole privilege of using and exercising it.... By the first section of the Statute of Monopolies, patents granting ‘the sole buying, selling, making, working, or using of anything’ are declared to be void, and the proviso in favour of inventions contained in the sixth section only extends to ‘grants of privilege of the sole working or making of any manner of new manufactures,’ leaving the sole buying or selling of anything within the prohibition.... The sole privilege granted by a Patent for an invention authorises the inventor ‘to make, use, exercise, and vend’ the invention.... And as no one can use the invention except the patentee, no one besides him can lawfully have such articles for sale.... Every part of the privilege granted by a Patent for an invention, when thus explained (!) is therefore clearly within the meaning of the exception contained in the Statute....” I demur. Is there anything in the Statute to prevent a person importing articles and vending them though the same as the privileged person is alone allowed to make or work? In point of fact that surely might, when the statute was passed, be done from Scotland and Ireland as to manufactures not patented in these countries, but patented in England. [Page 18.] The number of Patents granted in the first fifty years after the Statute of Monopolies was seventy-two, or at the rate of less than one and a-half per annum. [Page 19.] The following list of applications for Patents up to the end of 1862, in several classes, is abridged from Mr. Edwards’ interesting treatise on, or rather against, “Letters Patent for Inventions:”—
- 63. Oct., 1852, to Dec. 31, 1862. Before Oct., 1852. Total. Railways and Railway Carriages 1,418 630 2,018 Telegraphs 558 109 667 Steam and Steam Boilers 1,293 377 1,670 Steam-engines 1,228 704 1,932 Spinning 1,837 1,120 2,957 Electricity, Galvanism, and Electroplating 662 38 700 Sewing and Embroidery 352 40 392 Heating and Evaporating 1,108 373 1,481 Fireplaces, Grates 317 169 481 Flues and Chimneys 278 75 353 Fuel 227 129 356 Ventilating Buildings, Carriages, Ships, &c. 392 81 473 SUGGESTIVE EXTRACTS FROM DR. PERCY’S WORKS ON METALLURGY. [Page 34.] The Copper Trade. It would be sheer waste of time even to notice many of the mis- called improvements in copper—something for which Patents have been granted in this country during the last twenty years. Some of the patentees display such deplorable ignorance of the first principles of chemistry, and such utter want of practical knowledge, as would seem hardly possible with the present facilities of acquiring information. Various Patents have been granted for alleged improvements in the treating of copper ores, of certain products obtained in the
- 64. smelting of copper ores, &c., which are only worthy of notice as affording, as I conceive, satisfactory illustrations of the defective state of our existing Patent-Laws.... That a man who has worked out an original and valuable process from his own brain, and who may have incurred great expenses in bringing it to a practical issue—it may be, after years of protracted toil and anxiety—should have secured to him by law during a moderate term the exclusive privilege of reaping the substantial reward of his own invention, appears to me as just and reasonable as that an author should be protected against piratical and unprincipled publishers. But that the law should confer upon a man the exclusive right of appropriating to his own benefit facts which are perfectly familiar to every tyro in chemistry, and of practising operations which are of daily occurrence in the laboratories of chemists, is as impolitic as it is unjust. And surely, the particular “inventions” above referred to belong to this category. I cordially subscribe to the opinion expressed by Mr. Grove, Q.C.— namely, that the real object of Patent-Law was to reward not trivial inventions, which stop the way to greater improvements, but substantial boons to the public; not changes such as any experimentalist makes a score a day in his laboratory, but substantial, practical discoveries, developed into an available form. The Hot Blast. It cannot strictly be termed a great invention, for what great exercise of the inventive faculty could it possibly have required for its development? There was no elaborate working out of a process or machine, as has been the case in many inventions, but the thing was done at once. Without wishing in the smallest degree to detract from the merit to which Mr. Neilson is justly entitled, I may nevertheless express my opinion that the hot-blast was a lucky hit rather than an invention, properly so-called. Whatever opinion may be entertained as to the expediency of Patents, there can be no doubt that such a Patent as this ought never to have been granted. A Patent, even though it may be proved invalid, confers upon its possessor a locus standi in the eye of the law, and enables him thereby to involve innocent persons in most expensive litigation, to say nothing of the
- 65. attendant annoyance and anxiety. The preliminary examination before the Attorney or Solicitor-General is in many cases an absolute farce, and nothing less. The present system, although confessedly an improvement on the old one, is yet in many cases highly obstructive and injurious to national interests. [Page 50.] The following passage from the Engineer of May 28, proves clearly that the Bessemer Patents do raise prices of iron:— The present royalty on rails is 2l. per ton; on each ton a drawback of 1l. is nominally allowed, but the nature of Mr. Bessemer’s arrangements with regard to scrap, crop ends, waste, &c., is such that the true royalty on every ton of Bessemer rails delivered to a railway company—in other words, sold—amounts to about 1l. 5s. 6d. After the lapse of Mr. Bessemer’s Patents in February, 1870, this sum, all but 2s. 6d. per ton royalty on plant, will be saved; and, therefore, in March next year, rails may be bought for at least 1l. 3s. per ton less than they cost now. WORKING MEN AS INVENTORS. [Page 62.] Somewhat to my surprise, I am led to apprehend that the interest of working men will be represented as coinciding with retention of invention monopoly. I hope they are too wide awake to believe such a fallacy, and too upright to approve of the continuance of a proved national disadvantage, even though it were not a fallacy. If Patents are injurious to the community by raising prices of articles of consumption and utility, then the operative and labouring classes, inasmuch as they constitute the bulk of the population, must be the chief sufferers. If Patents interfere with labour in any direction, and tend to drive trade away from our island, they, as the mainstays of industry, must be the chief sufferers. The only pretence for such an allegation as I am combating is this: some inventions in all trades, many inventions in some trades, are made by artisans, who therefore will lose this form of reward. True enough; but is the reward
- 66. to these few individuals a compensation for the evils inflicted on the many—the millions? and is not the reward often so like the gift of a white elephant, or the catching of a Tartar—so much of a delusion, a difficulty, a disadvantage, a snare, a ruin—that their wisest counsellors would warn against its fascination, especially if through their own favour for my propositions there is the choice of fair and satisfactory alternative recompenses? The position of working men in respect to Patents is frequently dealt with in this compilation; their attention and co-operation I respectfully invite. THE INVENTORS’ INSTITUTE. An Inventors’ Institute has been formed for the purpose of maintaining the Patent System, and amending it in such a way as, I fear and am sure, will only make its yoke more galling and its burden heavier. The public will do well to remember that, in spite of the name, this is rather a society of patentees, including in its membership a portion only of those inventors who take Patents, and not including the innumerable inventors who do not take Patents, and who suffer by the system which the Institute is intended to perpetuate, extend, and knit more tightly on us all and in the first place on them. The honoured names who direct that society will do well to consider who are inventors and what are inventions. If they would but reflect that we are almost to a man inventors in the sense in which the great mass of patentees are such, and that the majority of inventions which choke the Patent-office are such as themselves, at any rate, would disdain to claim and scorn to annoy their fellows by patenting, they would probably arrive at the conviction—which is half-way on the road to complete emancipation of trade from the fetters they hug—that the system is so practically bad that rectification is hopeless, and would join in endeavours, not to amend what is, even theoretically, defective and bad, but to devise and introduce a thoroughly good substitute. I hope the present publication will not be in vain, when it endeavours to remove well- meaning prepossessions by force of truth.
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