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Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar

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Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar

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Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar
| SECOND EDITION RESEARCH methodology A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS 7 } i yf * 4 oe| ook Pe | % “se ranjit kumar
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SECOND EDITION. RESEARCH Ralouaalexero)leyony A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS MUR Uaaete OSS05 Publications
© 2005 First published 2005 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard IVERSITY QO _ 55 City Road U N London EBGLY 1SP RRIGHTON SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road 13 OCT 2006 Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd | N FO R NAATl O N B-42, Panchsheel Enclave Post Box 4109 SERVIC ES New Delhi 110 017 = British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 141291194X (pbk) 23°45 09°08 07 0605 Library of Congress Control Number available Cover and internal design by Mazart Designs Typeset by Midland Typesetters, Maryborough Victoria, Australia Printed in Malaysia (CTP-PJB)
CONTENTS Figures xii Tables XV Preface xvii 1 Research: a way of thinking 1 Research: a way of examining your practice 2 Applications of research 4 Definitions of research 6 Characteristics of research q Types of research 8 Application 9 Objectives 10 Inquiry mode 12 Paradigms of research i3 Summary 14 2 The research process: a quick glance 15 The research process: an eight-step model 16 Steps in planning a research study 20 Step I: formulating a research problem 20 Step II: conceptualising a research design 20 Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection 22 Step IV: selecting a sample 23 Step V: writing a research proposal 23 Steps in conducting a study 24 Step VI: collecting data 24 Step VII: processing data 24 Step VIII: writing a research report 25 Summary 28)
vi Contents Step I Formulating a research problem 3 Reviewing the literature Place of literature review in research Bring clarity and focus to your research problem Improve your methodology Broaden your knowledge base in your research area Contextualise your findings Procedure for reviewing the literature Search for existing literature Review the literature selected Develop a theoretical framework Develop a conceptual framework Writing up the literature reviewed Summary 4 Formulating a research problem The research problem The importance of formulating a research problem Sources of research problems Considerations in selecting a research problem Steps in the formulation of a research problem The formulation of objectives Establishing operational definitions Summary 5 Identifying variables The definition of a variable The difference between a concept and a variable Concepts, indicators and variables Types of variable From the viewpoint of causation From the viewpoint of the study design From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement Types of measurement scale The nominal or classificatory scale The ordinal or ranking scale The interval scale The ratio scale Summary 6 Constructing hypotheses The definition of a hypothesis The functions of a hypothesis The characteristics of a hypothesis Types of hypothesis Errors in testing a hypothesis Summary
Step II Conceptualising a research design 7 The research design The definition of a research design The functions of a research design Summary 8 Selecting a study design Study designs based on the number of contacts The cross-sectional study design The before-and-after study design The longitudinal study design Study designs based on the reference period The retrospective study design The prospective study design The retrospective—prospective study design Study designs based on the nature of the investigation The experimental study designs Others—some commonly used study designs Action research Feminist research The cross-over comparative experimental design The replicated cross-sectional design Trend studies Cohort studies Panel studies Blind studies Double-blind studies Case studies Summary Step III Constructing an instrument for data collection 9 Selecting a method of data collection Methods of data collection Collecting data using primary sources Observation Types of observation Problems with using observation as a method of data collection Situations in which observation can be made The recording of observation The interview Unstructured interviews Structured interview The questionnaire Choosing between an interview schedule and a questionnaire Contentse vii 81 83 84 84 01 92 93 O3 5) 97 98 99 99 99 100 101 108 108 110 110 110 Li) Li2 PZ PS 113 13 113 115 117 118 ny 119 120 120 all 121 P58) 123 126 126 126
viii Contents Different ways of administering a questionnaire The contents of the covering letter Advantages of a questionnaire Disadvantages of a questionnaire Advantages of the interview Disadvantages of the interview Forms of question Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions Advantages and disadvantages of closed-ended questions Considerations in formulating questions The construction of a research instrument Asking personal and sensitive questions The order of questions Prerequisites for data collection Collecting data using secondary sources Problems with using data from secondary sources Summary 10 Collecting data using attitudinal scales Functions of attitudinal scales Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale Types of attitudinal scale The summated rating or Likert scale The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale The cumulative or Guttman scale The relationship between attitudinal and measurement scales Summary 11 Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument The concept of validity Types of validity Face and content validity Concurrent and predictive validity Construct validity The concept of reliability Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument External consistency procedures Internal consistency procedures Summary 129 129 130 130 Rey 131 132 134 153 135 i I 138 140 140 141 141 142 143 144 145 145 145 150 151 151 151 152 E53 154 154 155 155 156 Lan Lg Lae 158 159
Contents ix Step IV Selecting a sample 161 12 Sampling 163 The concept of sampling 164 The concept of sampling in qualitative research 165 Sampling terminology 165 Principles of sampling 166 Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample 168 Aims in selecting a sample 169 Types of sampling 169 Random/probability sampling designs 169 Non-random/non-probability sampling designs Lil ‘Mixed’ sampling designs 180 The calculation of sample size 181 Summary 184 Step V Writing a research proposal 185 13 Writing a research proposal 187 The research proposal 188 Contents of a research proposal 188 Preamble/introduction 190 The problem 192 Objectives of the study 193 Hypotheses to be tested 194 Study design 195 The setting 197 Measurement procedures 198 Ethical issues 198 Sampling 198 Analysis of data 199 Structure of the report 201 Problems and limitations 202 Appendix 203 Work schedule 2035 Summary 205 Step VI Collecting data 207 «£ 14 Considering ethical issues in data collection 209 agEthics 210 ~ © Stakeholders in research 211 Ethical issues concerning research participants 212 Collecting information 212 Seeking consent 212 Providing incentives 23 Seeking sensitive information oad) The possibility of causing harm to participants 214 Maintaining confidentiality 214
x Contents Ethical issues relating to the researcher Avoiding bias Provision or deprivation of a treatment Using inappropriate research methodology Incorrect reporting Inappropriate use of information Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation The misuse of information Summary Step VII Processing data 15 Processing data Editing data collected through structured inquiries (quantitative studies) Editing data collected through unstructured interviewing Coding data: introduction Coding quantitative/categorical (qualitative and quantitative) data Developing a code book Pre-testing a code book Coding the data Verifying the coded data Coding descriptive/quantitative data Developing a frame of analysis for quantitative studies Frequency distributions Cross-tabulations Constructing the main concepts Statistical procedures Developing a frame of analysis for qualitative studies Analysing data The role of computers in research The role of statistics in research Summary 16 Displaying data Tables Structure Types of tables Types of percentages Graphs The histogram The bar chart The stacked bar chart The 100 per cent bar chart The frequency polygon The cumulative frequency polygon The stem-and-leaf display 214 214 214 Papis 215 ZBL 216 216 216 216 217 219 220 222 Pipa 224 224 235 235 240 240 241 242 242 243 243 244 244 245 245 246 247 248 248 290 sie WI 252 293 259 Pays) 253 256 258 299
Contents xi The pie chart 259 The line diagram or trend curve 260 The area chart 260 The scattergram 261 Summary 262 Step VIII Writing a research report 263 17 Writing a research report 265 Research writing in general 266 Referencing 266 Writing a bibliography 267 Developing an outline 267 Writing about a variable 269 Summary 2a 18 Research methodology and practice evaluation 273 What is evaluation? 274 Why evaluation? 275 Intervention-development-evaluation process DAG) Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 278 Types of evaluation from a focus perspective 280 Evaluation for planning a program/intervention 281 Process/monitoring evaluation 283 Impact/outcome evaluation 287 Cost-benefit/cost-effectiveness evaluation 291 Types of evaluation from a philosophical perspective 292 Goal-centered/objective-oriented evaluation 293 Consumer-oriented/client-centred evaluation 293 Improvement-oriented evaluation 293 Holistic/illuminative evaluation 293 Understanding an evaluation: the process 294 Involving stakeholders in evaluation 302 Ethics in evaluation 303 Summary 304 Appendix Developing a research project— a set of exercises for beginners 305 References 323 Index 327
FIGURES Applications of research Types of research The research journey The research process The chapters in this book in relation to the operational steps Developing a theoretical framework—the relationship between mortality and fertility Sample of outline of a literature review Dissecting the subject area of domestic violence into subareas Steps in formulating a research problem—alcoholism Formulating a research problem—the relationship between fertility and mortality Narrowing a research problem—health Characteristics of objectives Types of variable Types of variable in a causal relationship Independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a causal relationship Sets of variables in counselling and marriage problems Independent, dependent, extraneous and intervening variables Active and attribute variables The process of testing a hypothesis 47
LOA 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Two-by-two factorial experiment to study the relationship between MCH, NS and infant mortality 77 Types of hypothesis Type I and Type II errors in testing a hypothesis Factors affecting the relationship between a 78 79 counselling service and the extent of marital problems 85 The relationship between teaching models and comprehension The proportion attributable to the three components may vary markedly Building into the design Types of study design Before-and-after study design The regression effect The longitudinal study design Experimental and non-experimental studies Randomisation in experiments The after-only design Measurement of change through a before-and-after design The control experimental design Double-control designs Comparative experimental design The placebo design Action research design The cross-over experimental design The replicated cross-sectional design Methods of data collection A three-directional rating scale Types of interview Example 1: Where to go? A study of occupational mobility among immigrants Example 2: Occupational redeployment—a study of occupational redeployment among state government employees Examples of closed-ended questions Examples of open-ended questions An example of a categorical scale An example of seven-point numerical scale An example of a scale with statements reflecting varying degrees of an attitude The procedure for constructing a Likert scale Scoring positive and negative statements Calculating an attitudinal score 87 88 89 94 oD OF 98 101 101 102 103 104 105 107 108 109 Lil Miah Ps 122 123 127 128 6S) 134 146 146 147 LA 149 149 Figures xiii
xiv Figures 10e7 | E22 123 12.4 L225 12.6 2 12.8 12.9 Hist 15:2 [5.2 15.4 15:5 13.6 over 15.8 1651 16.2a 16.2b lOeZe 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 tGe7 16.8 16.9 16.10 Tosti T6rt2 13s) 13.2 ESro 18.4 cia) 18.6 LS.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 An example of converting concepts into questions The procedure for constructing the Thurstone scale 150 The concept of sampling Types of sampling The procedure for using a table of random numbers The procedure for selecting a simple random sample The procedure for selecting a stratified sample The concept of cluster sampling Snowball sampling The procedure for selecting a systematic sample Systematic sampling Steps in data processing Example of questions from a survey Some selected responses to the open-ended question (no. 11) in Figure 15.2 Some questions from a survey—respondent 3 Some questions from a survey—respondent 59 Some questions from a survey—respondent 81 An example of coded data on a code sheet Manual analysis using graph paper The structure of a table ‘Two-dimensional histogram ‘Three-dimensional histogram Two-dimensional histogram with two variables Bar charts The stacked bar chart The 100 per cent barichart The frequency polygon The cumulative frequency polygon ‘The stem-and-leaf display Two- and three-dimensional pie charts The line diagram or trend curve The area chart The scattergram The concept of evaluation Intervention-development-evaluation model 164 170 172 125 176 Li 179 180 181 Zak 225 Me 236 254 238 239 244 249 254 254 255 256 250 257 258 258 259 259 260 261 262 275 247 Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 279 Aspects of process evaluation Reflexive control design Interrupted time-series design Replicated cross-sectional design Developing evaluation objectives: examples Converting concepts into variables into questions in evaluation studies 283 290 290 291 295 298 300
i Zo Sek 10.1 tal V2 N78) TABLES Types of research studies from the viewpoint of objectives Differences between qualitative and quantitative research Some commonly used electronic databases in public health, sociology, education and business Aspects of a research problem Operationalisation of concepts and the study populations The difference between concepts and variables Converting concepts into variables Categorical/continuous and quantitative/qualitative variables Characteristics and examples of the four measurement scales Guidelines for constructing a research instrument The relationship between attitudinal and measurement scales The difference between sample statistics and the population mean The difference between a sample and a population average Selecting a sample using a table for random numbers le ye Sit
xvi Tables 12.4 13 Lat lon Or Mors) 16.4 16.5 Lol Selected elements using the table of random numbers Developing a time-frame for your study An example of a code book Respondents by age (frequency table for one population—hypothetical data) Respondents by age (frequency table comparing two populations—hypothetical data) Respondents by attitude towards uranium mining and age (cross-tabulation—hypothetical data) Attitude towards uranium mining by age and gender (hypothetical data) Age and income data Types of evaluation from the perspective of its focus and the questions they are designed to answer 174 204 220 249 250 250 Zon 261 280
PREFACE This book is based upon my experiences as a research student, practitioner and teacher. The difficulties I faced in understanding research as a student, my discoveries about what was applicable and inapplicable in the field as a practitioner, and my development of the ability to communicate difficult concepts in simple language without sacrificing technicality and accuracy as a teacher have become the basis of this book. Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines such as health, education, psychology, social work, nursing, public health, library studies and marketing research. The core philosophical base for this book comes from my conviction that, although these disciplines vary in content, their broad approach to a research inquiry is similar. This book, therefore, is addressed to these academic disciplines. It is true that some disciplines place greater emphasis on quantitative research, and some on qualitative research. My own approach to research is a combination of both. Firstly, the objective decides whether a study should be carried out adopting a qualitative or a quantitative approach. Secondly, in real life most research is a combination of both methods. In a study, some aspects may be qualitative, and others quantitative. This book, therefore, has been written to provide theoretical information in an operational manner about methods, procedures and techniques that are applicable to both approaches, though heavily slanted towards quantitative research. Research as a subject is taught at different levels. The book is designed specifically for students who are newcomers to research, and who may have a psychological barrier with regard to the subject. I have therefore not assumed any previous knowledge on the part of the reader; I have omitted detailed discussion of aspects that may be inappropriate for beginners; I have used many flow charts and examples to communicate concepts; and areas covered in the book follow a ‘simple to complex’ approach in terms of their discussion.
xviii Preface The structure of this book, which is based on the model developed during my teaching career, is designed to be practical. The text of the book is therefore organised around the operational steps in the research process. All the information needed to take a particular step is provided in one place. Each chapter is devoted to a particular aspect of that step (see figure below). For example, ‘Formulating a research problem’ is the first operational step in the research process. For this you need to know how to review literature, formulate a research problem, deal with variables and their measurement, and construct hypotheses. Hence, under this step, there are four chapters. The information they provide will enable you to formulate a problem that is researchable. These chapters are titled: ‘Reviewing the literature’, ‘Formulating a research problem’, ‘Identifying variables’, and ‘Constructing hypotheses’. Similarly, for the operational step III, ‘Constructing an instrument for data collection’ the chapters titled ‘Selecting a method of data collection’, ‘Collecting data using attitudinal scales’, and ‘Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument’ will provide sufficient information for you to develop an instrument for data collection for your study. At each step, a smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures is provided so the most appropriate one can be selected. Chapter 7 The research design Chapter 14 Chapter 8 Chapter 12 Considering ethical Chapter 17 Selecting a study design Sampling issues in data collection Writing a research report 5 Constructin; ‘ ey, eee ae Conceptualising |an aaa Selecting nee Collecting Processing W aro a research for data a sample 2 data data preseare problem design éollection proposal report Step I Step II Step HI Step IV Step V Step VI Step VII Chapter 3 Chapter 9 Chapter 13 Chapter 15 Reviewing the literature Selecting a method of Writing a research Processing Chapter 4 data collection proposal Chapter 16 Formulating a research Chapter 10 Displaying data problem Collecting data using Chapter 5 attitudinal scales Identifying variables Chapter 11 Chapter 6 Establishing the validity Constructing hypotheses and reliability ofa research instrument It is my belief that a sound knowledge of research methodology is essential for undertaking a valid study. Up to the process of data collection to answer your research questions, a knowledge of research methods is crucial. Statistics and computers play a significant role in research but their application is mainly after the data has been collected. To me, Statistics are useful in confirming or contradicting conclusions drawn from analysed data, in providing an indication of the magnitude of the relationship between two or more variables under study, in helping to establish causality, and in ascertaining the level of confidence that can be placed in your findings. A computer’s application is primarily in data analysis, the calculation of statistics, word processing and the graphic presentation of data, where it saves time and makes it easier for you. This book does not include statistics or information about computers.
Preface xix The second edition of the book incorporates some of the suggestions received from reviewers and colleagues. A new chapter has been added: Chapter 18 “Research methodology and practice evaluation’. This chapter explores the links between research methodology and intervention/program evaluation, and provides information about different aspects of evaluation research. Chapter 9 ‘Selecting a method of data collection’ has been expanded to incorporate, in greater depth, commonly used qualitative methods of data collection. There is now more in-depth discussion of research paradigms. There was a suggestion to change the placement of Chapter 13, ‘Writing a research proposal’ and bring it forward as some academic departments expect students to start developing their research proposals quite early; however, I decided against it because of its logical current placement. Additions have also been made in many other chapters to provide a balanced picture. In places the language has been changed to enhance flow and ease in reading. I am grateful to a number of people who have helped me in the writing of this book. I am immensely thankful to Dr Norma Watson, who has put enormous effort into editing this book and in providing valuable comments on its contents. Iwould not have been able to complete the task without her unqualified help. My students have taught me how to teach research. This book is an outcome of the feedback I have received from them over the years. How, and at what stage, a concept should be taught, I have learnt from my students. I thankfully acknowledge their contribution to this book. I also thank Dr Denis Ladbrook, who has reviewed some of the chapters of the first edition and given valuable suggestions, Dr Deenaz Damania, a long-time friend and an expert in qualitative research, for her inspiration and comments, and Valerie Marlborough for her excellent copy editing of this edition. Ranjit Kumar
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Research: a way of examining your practice Applications of research Definitions of research Characteristics of research Types of research Application Objectives Inquiry mode Paradigms of research Summary CHAPTER Clie Research: a way of thinking
2 Research Methodology Research: a way of examining your practice Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, research is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your day-to-day professional work; understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure; and developing and testing new theories for the enhancement of your practice. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the observed information to find answers, with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service. Let us take some disciplines as examples. Suppose you are working in the field of health. You may be a front-line service provider, supervisor or health administrator/planner. You may be in a hospital or working as an out reach community health worker. You may be a nurse, doctor, occupational therapist, physiotherapist, social worker or other paramedic. In any of these positions, some of the following questions may come to your mind: * How many patients do I see every day? * What are some of the most common conditions prevalent among my patients? ¢ What are the causes of these conditions? ¢ Why do some people have a particular condition whereas others do not? * What are the health needs of the community? * Why do some people use the service while others do not? * What do people think about the service? * How satisfied are patients with the service? * How effective is the service? * How can the service be improved? You can add many other questions to this list. At times it may be possible to ignore these questions because of the level at which you work, at other times you may make an effort to find answers on your own initiative, or, sometimes, you may be required to obtain answers for effective administration and planning. Let us take another discipline: business studies. Assume you work in the area of marketing. Again, you can work at different levels: as a salesperson, sales manager or sales promotion executive. The list of questions that may come to your mind can be endless. The types of question and the need to find answers to them will vary with the level at which you work in the organisation. You may just want to find out the monthly fluctuation in the sale of a particular product, or you may be asked to develop anR& D strategic plan to compete for a greater share of the market for the products produced by your company. Besides these, there could be many other questions for which you require answers. For example: * What is the best strategy to promote the sale of a particular product? * How many salespersons do I need? * What is the effect of a particular advertising campaign on the sale of this product?
Chapter! Research: a way of thinking 3 How satisfied are the consumers with this product? How much are consumers prepared to spend on this item? What do consumers like or dislike about this product? What type of packaging do consumers prefer for this product? What training do the salespersons need to promote the sale of this product? What are the attributes of a good salesperson? To take a different example, let us assume that you work as a psychologist, counsellor or social worker. While engaging in the helping process you may ask yourself (or someone else can ask) the following questions: What are my clients’ most common presenting problems? What are their most common underlying problems? What is the socioeconomic background of my clients? Why am I successful in certain cases and not in others? What resources are available in the community to help a client with a particular need? What intervention strategies are appropriate for this problem? How satisfied are my clients with my services? As a supervisor, administrator or manager of an agency, again different questions relating to efficient and effective service may come to your mind. For example: How many people are coming to my agency? What are the socioeconomic-demographic characteristics of my clients? How many cases in a day can a worker effectively handle? Why do some people use the service while others do not? How effective is the service? What are the most common needs of clients who come to this agency? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the service? How satisfied are the clients with the service? How can I improve this service for my clients? As a professional you might be interested in finding answers to theoretical questions, such as: Which is the most effective intervention for a particular problem? What causes X or what are the effects of Y? What is the relationship between two phenomena? How do I measure the self-esteem of my clients? How do J ascertain the validity of my questionnaire? What is the pattern of program adoption in the community? Which is the best way of finding out community attitudes towards an issue? Which is the best way to find out the effectiveness of a particular treatment? How can I select an unbiased sample? What is the best way to find out about the level of marriage satisfaction among my clients? In this age of consumerism you cannot afford to ignore the consumers of a service. Consumers have the right to ask questions about the quality and effectiveness of the service they are receiving and you, as a service
4 Research Methodology provider, have an obligation to answer their questions. Some of the questions that a consumer may ask are: * How effective is the service that I am receiving? - Am I getting value for money? ¢ How well-trained are the service providers? Most professions that are in the human service industry would lend themselves to the questions raised above and you as a service provider should be well prepared to answer them. Research is one of the ways to help you to answer such questions objectively. Applications of research Very little research in the field is pure in nature. That is, very few people do research in research methodology per se. Most research is applied research, which has wide application in many disciplines. Every profession uses research methods in varying amounts in many areas. They use the methods and procedures developed by research methodologists in order to increase understanding in their own profession and to advance the professional knowledge base. It is through the application of research methodology that they strengthen and advance their own profession. Examine your own field. You will find that its professional practice follows procedures and practices tested and developed by others over a long period of time. It is in this testing process that you need research skills, the development of which fall in the category of pure research. As a matter of fact, the validity of your findings entirely depends upon the soundness of the research methodology adopted. Research techniques applied entirely in nature are used primarily for professional consolidation, understanding, development and advancement. As just mentioned, the questions that can be raised about any profession where you directly or indirectly provide a service—health (nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, community health, health promotion, public health), education, town planning, library studies, psychology, business studies, social work—can be considered from four different perspectives: 1 the service provider; 2 the service administrator, manager and/or planner; 3 the service consumer; and 4 the professional. These perspectives are summarised in Figure 1.1. It is impossible to list allthe issues in every discipline but this framework can be applied to most disciplines and situations in the humanities and the social sciences to identify, from the viewpoint of the above perspectives, the possible issues in your own academic field.
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6 Research Methodology Definitions of research There are several ways of obtaining answers to your professional questions. These methods range from the fairly informal, based upon clinical impressions, to the strictly scientific, adhering to the conventional expectations of scientific procedures. Research is one of the ways to find answers to your questions. When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find out answers to a question, you are implying that the process: 1 is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies; 2 uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability; 3 is designed to be unbiased and objective. Your philosophical orientation may stem from one of the several para- digms and approaches in research—positivist, interpretive, phenomenolist, action or participatory, feminist, qualitative, quantitative—and the academic discipline in which you have been trained. The concept of ‘validity’ can be applied to any aspect of the research process. It ensures that in a research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. ‘Reliability’ refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy. ‘Unbiased and objective’ means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest. The author makes a distinction between bias and subjectivity. Subjectivity is an integral part of your way of thinking that is conditioned by your educational background, discipline, philosophy, experience and skills. Bias, on the other hand, is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something. For example, a psychologist may look at a piece of information differently from the way in which an anthropologist or a historian looks at it. Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’. Therefore, when you say you are undertaking a research study to find the answer to a question, this implies that the method(s) you are adopting fulfils these expectations (discussed later in the chapter). However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another. For example, the expectations of the research process are markedly different between the physical and the social sciences. In the physical sciences a research endeavour is expected to be strictly controlled at each step, whereas in the social sciences rigid control cannot be enforced and sometimes is not even demanded. Within the social sciences the level of control required also varies markedly from one discipline to another, as social scientists differ over the need for the research process to meet the above expectations. Despite these differences among disciplines, their broad approach to inquiry is similar. The research model in this book is based upon this broad approach. As beginners in research you should understand that research is not all technical, complex, statistics and computers. It can be a very simple activity designed to provide answers to very simple questions relating to day-to-day activities. On the other hand, research procedures can also be employed to
Chapter! Research: a way of thinking 7 formulate intricate theories or laws that govern our lives. The difference be- tween research and non-research activity is, as mentioned, in the way we find answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research. To identify these requirements let us examine some definitions of research. The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993: 4). Grinnell further adds: ‘research is a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.’ (1993: 4) Lundberg (1942) draws a parallel between the social research process, which is considered scientific, and the process that we use in our daily lives. According to him: Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and inter- pretation of data. Now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage in the course of their daily lives. The main difference between our day-to- day generalisations and the conclusions usually recognised as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter (Lundberg 1942: 5). Burns (1994: 2) defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’. According to Kerlinger (1986: 10), ‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena’. Bulmer (1977: 5) states: ‘Nevertheless sociological research, as research, is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge about the social world’. Characteristics of research From these definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical, and critical. Let us briefly examine these characteristics to understand what they mean. * Controlled—in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular event is seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship. Some relationships are more complex than others. Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and interacting factors. In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa. In the study of causation, the establishment of this linkage is essential; however, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is extremely difficult—and often impossible—to make the link.
Research Methodology The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that minimises the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues relating to human beings living in society, where such controls are impossible. Therefore, in the social sciences, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact. Rigorous—you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical and the social sciences and within the social sciences. Systematic—this implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others. Valid and verifiable—this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others. Empirical—this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or observations. Critical—critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research inquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny. For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics. Types ofresearch Research can be classified from three perspectives (Figure 1.2): 1 Z ) application of the research study; objectives in undertaking the research; inquiry mode employed. These three classifications are not mutually exclusive—that is, a research study classified from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’ and ‘inquiry mode employed’. For example, a research project may be classified as pure or applied research (from the perspective of application), as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory (from the perspective of objectives) and as qualitative or quantitative (from the perspective of the inquiry mode employed).
Chapter] Research: a way of thinking 9 Figure 1.2 Types of research |Types of research | From the viewpoint of Application Pure Descriptive research research Applied Correlational research research Application If you examine a research endeavour from the perspective of its application, there are two broad categories: pure research and applied research. In the social sciences, according to Bailey (1978: 17): —Inquirymode Quantitative research Qualitative research Objectives Exploratory research Explanatory research Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts. Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology. Examples of pure research include developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a particular situation; developing a methodology to assess the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods. Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information gathered can be used in other ways—such as for policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.
10 Research Methodology Objectives If you examine a research study from the perspective of its objectives, broadly a research endeavour can be classified as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory. A study classified as descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information about, say, the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organisation, the administrative structure of an organisation, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the outback, the needs of a community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels living in a house with domestic violence, or the attitudes of employees towards management. The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the issue/problem under study. The main emphasis in a correlational research study is to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and unemployment? What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on educational achievement? These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called correlational studies. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example, why stressful living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed by fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement. The fourth type of research, from the viewpoint of the objectives of a study, is called exploratory research. This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a puot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. A small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the basis of the assessment made during the exploratory study, a full study may eventuate. Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test measurement tools and procedures. Table 1.1 shows types of research study from the viewpoint of objectives. Although, theoretically, a research study can be classified in one of the above perspectives, in practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories; that is, they contain elements of descriptive, correlational and explanatory research. In this book the guidelines suggested for writing a research report encourage you to integrate these aspects. .
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12 Research Methodology Inquiry mode The third perspective in our typology of research concerns the process you adopt to find answers to your research questions. Broadly, there are two approaches to inquiry: 1 the structured approach; 2 the unstructured approach. The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research and unstructured as qualitative research. In the structured approach everything that forms the research process—objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents—is predetermined. The unstructured approach, by contrast, allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process. The structured approach is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon; the unstructured, to explore its nature. Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, you should not ‘lock’ yourself into solely quantitative or qualitative research. The choice of a structured or unstructured approach, and of a quantitative or qualitative mode of inquiry, should depend upon: ¢ Aim of your inquiry—exploration, confirmation or quantification. * Use of the findings—policy formulation or process understanding. The distinction between quantitative and qualitative research, in addition to the structured/unstructured process of inquiry, is also dependent upon some other considerations which are briefly presented in Table 2.1 on page 17. The study is classified as qualitative if the purpose of the study is primarily to describe a situation, phenomenon, problem or event; the information is gathered through the use of variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales (qualitative measurement scales); and if analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation, phenomenon or problem without quantifying it. The description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of the different opinions people have about an issue, and a description of the living conditions of a community are examples of qualitative research. On the other hand, the study is classified as a quantitative study if you want to quantify the variation in a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue; if information is gathered using predominantly quantitative variables; and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the magnitude of the variation. Examples of quantitative aspects of a research study are: How many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude? The use of statistics is not an integral part of a quantitative study. The main function of statistics is to act as a test to confirm or contradict the conclusions that you have drawn on the basis of your understanding of analysed data. Statistics, among other things, help you to quantify the magnitude of an association or relationship, provide an indication of the confidence you can place in your findings and help you to isolate the effect of different variables. .
Chapter! Research: a way of thinking 13 It is strongly recommended that you do not lock yourself into becoming either solely a quantitative or solely a qualitative researcher. It is true that there are disciplines that lend themselves predominantly either to qualitative or to quantitative research. For example, such disciplines as anthropology, history and sociology are more inclined towards qualitative research, whereas psychology, epidemiology, education, economics, public health and marketing are more inclined towards quantitative research. However, this does not mean that an economist or a psychologist never uses the qualitative approach, or that an anthropologist never uses quantitative information. There is increasing recognition by most disciplines in the social sciences that both types of research are important for a good research study. The research problem itself should determine whether the study is carried out using quantitative or qualitative methodologies. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches have their strengths and weaknesses, and advantages and disadvantages. ‘Neither one is markedly superior to the other in all respects’ (Ackroyd & Hughes 1992: 30). The measurement and analysis of the variables about which information is obtained in a research study are dependent upon the purpose of the study. In many studies you need to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, suppose you want to find out the types of service available to victims of domestic violence in a city and the extent of their utilisation. Types of service is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the services. The extent of utilisation of the services is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who use the services and calculating other indicators that reflect the extent of utilisation. Paradigms of research There are two main paradigms that form the basis of research in the social sciences. It is beyond the scope of this book to go into any detail about these. The crucial question that divides the two is whether the methodology of the physical sciences can be applied to the study of social phenomena. The paradigm that is rooted in the physical sciences is called the systematic, scientific or positivist approach. The opposite paradigm has come to be known as the qualitative, ethnographic, ecological or naturalistic approach. The advocates of the two opposing sides have developed their own values, terminology, methods and techniques to understand social phenomena. However, since the mid-1960s there has been a growing recognition that both paradigms have their place. The research purpose should determine the mode of inquiry, hence the paradigm. To indiscriminately apply one approach to all the research problems can be misleading and inappropriate. A positivist paradigm lends itself to both quantitative and qualitative research. You can conduct qualitative research within the positivist paradigm. However, the author makes a distinction between qualitative data on the one hand and qualitative research on the other as the first is confined to the measurement of variables and the second to a use of methodology.
14 Research Methodology The author believes that no matter what paradigm the researcher works within, s/he should adhere to certain values regarding the control of bias, and the maintenance of objectivity in terms of both the research process itself and the conclusions drawn. It is the application of these values to the process of information gathering, analysis and interpretation that enables it to be called a research process. | SUMMARY There are several ways of collecting and understanding information and finding answers to your questions—research is one way. The difference between research and other ways of obtaining answers to your questions is that in a process that is classified as research, you work within a framework of a set of philosophies, use methods that have been tested for validity and reliability, and attempt to be unbiased and objective. Research has many applications. You need to have research skills to be an effective service provider, administrator/manager or planner. As a professional who has a responsibility to enhance professional knowledge, research skills are essential. The typology of research can be looked at from three perspectives: application, objectives and the inquiry process. From the point of view of the application of research, there is applied and pure research. Most of the research undertaken in the social sciences is applied, the findings being designed either for use in understanding a phenomenon/issue or to bring change in a program/situation. Pure research is academic in nature and is undertaken in order to gain knowledge about phenomena that may or may not have application in the near future, and to develop new techniques and procedures that form the body of research methodology. A research study can be carried out with four objectives: to describe a situation, phenom- enon, problem or issue (descriptive research); to establish or explore a relationship between two or more variables (correlational research); to explain why certain things happen the way they do (explanatory research); and to examine the feasibility of conducting a study (exploratory research). From the point of view of the mode of inquiry, there are two types of research: quantitative and qualitative. The main objective of a qualitative study is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude, whereas quantitative research, in addition, helps you to quantify the variation. There are two main paradigms that form the basis of social science research: positivist and naturalist. The crucial question that divides the two is whether the methodology of research in the physical sciences can be applied to research in the social sciences.
The research process: an eight-step model Steps in planning a research study Step I: formulating a research problem Step II: conceptualising a research design Step Il: constructing an instrument for data collection Step Iv: selecting a sample Step V: writing a research proposal Steps in conducting a study Step VI: collecting data Step VII: processing data Step VII: writing a research report Summary CHAPTER LWO The research process: a quick glance
16 Research Methodology But much advantage will occur if men of science become their own epistemologists, and show to the world by critical exposition in non-technical terms the results and methods of their constructive work, that more than mere instinct is involved in it: the community has indeed a right to expect as much as this (Poincaré 1952: xii). The research process: an eight-step model Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines at various levels by people committed to a variety of research paradigms. Though paradigms vary in their contents and substance, their broad approach to inquiry, in the author’s opinion, is similar. Such ideas have also been expressed by Festinger and Katz, who in the foreword of their book Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences say that ‘Although the basic logic of scientific methodology is the same in all fields, its specific techniques and approaches will vary, depending upon the subject matter’ (1966: vi). Therefore, the model developed here is generic in nature and can be applied to a number of disciplines in the social sciences. It is based upon a practical and step-by-step approach to a research inquiry and each step provides a smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures. Suppose you want to go out for a drive. Before you start, you must decide where you want to go and then which route to take. If you know the route, you do not need to consult a street directory but, if you do not, you need to use one. Your problem is compounded if there is more than one route. You need to decide which one to take. The research process is very similar to undertaking a journey. As with your drive, for a research journey there are also two important decisions to make. The first is to decide what you want to find out about or, in other words, what research questions you want to find answers to. Having decided upon your research questions or problems, you then need to think how to go about finding their answers. The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology. Just as there are posts along the way to your travel destination, so there are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find the answers to your research questions (Figure 2.1). The sequence of these steps is not absolute. With experience you can change it. At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives. This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role. The aim of this book is to provide you with knowledge that will enable you to select the most appropriate methods and procedures. The strength of this book lies in anchoring the theoretical knowledge to the posts of the research journey. A smorgasbord choice at each operation step aims to
Chapter 2 The research process: a quick glance 17 provide, at a beginner’s level, knowledge of methods and procedures used both by qualitative and quantitative researchers, though the book is more inclined towards the quantitative way of thinking. Figure 2.1 The research journey—touch each post and select methods and procedures appropriate for your journey Deciding Planning how Actually what doing S88 @ SOE LO |OY ONE Le) Ce RESEARCH JOURNEY Stage I Stage II Stage III Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies differ in the philosophy that underpins their mode of inquiry as well as, to some extent, in methods, models and procedures used. Though the research process is broadly the same in both, quantitative and qualitative research are differentiated in terms of the methods of data collection, the procedures adopted for data processing and analysis, and the style of communication of the findings. If your research problem lends itself to a qualitative mode of inquiry, you are more likely to use the unstructured interview or observation as your method of data collection. When analysing data in qualitative research you go through the process of identifying themes and describing what you have found out during your interviews or observation rather than subjecting your data to statistical procedures. Table 2.1 summarises the differences between qualitative and quantitative research. Table 2.1 Differences between qualitative and quantitative research Quantitative research Qualitative research Difference with respect to: Rationalism: “That human Empiricism: “The only beings achieve knowledge knowledge that human beings because of their capacity to acquire is from sensory reason’ (Bernard 1994: 2) experiences’ (Bernard 1994: 2) Underpinning philosophy Structured/rigid/predetermined| Unstructured/flexible/open methodology methodology Approach to inquiry To quantify extent of variation | To describe variation in a in a phenomenon, situation, phenomenon, situation, issue issue etc. etc. Main purpose of investigation (Continued on next page)
18 Research Methodology Table 2.1—Continued Difference with respect to: | Quantitative research Qualitative research | Measurement of variables Emphasis on some form of Emphasis on description of either measurement or variables classification of variables Sample size Emphasis on greater Fewer cases sample size ai Focus of inquiry Narrows focus in terms of Covers multiple issues but extent of inquiry, but assembles required information assembles required information | from fewer respondents from a greater number of respondents Dominant research value Reliability and objectivity Authenticity but does not (value-free) claim to be value-free Dominant research topic Explains prevalence, incidence, |Explores experiences, meanings, extent, nature of issues, perceptions and feelings opinions and attitude; discovers regularities and formulates theories —— ee ee eee | Analysis of data Subjects variables to frequency| Subjects responses, narratives or distributions, cross-tabulations | observation data to identification or other statistical procedures | of themes and describes these Communication of findings | Organisation more analytical in nature, drawing inferences and conclusions, and testing magnitude and strength of a relationship Organisation more descriptive and narrative in nature Since, at a number of steps of the research process the choice of methods and procedures is influenced by quantitative/qualitative distinction, the methods and procedures discussed in some chapters are differentiated; however, I have tried to keep this distinction to the minimum as the model is applicable to both. Note that this book is for beginners. There is not enough space to cover extensively the applicability and use of each method, model and procedure. I have elaborated on those associated with quantitative research more than on those linked to qualitative research. For a deeper understanding of a method or procedure relating to either, you may wish to consult other books identified in the text. Figure 2.2 shows the proposed model. The tasks identified in arrows are the operational steps you need to follow in order to conduct a study, quantitative or qualitative. Topics identified in rectangles are the required theoretical knowledge needed to carry out these steps. The tasks identified in circles are the intermediary steps that you need to complete to go from one step to another. It is important for a beginner to work through these steps in the proposed sequence, though with experience you do not need to follow the sequence.
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20 Research Methodology This book is written around the theoretical knowledge required to undertake each operational step and follows the same sequential progression as is needed to undertake a research investigation. For each operational step, the required theoretical knowledge is further organised, in different chapters, around the operational step to which, in the author’s opinion, it is most logically related (Figure 2.3). Again, for a beginner, it is important to study this diagram to relate the theoretical knowledge to the operational steps. The following sections of this chapter provide a quick glance at the whole process to acquaint you with the various tasks you need to undertake to carry out your study, thus giving you some idea of what the research journey involves. Steps in planning a research study Step |:formulating a research problem Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell you, your research supervisor and your readers what you intend to research. The more specific and clear you are the better, as everything that follows in the research process—study design, measurement procedures, sampling strategy, frame of analysis and the style of writing of your dissertation or report—is greatly influenced by the way in which you formulate your research problem. Hence, you should give it considerable and careful thought at this stage. The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide what you want to find out about. Chapter 4 deals in detail with various aspects of formulating a research problem. It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem in the light of the financial resources at your disposal, the time available, and your own and your research supervisor’s expertise and knowledge in the field of study. It is equally important to identify any gaps in your knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics required for analysis. Also, ask yourself whether you have sufficient knowledge about computers and software if you plan to use them. Step Il: conceptualising a research design An extremely important feature of research is the use of appropriate methods. Research involves systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous exploration and description of what is not known and establishment of associations and causation that permit the accurate prediction of outcomes under a given set of conditions. It also involves identifying gaps in knowledge, verification of what is already known, and identification of past errors and limitations. The strength of what you find largely rests on how it was found. The main function of a research design is to explain how you will find answers to your research questions. The research design sets out the logic
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22 Research Methodology of your inquiry. A research design should include the following: the study design per se and the logistical arrangements that you propose to undertake, the measurement procedures, the sampling strategy, the frame of analysis and the time-frame. For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in enabling you to arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions. A faulty design results in misleading findings and is therefore tantamount to wasting human and financial resources. In scientific circles, the strength of an empirical investigation is primarily evaluated in the light of the research design adopted. When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is valid, workable and manageable. Chapter 7 provides details about research design. There is an enormous variety of study designs and you need to be acquainted with some of the most common ones. Chapter 8 explains some of these designs. Select or develop the design that is most suited to your study. You must have strong reasons for selecting a particular design; you must be able to justify your selection; and you should be aware of its strengths, weaknesses and limitations. In addition, you will need to explain the logistical details needed to implement the suggested design. Step Ill: constructing an instrument for data collection Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a ‘research tool’ or a ‘research instrument’. For example, observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires and interview guides are all classified as research tools. The construction of a research tool is the first ‘practical’ step in carrying out a study. You will need to decide how you are going to collect data for the proposed study and then construct a research instrument for data collection. Chapter 9 details the various methods of data collection and Chapter 10 deals with methods for collecting data using attitudinal scales. If you are planning to collect data specifically for your study (primary data), you need to either construct a research instrument or select an already constructed one. The process of developing a research instrument is also discussed in Chapter 9. The concepts of validity and reliability in relation to a research instrument are discussed in Chapter 11. If you are using secondary data (information already collected for other purposes), develop a form to extract the required data. In order to determine what information is required, go through the same process as described for primary data above. Field testing, also known as pre-testing, a research tool is an integral part of instrument construction. As a rule, the field test should not be carried out on the sample of your study but on a similar population. If you are planning to use a computer for data analysis, you may wish to provide space for coding the data on the research instrument.
Chapter 2. The research process:aquick glance 23 Step IV: selecting a sample The accuracy of your findings largely depends upon the way you select your sample. The basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise, within the limitation of cost, the gap between the values obtained from your sample and those prevalent in the population. The underlying premise in sampling is that, if a relatively small number of units is selected, it can provide—with a sufficiently high degree of probability— a fairly true reflection of the sampling population that is being studied. Sampling theory is guided by two principles: 1 the avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample; and 2 the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources. There are three categories of sampling design (Chapter 12): 1 random/probability sampling designs; 2 non-random/probability sampling designs; and 3 ‘mixed’ sampling design. There are several sampling strategies within the first two categories. You need to be acquainted with these sampling designs to select the one most appropriate for your study. You need to know the strengths and weaknesses of each and the situations in which they can or cannot be applied in order to select the most appropriate design. The type of sampling strategy you use also determines your ability to generalise from the sample to the total population and the type of statistical tests you can perform on the data. Step V: writing a research proposal Now, step by step, you have done all the preparatory work. Next put everything together in a way that provides adequate information, for your research supervisor and others, about your research study. This overall plan tells a reader about your research problem and how you are planning to investigate, and is called a research proposal. Broadly, a research proposal’s main function is to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to your research questions. In doing so it ensures—and reassures the readers of— the validity of the methodology to obtain answers accurately and objectively. Universities and other institutions may have differing requirements regarding the style and content of a research proposal, but the majority of institutions would require most of what is set out here. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to discipline or from supervisor to supervisor. However, the guidelines set out in Chapter 13 provide a framework which will be acceptable to most. A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and a reviewer the following information about your study: * what you are proposing to do; * how you plan to proceed; * why you selected the proposed strategy. Therefore it should contain the following information about your study (Chapter, 13):
24 Research Methodology * astatement of the olyectives of the study; * a list of hypotheses, if you are testing any; * the study design you are proposing to use; * the setting for your study; * the research instrument(s) you are planning to use; * information on sample size and sampling design; ¢ information on data-processing procedures; * an outline of the proposed chapters for the report; * the study’s problems and limitations; and ¢ the proposed wme-frame. Steps in conducting a study Step VI: collecting data Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, con- structed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a part of the research design, you decided upon the procedure you wanted to adopt to collect your data. At this stage you actually collect the data. For example, depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct nominal/focused group discussions or make observations. Collecting data through any one of the methods may involve some ethical issues, which are discussed in Chapter 14. Step VII: processing data The way you analyse the information you collected largely depends upon two things: 1 type of information—descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal; 2 the way you want to communicate your findings to your readers. There are two broad categories of report: quantitative and qualitative. As mentioned earlier, the distinction is more academic than real as in most studies you need to combine quantitative and qualitative skills. Nevertheless, there are some solely qualitative and some solely quantitative studies. Chapter 15 describes different ways of analysing quantitative data and Chapter 16 details various methods of displaying analysed data. In addition to the qualitative—quantitative distinction, it is equally important for data analysis that you consider whether the data is to be analysed manually or by a computer. If your study is purely descriptive, you can write your dissertation/report on the basis of your field notes, manually analyse the contents of your notes (content analysis), or use a computer program such as NUD*DIST N6, NVIVO or Ethnograph for this purpose. If you want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide upon the type of analysis required (i.e. frequency distribution, cross-tabulations or
hapter 2. The research process: a quick glance 25 other statistical procedures, such as regression analysis, factor analysis and analysis of variance) and how it should be presented. Also identify the variables to be subjected to these statistical procedures. Step VIII: writing a research report Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step of the research process. This report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. If you are clear about the whole process, you will also be clear about the way you want to write your report. Your report should be written in an academic style and be divided into different chapters and/or sections based upon the main themes of your study. Chapter 17 suggests some of the ways of writing a research report. SUMMARY | This chapter has provided an overview of the research process, which has been broken into eight steps, the details of which are covered in the remainder of this book. At each step the model provides a smorgasbord of methods, models, techniques and procedures so you can select the one most appropriate for your study. It is like a buffet party with eight tables, each with different dishes, but the dishes are made out of similar ingredients. You go to all eight tables and select the dish that you like most from each table. The main difference between the model and the example given is that in the model you select what is most appropriate for your study and not what you like the most, as in a buffet. For a beginner it is important to go through all the steps, although perhaps not in the same sequence. With experience you can take a number of short cuts. The eight steps cover the total spectrum of a research endeavour, starting from problem formulation through to writing a research report. The steps are operational in nature, following a logical sequence, and detailing the various methods and procedures in a simple step-by-step manner.
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CHAPTER 3 : Reviewing the literature : CHAPTER 4 ’ Formulating a research problem CHAPTER 5 Identifying variables CHAPTER 6 | ) ) Constructing hypotheses
Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar
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“Quite gave me a scare,” said the Major. “Life here is so uneventful. Very beautiful, but lonely, especially in the winter.” “But you do not stay here in the winter?” “Oh yes; I have lived here ten years now.” “No accounting for taste,” thought Reed; and he glanced sidewise at his companion, but learned nothing. He only saw a quiet-looking country gentleman, whose sun-browned face told of an open-air life. Sturgess followed them to the great natural gateway at the end of the chasm, where he had stood some days before, but not alone; and he now remained watching them as they went on westward along the narrow path, and round by the huge buttress formed by the refuse of the mine, carried and cast down there for hundreds upon hundreds of years. Then as they passed on out of sight, the man raised one of his fingers to his lips, and began gnawing roughly at the side of the nail, till he seemed to make up his mind, and took a step or two forward after them, next stopped short again, for a hail came from behind. “Coming on down to the village, Mr Sturgess?” He turned and faced one of the two men, and nodded, walking away with him in the other direction, taciturn and strange, answering his companion in monosyllables, and with his thoughts evidently far away. Not so very, though, for they were with Clive Reed, and promised him no good. “So you have been examining the old ‘White Virgin’ mine, eh?” said Major Gurdon. “I heard it was sold. A new company, eh?”
“Yes,” said Reed, smiling; “a new company—a solid one.” “Eh? I hope so. But if I had to go in for a mining adventure, I think I should begin here with the material the old miners cast away as rubbish.” He pointed to the great buttress they were skirting. “There it is, already extracted from the mountain, and though poor, rich enough, I should say, to pay a company if worked with modern appliances.” “You understand these things?” said Reed, looking at his elderly companion searchingly, and noting how deeply lined his brow seemed, and that care and sorrow more than age had given him his hollow-cheeked, anxious air. “A man who likes geology, mineralogy, and who always lives among these hills, cannot help picking up a little mining lore,” said the Major, with a smile. “I have searched and toiled, my dear sir—much loss and little gain. I hope yours may prove to be a successful venture.” “Let’s hope so,” said Reed quietly. “All mining is speculative, and in speculative matters there must be losses as well as gains.” “And after all, what does it amount to, my young friend? The chase of a will o’ the wisp who bears a golden lamp not worth the winning, you will say when you grow as old as I. But there, I shall bore you with this twaddle. What do you say to that for a view? Derbyshire in front; broad, honest, hardworking old Yorkshire away to your right; at your feet the Swirl—my river, I call it.” “A lovely prospect, but rather wild,” said Reed, smiling. “Say savage, and you will be nearer the truth; but I can show you something a little less stern;” and, chatting away pleasantly, he led on along first one slope and then another,
till at last they came down upon a narrow track beside a rippling stream, shut in between two perpendicular walls of rock, draped with ivy, and with every cleft and crevice green and bright with trailing birch, moss, and clustering fern. The water of the little river ran swiftly babbling here among the rocks, there swirling round, eddying and forming whirlpools, one of which, across the river where it washed the perpendicular rock, was evidently very deep, for the water gradually subsided there and grew still and glassy, reflecting the ivy-curtained walls as it slowly glided round. “Ah! this is delightful,” cried Reed, as he stopped to gaze at the glancing waters, where the sun made the ripples dazzling to the eye, and then turned to the deep shadows. “Eden may have been lovely, but this would be good enough for a poor commonplace nineteenth-century fellow like myself.” “You like it?” said the Major, smiling. “It’s glorious. Is there much of it like this?” “About a mile. I call it my river here, and the mining men respect my rights generally—that is, unless the trout they catch sight of in some pool is a very fat one indeed.” He said this with a peculiar smile, as he met Reed’s eye. “Not bad fellows, the miners, but I don’t quite take to your guardian of the mine.” “I suppose not,” said Reed. “He is rather a rough customer, but he was recommended to my father for his knowledge of underground work.—You have plenty of trout here, I suppose?”
“Oh yes, and I take toll of them all along this stretch of river. Possession is nine points of the law, but I really have only my right on one side as far as my bit of property extends.” “Ah! you have an estate along here?” “Yes, and I am glad to meet my neighbours, sir. My rough piece of mountain is bounded by the river along here from the corner we just passed, and on another side by the mine land of your Company—the old ‘White Virgin’ estate. A worthless stretch of barren rock and ravine; but I bought it for the sake of this piece of river fifteen years ago. A place to retire to, my dear sir, suitable for a man weary of the world, and one of whom the world had had enough.” His face was overcast as he spoke, and he frowned heavily, while Reed noticed the sad, careworn aspect of the man, who looked as if he had suffered from some terrible trouble —that which had so deeply lined his face. But it brightened up again directly, as Reed hung back to admire the lovely meandering stream. “You do like it?” said the Major. “Like it, my dear sir! If I were not a busy man, bound to go on carving my way, it is just the place where I should like to come and dream away my days.” “Do you care for fishing?” “Oh yes.” “Then, as we are neighbours, if you come much to the mine, I shall at any time be glad to show you a few good places where you can throw a fly.”
“Some day I shall certainly ask you,” said Reed frankly; “not often, I have no time.” “Whenever you like, and you will be welcome, Mr Reed; for —excuse me—I like you.” “So soon,” said Reed, raising his eyebrows. “The liking of one man for another comes at once, sir, I think, and seldom errs,” said the Major gravely. “You will be welcome if you can content yourself with cottage fare and our simplicity. This is my little home.” Reed stopped short astonished, for they had turned a sharp corner of the rugged wall of rock which towered up, and came suddenly upon a sheltered nook, which ran from the river-side right up into the mountains. There was but one level space of about half an acre; the rest was knoll, crag, mound, and rift, a natural garden full of waving birch, shrubs, evergreens, and flowers all growing in wild luxuriance, with myrtle, fuchsia, hydrangea, and geranium, developing into trees more than plants, showing how sheltered the place must be, how warm and suited to their lives. There was no ugly fence, but moss and ivy covered walls of rugged stone, placed here and there as a protection from wandering sheep, while on the level patch, quaintly built of limestone, thatched, porched with rugged wood, its windows embayed, and the whole covered with wistaria, myrtle, and creeping plants, which fought for a hold upon the walls, stood a cottage, out of whose porch Dinah Gurdon, pale of face, anxious-looking, and troubled, came slowly down. “Welcome to the wilderness, Mr Reed,” said the Major, smiling sadly, as he noted the young man’s enthusiastic look of admiration; and then frowning slightly as he saw a
wondering look when the figure in white came toward them from the porch. “My daughter, sir. Dinah, my child, I bring a guest to partake of our poor hospitality this evening. Don’t look so pale and frightened, my dear. Mr Reed is, I am glad to say, a deceiver. There was no cause for alarm, and his aspect is only due to a long journey underground. He is not hurt.” “I—I am very glad,” said Dinah, holding out her hand, which was eagerly taken, and then shrinking as she encountered Clive Reed’s eager look. “The men brought such startling news.” “That we were prepared to turn your bedroom into a cottage hospital, Mr Reed, and send off twelve miles for a doctor,” said the Major, as he saw his child’s large dark eyes sink beneath their visitor’s gaze, and a couple of red spots begin to glow in her pale cheeks. “Now, Dinah, my child, Mr Reed must be shown to his room, and let’s have your colour back. My daughter is a little unwell, Mr Reed. She was crossing the mountain the other day, coming back from Bedale, and as she passed over one of the ragged pieces by your mine, she had an ugly fall.” “Not serious, I hope?” said Reed, with a look of interest, and his searching eyes once more met those of the pale, intense countenance before them, eyes so full of shrinking horror and fear, that though he could not read them, Clive Reed wondered at their expression, as a flow of crimson suffused the cheeks, rising right up to the forehead, and then died out, leaving the girl deadly pale. The Major waited, as if expecting that his child would speak, but as she remained silent, he said gravely—
“No; she assures me that it was not serious, but she came back looking horribly startled. It was quite a shock to the system, from which she has not quite recovered yet. Now, Mr Reed, Martha will show you your room.” Reed took a step forward, to find Martha, the hardest- looking, harshest-faced woman of forty he had ever seen, waiting to lead the way. “A fall,” he said, as he stood alone in the prettily furnished bedroom: “alone in the mountains, and no one by to help. I wish I had been there—with Janet, too, of course.” Dinah Gurdon was at that moment indulging in similar thoughts—naturally omitting Janet—and as she stood nearly opposite a glass, she became aware of her face reflected there, when she turned away with a shiver.
Chapter Eight. Undermining. “Hallo, Jess, you here?” cried Clive, as he suddenly encountered his brother at Dr Praed’s door in Russell Square. Jessop Reed started, and in spite of his man-about-town confidence, he looked for the moment confused, but recovered himself directly. “Might say the same to you,” he retorted. “I thought you were down some hole in the Midlands.” “But I’ve come up again. Just got here from St. Pancras now. I say, though, what is it? Out of sorts—been to see the Doctor?” “Eh? Oh no. I’m all right. But I’m in a hurry. See you at dinner.” “Why, what’s the matter with him?” thought Clive, as his brother hurried away. “Fast life, I suppose. I’ll run in and ask the Doctor before I go up.” He rang; the Doctor’s confidential man opened the door, and stood back for him to enter. “Patient with the Doctor, Morgan?” “No, sir; past his time. Gone on to the hospital. Back soon.” Clive stared. “Miss Praed’s in the drawing-room, sir.”
“Oh, all right. I’ll go up,” said Clive; and he began to ascend two steps at a time. “I hope Jess isn’t ill. Disappointed, I suppose, at finding the old man out.”—“Ah, Janet, darling,” he cried, as he entered the drawing-room, to find his fiancée standing with a bouquet in her hand, looking dreamy and thoughtful. She flushed up as he caught her in his arms and kissed her tenderly, and then frowned slightly, and put on the pouting look of a spoiled child. “Why, what a bonnie bunch of roses!” he cried. “Let’s have one for a button-hole.” “No, no,” she said hastily, and a pained look of perplexity crossed Clive’s countenance as she held the bouquet from him. Then with forced playfulness, “Mustn’t be touched.” “All right,” he cried merrily. “I came round this way so as to see you first, pet. Raced up by the early train this morning.” “Indeed!” said Janet, raising her eyebrows; “been in Derbyshire, have you not?” “My darling!” “Well, one knows so little of your movements now.” “Oh, I say, Janet dear, don’t be hard upon a poor busy fellow. You know why I am away so much. All for your sake, pet,” he whispered earnestly; “to make ourselves thoroughly independent, and you a home of which you may be proud.” There was a slight catching in Janet Praed’s breath, as she said jerkily, and with a show of flippancy, to hide the emotion from which she suffered, for self-accusation was
busy with her just then, and a pang or two shot through her as she contrasted the frank, honest manner of her betrothed, and his words, so full of simple honest affection, with others to which she had in a foolish, half-jealous spirit listened again and again— “Oh yes, I know,” she said, curling up her pretty lip, and speaking hastily to hide her feelings; “but you might have called.” “Now, Janet, love, don’t tease me. How could I, dear?” “Well, then, you might have written. A whole week away and not a line.” “Gently, my own darling, judge, guide, and counsellor in one,” he cried warmly. “I might have written, and ought to have written, but I have been, oh so busy all day, and when I got back to quarters, there was the Major to talk to me, and I could not slight Miss Gurdon.” “The Major—Miss Gurdon? May I ask who these people are?” “Oh, a very jolly old sort of fellow, who lives close to the mine, with an only daughter. He insisted upon my staying there while I was down, and I wasn’t sorry; for—O Janet! let me whisper it in your lovely little shell of an ear,” he continued playfully—“the miner’s cottage I slept at one night was not comfortable; it was grubby, and oh, those fleas! If it had not been for my stout walking-stick—” “What sort of a person is Miss Gurdon?” said Janet, interrupting him quickly. “Oh, very nice and ladylike.”
“Pretty?” “Pretty! Well, you would hardly call it pretty. A sad, pensive face, very sweet and delicate, and with the look of one who had known trouble. There seemed to be some secret about father and daughter.” “Oh!” said Janet softly, and the colour came into her cheeks very warmly. “And you were very comfortable there?” “Yes, very,” said Clive emphatically. “Too comfortable to remember me and write, of course.” “O Janet, my darling!” he said tenderly, as he passed his arm about her waist, “how can you be such a jealous little thing! As if I could think of any one but you. You were with me night and day. It was always what is Janet doing? how does she look? and is she thinking of me? Whether I was scrambling about down in the mine like a mud-lark, or more decent and talking to Miss Gurdon of an evening in their tiny drawing-room.” “About me, of course,” said Janet coldly. “No, dear,” said Clive innocently, “I never mentioned your name. I dared not, pet, for fear they should laugh at me, and think what a great goose I was. For I am, pet. Once I begin talking to any one about you, I can’t leave off.” “Indeed!” she said sarcastically. “Why, Janet, dear,” he said earnestly, and he tried to take her hand, “what have I said or done? Surely you don’t think —Oh, my love, my dear love!” he cried, with his voice growing deep and earnest, “how can you be so ready to take pique over such trifles! Janet, I love you with all my
heart, dear. I have not a thought that is not for my own darling.” “No, no; don’t touch me,” she panted, as he drew her towards him. “I will—I will, darling wifie to be; but you must master these little bits of uncalled-for jealousy, dear. They are not fair to me, and next time I am away I will at any cost write to you, even if the business fails, and—” “Scoundrel! ruffian! how dare you put your arm around my daughter, sir? She is not your wife yet.” The words came so fiercely and suddenly that Clive started away, and Janet hurriedly escaped to the other side of the chair. For the Doctor had bustled in just as Clive was trying to take the kiss withheld from him, and now stood there with a terrific frown upon his heavy grey brow. The next moment he had burst into a hearty roar of laughter. “Nice guilty pair you look,” he cried. “Ah! you may well turn red, you unblushing puss! Eh? No, that won’t do, it’s a bull. And you, sir, how dare—Well, how are you, Clive, my boy? Came round here first, eh? I called at Guildford Street as I went to the hospital, and they hadn’t heard of you.” “Yes, I was obliged to come here first,” said Clive. “Of course. That’s right. Janet has been looking pale since you went. Come and dine to-night, and don’t let me come in here and catch you behaving in that rude way again.” “Papa, for shame!” cried Janet, and she hurried out of the room.
The Doctor laughed. “Well,” he cried eagerly, “what about the mine?—is it good?” “For your ears only, Doctor,” said Clive, “in confidence?” “On my honour, my dear boy,” said Dr Praed gravely. “Then you may invest as much as you like, sir.” “Not a company dodge?” “The mine teems with ore, sir. I have thoroughly examined it, and found out a new, enormously rich lode.” “Then it’s quite safe?” “Safe as the Bank of England, sir, and the dad will be a millionaire.” “Ah! I wish he would be a healthy man, instead of a wealthy,” said the Doctor. “Oh, you don’t think—you have not found him worse?” “I don’t like his looks, Clive, my boy,” said the Doctor; “and I beg that you will try to save him from all emotion. This great accession of wealth will do him no good, and—yes; what?—I didn’t ring.” “Messenger, sir,” said the Doctor’s man, with grave earnestness and a sharp glance at Clive. “From Mr Reed’s, sir—sudden attack, and will you come at once.” Then in a hurried whisper, “Dying!” But it sounded in trumpet-tones in Clive Reed’s ear, as with a sharp cry he sprang to his feet.
“Good heavens!” he said, “and I came on here!” “Hush!” said the Doctor sternly. “Here, Morgan, the carriage?” “At the door, sir.” The Doctor nodded as he drew Clive’s arm through his own. “Do not fear the worst,” he whispered; “I may save him yet.”
Chapter Nine. Two Days Earlier. “Well, what news?” said Wrigley, as Jessop Reed entered his gloomy office. “Bah! what a dandy you are! Why, you spend enough on barbers and buttonholes to keep you from borrowing money.” “And you spend enough on ballet-girls to keep you from making profits by lending,” retorted Jessop. “All right, my Jonathan,” said Wrigley. “All right, my David,” replied Jessop. “Let me see: David was a Jew.” “Whilst I am not,” said Wrigley sharply. “Oh, of course not. No one would suppose Wrigley to be an Israelitish name. There, don’t set up all your feathers, man, and look so indignant because I suggested that you belonged to the chosen race. There are good Jews.” “And precious bad Christians,” said Wrigley sourly. “Awfully! But I say, don’t be so ruffled, man. Lucky I didn’t come for some hard coin this morning.” “It is; and hang me if I ever lend you money again if I’ve to have blood thrown in my face.” “Bah! you shouldn’t be so sensitive about it. I don’t mind about your descent.”
“Enough to make any man sensitive. Gad, sir, any one would think we were lepers, seeing the treatment we receive.” “Yes, it’s too bad,” said Jessop soothingly; “but you do have your recompense, old man. Nice refined revenge your people have had for the insult and contempt they have met with. There, let’s talk business.” “Yes, let’s talk business. Now, then, what about the hole in the earth down which people throw their money?” “Well, it’s a big hole.” “Yes, I know that, but is it a big do after all?” “No. As I told you, the old man wouldn’t have gone in for it if it hadn’t been right.” “Then he really does hold a great deal in it?” “More than half, that I know of.” “You’ve carefully made sure of that.” “Yes, carefully. It’s all right, I tell you.” “Good! And what about the dear brother?” “He’s still down there.” “Surveying the mine?” “Surveying? He has been down it every day for nearly a week, examining every crack and corner—adit, winze, shaft, driving, all the whole lot of it.” “Well?”
“He sends reports to the old man every night.” “And what does he say? Do you know?” “Yes; the old man reads them to me.” “Fudge! Flams to rig the market. Chatter for you to spread on the Stock Exchange and make the shares go up.” “No,” said Jessop quietly, as he sat on a corner of the lawyer’s table, and swung his cane and one leg to and fro. “The dad and I don’t hit it, and we’ve had more quarrels than I can count about money and—other little matters; but he’s always straightforward with me over business, and I’d trust his word sooner than any man’s in London.” “Good son.” “Ah! you needn’t sneer; you’d only be too glad to get his name to a bit of paper.” “True, O king! He is a model that way. But then he is pretty warm, and can afford to lose.” “Yes; but it would be the same if he were hard up. The old man’s dead square.” “Then you believe your brother’s reports are all that are read to you?” “Implicitly.” “No garbling, you think?” “I’m sure there isn’t. No, old fellow, I hate my fortunate brother most bitterly, and I don’t love my father; but I’d sooner take their word than that of any one I know.”
“Humph!” ejaculated the lawyer. “Well, then, the mine is not quite played out!” “Played out! Pish! It has never been worked properly. Only scratched and scraped. There’s plenty of ore to pay by following on the old workings with modern tackle, and a little fortune in re-smelting the old refuse that has been accumulating for fifteen hundred or two thousand years.” “Yes, it is very old,” said Wrigley thoughtfully. “Old! Why, no one knows how old it is. The Romans worked it, and I daresay the Phoenicians had a finger in it before them.” “Go on, old fellow,” said Wrigley, laughing. “Can you prove that pigs of lead were got from it to ballast the ark?” “Well, you needn’t believe it without you like.” “But I do believe a great deal of it. There’ll be quite enough for us, if you mean business.” “If I mean business! Why, of course I do. Do you suppose I am going to sit still and let my brother have all the cream of life? He’ll get all the old man’s money. Plenty without that. I’m not blind. Precious little for me there.” “Then what is going to be done?” “They are going to set to work directly. My brother has laid his reports before the board. I did not tell you that he has discovered a new untouched lode that promises to yield wonderfully.” “Indeed!” said Wrigley—“a new lode?” and he looked searchingly at his companion.
“Yes; an important vein of ore that promises to be of immense value.” “Hah! that sounds well,” said Wrigley. “For the shareholders?” “No; for us. Have you forgotten?” “No,” said Jessop gloomily, “but will it work?” “Work? You, an old hand, and ask that. My dear Jessop, if we cannot work that between us it is strange.” “Yes, but the money necessary. It will be enormous.” “Pretty well, my dear boy,” said Wrigley, with quiet confidence; “but don’t you fidget about that. Millions are to be had for a safe thing, so we need not be scared about thousands. Yes; that new vein will do. Jessop, my lad, you and I must work that vein. The idea of the great lode is glorious and makes our task easy in that direction; but there is a stumbling-block elsewhere—a difficulty in the way.” “I don’t understand you,” said Jessop testily. “Hang it, man! Don’t be so mysterious. Now then, please, what do you mean?” “Let me take my own pace, my dear Jessop, as the inventor of our fortune.” “Anyhow you like, but let me see how we are going.” “Well, then, you shall. Now, then, we want an enemy. Clive Reed’s or your father’s enemy. Has your brother any?” “Yes; here he is, confound him!”
“And you will not do, my dear boy! Besides, it would not be your work. I meant some man who dislikes him so consumedly that he would not stick at trifles for the sake of revenge—and hard cash. What is more,” continued Wrigley, as Jessop shook his head, “it must be some one connected with the mine.” “Bah! How can it be, when the mine is not started?” “Then it must be as soon as possible after the mine has been started. Some workman under him in a position of trust, whom he has injured: struck him, taken his wife or sweetheart, mortally injured in some way.” Jessop burst into a coarse laugh, and Wrigley looked at him inquiringly. “My dear boy,” said the stockbroker, “I thought this was to be a matter of finessing and making a few thousands.” “It is, and of making a good many thousands.” “And you talk as if it were a plot for an Adelphi drama. My dear fellow, my brother Clive is a sort of nineteenth-century saint—not the cad in a play. Clive doesn’t drink, bet, nor gamble in any way. He is a good boy, who is engaged, and goes to church regularly with the lady.” “Oh, yes; that’s as far as you know now.” “I do know,” cried Jessop. “Clive has never run away with any one’s wife, nor bullied men, nor gone to the—your friends for coin. If you can’t hit out a better way than that, we may pitch the thing up.” “At the first difficulty?” said Wrigley, smiling. “No, my boy. We want such a man as I have described—a man whose
opinion about the mine will be worth taking. He must, as I say, hate your brother sufficiently to give that opinion when we want it, so as to say check to your brother and be believed.” “Well, then, there isn’t such a man,” said Jessop sourly. “Indeed! When do you expect your brother back?” “At any time now. To-morrow or next day, to meet the directors at the board and report again upon his inspection.” “Again?” “Yes; he has been down twice before.” “Who is down there?” “Only the man in charge of the mine.” “Who is he?” “Some fellow my father got hold of in connection with other mine speculations.” “Well, wouldn’t he do?” “Pooh! He is, I should say, out of the question.” “At a price?” “At a price!” Jessop started and looked keenly at the solicitor. “Every man they say has his price, my dear Jessop. We want the kind of man I describe. You say there is no such man. I say there are in the market, and I should say this is the very chap.”
“But surely you would not bribe him to—” “Don’t use ugly terms. If I saw my way to make a hundred thousand pounds I should not shrink from giving a man five hundred to help me make it.” “No, nor a thousand,” said Jessop. “My dear boy, I would get him for five hundred if I could, but if I could not, I would go higher than you say; in fact, I would go up to ninety-five thousand sooner than lose five. Do you understand?” “Yes, I understand. Anything to turn an honest penny.” “Exactly! So now then, as soon as possible, we must begin to feel our way, so as to secure our man.” “But if there is not such a man to be had?” “Then we must make one.” “Wrigley, I thought I was sharp,” said Jessop, with a peculiar smile. “But you find there is always a sharper.” “Was that a lapsus linguae, Wrigley?” “If you like to call it so,” said the lawyer coldly. “But to business. Let me know the moment your brother gets back.” “Yes, but why?” “I am going down to see what I think of the mine.”
Chapter Ten. The Grim Visitor. “The game’s up, then, Doctor, eh? There, man, don’t shuffle. This isn’t whist, but the game of life, and nature wins.” The Doctor stood holding his old friend’s hand, and gazing sadly down in the fine manly face, which looked wonderfully calm and peaceful as he lay back on the white pillow. “That’s right; don’t say medical things to me—clap-trap: you never did. We always understand each other, and I shouldn’t like it now I’m dying. For that’s it, Praed; the game’s up. I haven’t read so plainly how many trumps you held in your hand for all these years, old man, without being able to judge your face now.” “Reed, old fellow,” said the Doctor, in a voice full of emotion, “God knows I have done my best. Let me send for—” “Tchah! What for?” said the old man. “You know more than he does. It’s of no use fighting against it. Nature says the works must stop soon. Very well; I shall meet it as I have met other losses in my time. Do you hear, Clive—Jessop?” A murmur came from the other side of the bed, where the two young men were standing, and then all was still again, save the rumble of a vehicle in the street. “It’s disappointing just now, when I had made the coup of my life, and meant to settle down in peace; but it wasn’t to be, and I’m going to meet it like a man. Clive, boy, come here.”
The young man came to the bedside and knelt down. “Ah! I like that,” said the old father. “Good lad!” and he laid his hand gently upon his son’s head. “I’m not a grand old patriarch,” he sighed. “What, Doctor?—not talk? Yes, I must have my say now, while there’s time. Not a good old patriarch, Clive—not a religious man; made too much of a god of money; but I said my wife and sons should never know the poverty from which I had suffered, and I think it was right; but I overdid it, boy. Don’t follow my example; there’s no need. There—my blessing for what it’s worth, boy. Now go: I want Jessop.” Clive rose, and his brother came and stood where he had knelt. “Well,” said the dying man, in a firm voice, “I have little to say to you, Jessop. Shake hands, my boy, and God forgive you, as I do—everything.” Jessop was silent, and after a few moments the old man went on— “I have settled everything, my lad. The Doctor here is one of my executors, and he will see that Clive does his duty by you; though he would without.” Jessop winced, for these words were very pregnant of meaning, and showed only too well the place he would take after his father’s death. “There,” said his father, pressing his hand, “that is all. I know your nature, boy, so I will not ask you to promise things which you cannot perform. Go now.” “Not stay with you, father?” said the young man, speaking for the first time.
“No; go now. I’ve done my duty by you, boy; now go and do yours by your brother. Good-bye, Jessop.” There was dead silence, and the old man spoke again as he grasped his son’s hand, “Good-bye, Jessop, for the last time.” “Good-bye, father,” was the reply; and then, with head bent, the young man walked slowly out. “Hah! that’s over!” sighed the dying man. “He will not break his heart, Doctor; and if I had left him double, it would do him no good. Now then, Praed, I want to see little Janet. Where is she?” “Downstairs in the drawing-room.” “That’s right. Go and fetch her. Tell her not to be frightened. She shan’t see me die, for it won’t be yet.” The Doctor left the bedroom, and the old man was alone with his younger son. “Take hold of my hand, Clive. Sit down, my lad. That’s right. There, don’t look so cut up, my boy. I’m only going to sleep like a man should. It’s simply nature; not the horror fanatics teach us. Now I want to talk business to you for a few minutes, and then business and money will be dead to me for ever.” “You wish me to do something, father?” “Yes, boy. You will find everything in my will—you and the Doctor. He’s a good old friend, and his counsel is worth taking. Marry Janet, and make her a happy wife. She has some weaknesses, but you can mould her, my lad; and it will make her happy, and the Doctor too, for he loves you like a son.”
“Yes, father.” “That’s good. You’re a fine, strong, clever man, Clive, but that was the dear, good, affectionate boy of twenty years ago speaking. Now then, about money matters. You’ll be enormously rich over that mine, so for heaven’s sake be a true, just man with it, and do your duty by all the shareholders. Stick to it through thick and thin. I remember all you told me when I recovered from my fit. I could repeat your report. But I was convinced before, when all the London world thought I was getting up a swindle. There! that’s enough about the mine—save this. You’ll be thinking of sharing with your brother. I forbid it. Keep to your portion as I have left it to you, and do good with it. To give to Jessop is to do evil. I am sorry, but it is the truth. He cannot help it perhaps, but he is not to be trusted, and you are not to league yourself with him in any way. You understand?” “Yes, father!” “I have made him a sufficiently rich man. Let him be content. You are not to trust him. I know Jessop by heart, and I can go from here feeling that I have done my duty by him.” At that moment the Doctor returned with his daughter, and the old speculator’s face lit up with pleasure. “Come here, Pussy,” he said. “I’m not very dreadful yet, my dear.” “Dear Mr Reed—dear Mr Reed!” cried Janet, running sobbing to his side; “don’t, pray, talk like that.” The old man smiled with content as the girl fell upon her knees by the bed, and embraced him tenderly, “Ah! that’s right. That’s like my little darling,” he said, and he stroked
her cheek. “Don’t cry any more, my dear. There! you two go farther away; Janet and I have a few words to say together.” Clive and the Doctor moved to the window and stood with their backs to the bed, the old man watching them intently for a few moments, and then smiling at Janet as he held and fondled her hand. “There!” he said, “you are not to fret and be miserable about it, and when I’m gone it is not to interfere with your marriage.” “Oh, Mr Reed!” she cried passionately. “No, no, no,” he continued quietly; “not a bit. Life is short, my dear; enjoy it, and do your work in it while you can. And mind, there is to be no silly parade of mourning for me. I’m not going to have your pretty face spoiled with black crape, and all that nonsense. Mourn for me in your dear little heart, Janet: not sadly, but with pleasant, happy memories of one who held you when you were a baby, and who has always looked upon you as his little daughter.” Janet’s face went down on the old man’s hands with the tears flowing silently. “Now, just a few more words, my dear,” he almost whispered. “Your father and I have rather spoiled you by indulgence.” “Yes, yes,” she whispered quickly. “I have not deserved so much.” “Never mind; you are going to be a dear good girl now, and make Clive a true, loving wife.” “Yes, I’ll try so hard.”
“It will not take much trying, Janet, for he loves you very dearly.” She raised her head sharply, and there was an angry look in her eyes. “No, no, you are wrong,” said the old man. “Always the same, my pet. I can read you with these little jealous fits and fancies. I tell you, he loves you very dearly, and I’m going to say something else, my pet, my last little bit of scolding, for I’ve always watched you very keenly for my boy’s sake.” “Mr Reed!” she whispered, shrinking from him and glancing towards the window; but he held her hands tightly. “They cannot hear us, little one,” he said, “and I want you to listen. For your own happiness, Janet, my child. It is poor Clive who ought to have been jealous and complained.” Janet hid her burning face. “It was not all your fault, little one, but I saw a great deal. Innocent enough with you; but Jacob has always been trying to win Esau’s heritage, and even his promised wife.” The girl sobbed bitterly now, and laid her burning face close to the old man’s, hiding it in the pillow. “Oh, don’t, don’t,” she whispered. “I never liked him, but he was always flattering me and saying nice things.” “Poison with sugar round them, my dear. But that’s all past. You are to be Clive’s dear honoured wife. No more silly, girlish little bits of flirtation. You are not spoiled, my dear, only petted a little too much. That’s all to be put behind us now, is it not?”
“Yes, dear—yes, dear Mr Reed,” she whispered, with her arms about his neck; and it was as if years had dropped away, and it was the little child the old man had petted and scolded a hundred times, asking forgiveness, as she whispered, “I will be good now, and love him very dearly.” “That’s like my own child,” said the old man. “Now let’s hear the true woman speak.” “And do always what you wish,” she said, looking him full in the eyes. “That’s right—try,” he said, drawing her down to kiss her, and then signing to her to go. “I’m tired,” he said wearily. “Clive, take your little wife downstairs for a bit. Your hand, my boy. God bless you! Now, Doctor, I’ll have an hour’s sleep.” The Doctor signed for the young people to go down; and as he took a chair by the bed’s head, Grantham Reed turned his head away from the light, and went off into the great sleep as calmly as a tired child.
Chapter Eleven. Jessop Plays Trumps. Jessop Reed, when he left his father’s bedroom, had gone straight down to the study, with his brow contracted and his heart full of bitterness, without seeing that he was closely watched, and that a pale, troubled face was raised over the top balustrade, which looked very dull and gloomy in the yellow light which streamed through the soot-darkened skylight panes. “So that’s it,” he said to himself, as he closed the door and threw himself into his father’s great morocco-covered chair. “I’m nobody at all. The new king is to reign, and his name is Clive. I’m not even executor. No voice in anything; only the naughty boy to be punished. If I could only see that will!” His eyes wandered about the dark room with its conventional cases of books that were never read, and he looked at the cabinets and writing-table as if he expected to see some drawer open with the key already in it, so that he could take out the will and read it at his ease. But he shook his head, for he knew that his father was too business-like a man to be careless over so important a document. “At the lawyer’s,” he said to himself; “and there is no need. I know the old man too well; but I wonder what he has said. A few hundred a year for his naughty boy, and the dear, good, industrious youth, who always did as father wished, nearly everything.”
“I know,” he said, half aloud, as he sat back in the chair and took out his cigar-case to open it and select a strong, black roll of the weed, bit off the end savagely, and spat it upon the carpet. “I suppose I may smoke here now without getting into grief. Poor old boy! his game’s over; but, curse him, he might have played fair.” He lit the cigar, and began to smoke and muse with his eyes half closed. “I know,” he thought, and he laughed bitterly. “To my dear old friend, Peter Praed, M.D., my cellar of wine, the Turner picture, and one hundred pounds to buy a mourning ring and as recompense for acting as my executor. To my servants fifty pounds each and six months’ wages. To my son Jessop the interest on bank-stock to produce five hundred pounds per annum, paid in quarterly dividends. To my beloved son, Clive Reed, the whole of my remaining property in bank-stock, shares, and my interest in the ‘White Virgin’ mine in the county of Derby. Hah! yes,” he said aloud, “and it is good, or the old man would not have taken it up as he has. Yes, it is no balloon business puffed into a state of inflation, but a genuine, solid affair. All to him, and he is co-executor with the Doctor. He said he had made him so months ago; I am nowhere. And that’s my father!” He bit off a piece of the end of his cigar and spat it out angrily, but started up as a thought struck him. “No, that’s not all,” he muttered, as his eyes flashed, —“Janet!” “Of course,” he said, with a long-drawn breath, full of satisfaction, “he would not forget her. He worshipped the
girl, and he would leave her quite independent of Clive. A hundred thousand, if he has left her a penny. The artful little jade: she played her cards right with the old man.” He started from the chair, threw the cigar-end into the fireplace, and hurried up to the drawing-room, to find it empty, and rang the bell. “Where is Miss Praed?” he asked, as the servant appeared. “She was fetched up into poor master’s room, sir.” Jessop Reed went back to the study, and shut himself in, his brow contracted more and more, and lighting another cigar, he lay back smoking and thinking intently, but with his face less clouded by anger, as he felt more and more satisfied that he was right about his father’s disposition of his property, and over his own plans and those of his friend Wrigley. “There is such a thing as salvage when there is a fire,” he said, with a laugh which disfigured his handsome features; “and it comes in too after a wreck. Well, we shall see, my dear brother; matters may balance themselves fairly after all.” He started almost out of his chair just then, for a hand was laid upon his shoulder, and there stood pretty, fair-haired Lyddy, with her eyes red and swollen with weeping. “How did you get here?” cried Jessop angrily. “I opened the door, dear, and came in softly; didn’t you hear me?” “Hear you? No; and how many more times am I to tell you not to call me dear?”
“Oh, Jessop, don’t, don’t!” cried the poor girl, bursting into tears. “Poor master! he’s dying fast, they say, and there’ll be no need to hide anything from him now.” “But—but—” “I was on the staircase watching for you, dear, and you were shut up here so long, instead of being with master, that I was afraid you were ill.” “Well, I’m not; so now go, there’s a good girl; and wait a bit till I’ve settled something about you.” “Settled something about me, dear! Why, as soon as poor dear master’s dead you’ll be master then, and can do as you like. You won’t be the first gentleman who has married a servant.” “Oh no, of course not,” he replied, with a bitter sarcasm in his tone. “And you will make me happy then, won’t you, dear? For I am so miserable when I see you courting Miss Janet, I could find it in my heart to go some night to the Serpentine and end it all.” “Will you hold your tongue?” he cried, with a shiver. “Do you think I haven’t enough to worry me as it is? Now, my good girl, is this a time for you to come bothering me?” “I’m not a good girl,” she replied with spirit; “and it’s cruel of you, in your man’s selfishness, to talk of my bothering you. No, no, no, I won’t be angry with you,” she cried, hurriedly changing her tone. “And now, dear, that you can do as you like, you will not think of Miss Janet any more.”
“Wait,” he said sullenly; “and now go. Do you think I want the servants to be tattling about your being shut up here?” “Let them tattle,” cried the girl proudly. “Let them, if they dare. They shall soon find that I’m their mistress. Tattle, indeed!” “You heard what I said. Now, then, go away from here at once. There’s a ten-pound note. Don’t bother about your pay, but get away from here, for your dignity’s sake. Your box can be fetched at any time. Go down home.” “Go down home!” said the girl in a low voice, full of suppressed anger; “home, eh? so as to be out of your way now? No,” she cried, flashing out into a fit of passion; “it’s to get rid of me. I’m in your way now that you are going to be master, and you don’t mean to marry me, as you’ve promised a hundred times. I know: it’s Miss Janet.” “Lyddy, don’t be a fool,” cried Jessop, in a tone full of suppressed passion. “Now, go, there’s a good girl. It’s all for the best. Hush! you will be heard.” “Then every one shall hear me,” she cried, tearing up the note he had placed in her hand and flinging it in his face. “No; I won’t be a fool any longer. You’re as good as master now; you’ve promised to marry me, and I will not be packed off in disgrace. You’re master here, Jessop, and I’m mistress; and come what may, I will not stir.” She flung her arms round him as she spoke, and in his rage he raised his doubled fist to strike her down, but it fell to his side. “Mr Jessop Reed is not master here,” said a stern voice at the door, “and you are not the mistress.”
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  • 1. Research Methodology A Stepbystep Guide For Beginners 2nd Ranjit Kumar download https://ebookbell.com/product/research-methodology-a-stepbystep- guide-for-beginners-2nd-ranjit-kumar-44161536 Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com
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  • 5. | SECOND EDITION RESEARCH methodology A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS 7 } i yf * 4 oe| ook Pe | % “se ranjit kumar
  • 6. Choo eae) Mo SSLou|
  • 7. BN 0698514 9 TIMI i a Nod | Aaleuds eleloloscay » Pee ais& eS : es
  • 8. ... Lo My Daughter Parul
  • 9. SECOND EDITION. RESEARCH Ralouaalexero)leyony A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS MUR Uaaete OSS05 Publications
  • 10. © 2005 First published 2005 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard IVERSITY QO _ 55 City Road U N London EBGLY 1SP RRIGHTON SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road 13 OCT 2006 Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd | N FO R NAATl O N B-42, Panchsheel Enclave Post Box 4109 SERVIC ES New Delhi 110 017 = British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 141291194X (pbk) 23°45 09°08 07 0605 Library of Congress Control Number available Cover and internal design by Mazart Designs Typeset by Midland Typesetters, Maryborough Victoria, Australia Printed in Malaysia (CTP-PJB)
  • 11. CONTENTS Figures xii Tables XV Preface xvii 1 Research: a way of thinking 1 Research: a way of examining your practice 2 Applications of research 4 Definitions of research 6 Characteristics of research q Types of research 8 Application 9 Objectives 10 Inquiry mode 12 Paradigms of research i3 Summary 14 2 The research process: a quick glance 15 The research process: an eight-step model 16 Steps in planning a research study 20 Step I: formulating a research problem 20 Step II: conceptualising a research design 20 Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection 22 Step IV: selecting a sample 23 Step V: writing a research proposal 23 Steps in conducting a study 24 Step VI: collecting data 24 Step VII: processing data 24 Step VIII: writing a research report 25 Summary 28)
  • 12. vi Contents Step I Formulating a research problem 3 Reviewing the literature Place of literature review in research Bring clarity and focus to your research problem Improve your methodology Broaden your knowledge base in your research area Contextualise your findings Procedure for reviewing the literature Search for existing literature Review the literature selected Develop a theoretical framework Develop a conceptual framework Writing up the literature reviewed Summary 4 Formulating a research problem The research problem The importance of formulating a research problem Sources of research problems Considerations in selecting a research problem Steps in the formulation of a research problem The formulation of objectives Establishing operational definitions Summary 5 Identifying variables The definition of a variable The difference between a concept and a variable Concepts, indicators and variables Types of variable From the viewpoint of causation From the viewpoint of the study design From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement Types of measurement scale The nominal or classificatory scale The ordinal or ranking scale The interval scale The ratio scale Summary 6 Constructing hypotheses The definition of a hypothesis The functions of a hypothesis The characteristics of a hypothesis Types of hypothesis Errors in testing a hypothesis Summary
  • 13. Step II Conceptualising a research design 7 The research design The definition of a research design The functions of a research design Summary 8 Selecting a study design Study designs based on the number of contacts The cross-sectional study design The before-and-after study design The longitudinal study design Study designs based on the reference period The retrospective study design The prospective study design The retrospective—prospective study design Study designs based on the nature of the investigation The experimental study designs Others—some commonly used study designs Action research Feminist research The cross-over comparative experimental design The replicated cross-sectional design Trend studies Cohort studies Panel studies Blind studies Double-blind studies Case studies Summary Step III Constructing an instrument for data collection 9 Selecting a method of data collection Methods of data collection Collecting data using primary sources Observation Types of observation Problems with using observation as a method of data collection Situations in which observation can be made The recording of observation The interview Unstructured interviews Structured interview The questionnaire Choosing between an interview schedule and a questionnaire Contentse vii 81 83 84 84 01 92 93 O3 5) 97 98 99 99 99 100 101 108 108 110 110 110 Li) Li2 PZ PS 113 13 113 115 117 118 ny 119 120 120 all 121 P58) 123 126 126 126
  • 14. viii Contents Different ways of administering a questionnaire The contents of the covering letter Advantages of a questionnaire Disadvantages of a questionnaire Advantages of the interview Disadvantages of the interview Forms of question Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions Advantages and disadvantages of closed-ended questions Considerations in formulating questions The construction of a research instrument Asking personal and sensitive questions The order of questions Prerequisites for data collection Collecting data using secondary sources Problems with using data from secondary sources Summary 10 Collecting data using attitudinal scales Functions of attitudinal scales Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale Types of attitudinal scale The summated rating or Likert scale The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale The cumulative or Guttman scale The relationship between attitudinal and measurement scales Summary 11 Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument The concept of validity Types of validity Face and content validity Concurrent and predictive validity Construct validity The concept of reliability Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument External consistency procedures Internal consistency procedures Summary 129 129 130 130 Rey 131 132 134 153 135 i I 138 140 140 141 141 142 143 144 145 145 145 150 151 151 151 152 E53 154 154 155 155 156 Lan Lg Lae 158 159
  • 15. Contents ix Step IV Selecting a sample 161 12 Sampling 163 The concept of sampling 164 The concept of sampling in qualitative research 165 Sampling terminology 165 Principles of sampling 166 Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample 168 Aims in selecting a sample 169 Types of sampling 169 Random/probability sampling designs 169 Non-random/non-probability sampling designs Lil ‘Mixed’ sampling designs 180 The calculation of sample size 181 Summary 184 Step V Writing a research proposal 185 13 Writing a research proposal 187 The research proposal 188 Contents of a research proposal 188 Preamble/introduction 190 The problem 192 Objectives of the study 193 Hypotheses to be tested 194 Study design 195 The setting 197 Measurement procedures 198 Ethical issues 198 Sampling 198 Analysis of data 199 Structure of the report 201 Problems and limitations 202 Appendix 203 Work schedule 2035 Summary 205 Step VI Collecting data 207 «£ 14 Considering ethical issues in data collection 209 agEthics 210 ~ © Stakeholders in research 211 Ethical issues concerning research participants 212 Collecting information 212 Seeking consent 212 Providing incentives 23 Seeking sensitive information oad) The possibility of causing harm to participants 214 Maintaining confidentiality 214
  • 16. x Contents Ethical issues relating to the researcher Avoiding bias Provision or deprivation of a treatment Using inappropriate research methodology Incorrect reporting Inappropriate use of information Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation The misuse of information Summary Step VII Processing data 15 Processing data Editing data collected through structured inquiries (quantitative studies) Editing data collected through unstructured interviewing Coding data: introduction Coding quantitative/categorical (qualitative and quantitative) data Developing a code book Pre-testing a code book Coding the data Verifying the coded data Coding descriptive/quantitative data Developing a frame of analysis for quantitative studies Frequency distributions Cross-tabulations Constructing the main concepts Statistical procedures Developing a frame of analysis for qualitative studies Analysing data The role of computers in research The role of statistics in research Summary 16 Displaying data Tables Structure Types of tables Types of percentages Graphs The histogram The bar chart The stacked bar chart The 100 per cent bar chart The frequency polygon The cumulative frequency polygon The stem-and-leaf display 214 214 214 Papis 215 ZBL 216 216 216 216 217 219 220 222 Pipa 224 224 235 235 240 240 241 242 242 243 243 244 244 245 245 246 247 248 248 290 sie WI 252 293 259 Pays) 253 256 258 299
  • 17. Contents xi The pie chart 259 The line diagram or trend curve 260 The area chart 260 The scattergram 261 Summary 262 Step VIII Writing a research report 263 17 Writing a research report 265 Research writing in general 266 Referencing 266 Writing a bibliography 267 Developing an outline 267 Writing about a variable 269 Summary 2a 18 Research methodology and practice evaluation 273 What is evaluation? 274 Why evaluation? 275 Intervention-development-evaluation process DAG) Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 278 Types of evaluation from a focus perspective 280 Evaluation for planning a program/intervention 281 Process/monitoring evaluation 283 Impact/outcome evaluation 287 Cost-benefit/cost-effectiveness evaluation 291 Types of evaluation from a philosophical perspective 292 Goal-centered/objective-oriented evaluation 293 Consumer-oriented/client-centred evaluation 293 Improvement-oriented evaluation 293 Holistic/illuminative evaluation 293 Understanding an evaluation: the process 294 Involving stakeholders in evaluation 302 Ethics in evaluation 303 Summary 304 Appendix Developing a research project— a set of exercises for beginners 305 References 323 Index 327
  • 18. FIGURES Applications of research Types of research The research journey The research process The chapters in this book in relation to the operational steps Developing a theoretical framework—the relationship between mortality and fertility Sample of outline of a literature review Dissecting the subject area of domestic violence into subareas Steps in formulating a research problem—alcoholism Formulating a research problem—the relationship between fertility and mortality Narrowing a research problem—health Characteristics of objectives Types of variable Types of variable in a causal relationship Independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a causal relationship Sets of variables in counselling and marriage problems Independent, dependent, extraneous and intervening variables Active and attribute variables The process of testing a hypothesis 47
  • 19. LOA 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Two-by-two factorial experiment to study the relationship between MCH, NS and infant mortality 77 Types of hypothesis Type I and Type II errors in testing a hypothesis Factors affecting the relationship between a 78 79 counselling service and the extent of marital problems 85 The relationship between teaching models and comprehension The proportion attributable to the three components may vary markedly Building into the design Types of study design Before-and-after study design The regression effect The longitudinal study design Experimental and non-experimental studies Randomisation in experiments The after-only design Measurement of change through a before-and-after design The control experimental design Double-control designs Comparative experimental design The placebo design Action research design The cross-over experimental design The replicated cross-sectional design Methods of data collection A three-directional rating scale Types of interview Example 1: Where to go? A study of occupational mobility among immigrants Example 2: Occupational redeployment—a study of occupational redeployment among state government employees Examples of closed-ended questions Examples of open-ended questions An example of a categorical scale An example of seven-point numerical scale An example of a scale with statements reflecting varying degrees of an attitude The procedure for constructing a Likert scale Scoring positive and negative statements Calculating an attitudinal score 87 88 89 94 oD OF 98 101 101 102 103 104 105 107 108 109 Lil Miah Ps 122 123 127 128 6S) 134 146 146 147 LA 149 149 Figures xiii
  • 20. xiv Figures 10e7 | E22 123 12.4 L225 12.6 2 12.8 12.9 Hist 15:2 [5.2 15.4 15:5 13.6 over 15.8 1651 16.2a 16.2b lOeZe 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 tGe7 16.8 16.9 16.10 Tosti T6rt2 13s) 13.2 ESro 18.4 cia) 18.6 LS.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 An example of converting concepts into questions The procedure for constructing the Thurstone scale 150 The concept of sampling Types of sampling The procedure for using a table of random numbers The procedure for selecting a simple random sample The procedure for selecting a stratified sample The concept of cluster sampling Snowball sampling The procedure for selecting a systematic sample Systematic sampling Steps in data processing Example of questions from a survey Some selected responses to the open-ended question (no. 11) in Figure 15.2 Some questions from a survey—respondent 3 Some questions from a survey—respondent 59 Some questions from a survey—respondent 81 An example of coded data on a code sheet Manual analysis using graph paper The structure of a table ‘Two-dimensional histogram ‘Three-dimensional histogram Two-dimensional histogram with two variables Bar charts The stacked bar chart The 100 per cent barichart The frequency polygon The cumulative frequency polygon ‘The stem-and-leaf display Two- and three-dimensional pie charts The line diagram or trend curve The area chart The scattergram The concept of evaluation Intervention-development-evaluation model 164 170 172 125 176 Li 179 180 181 Zak 225 Me 236 254 238 239 244 249 254 254 255 256 250 257 258 258 259 259 260 261 262 275 247 Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies 279 Aspects of process evaluation Reflexive control design Interrupted time-series design Replicated cross-sectional design Developing evaluation objectives: examples Converting concepts into variables into questions in evaluation studies 283 290 290 291 295 298 300
  • 21. i Zo Sek 10.1 tal V2 N78) TABLES Types of research studies from the viewpoint of objectives Differences between qualitative and quantitative research Some commonly used electronic databases in public health, sociology, education and business Aspects of a research problem Operationalisation of concepts and the study populations The difference between concepts and variables Converting concepts into variables Categorical/continuous and quantitative/qualitative variables Characteristics and examples of the four measurement scales Guidelines for constructing a research instrument The relationship between attitudinal and measurement scales The difference between sample statistics and the population mean The difference between a sample and a population average Selecting a sample using a table for random numbers le ye Sit
  • 22. xvi Tables 12.4 13 Lat lon Or Mors) 16.4 16.5 Lol Selected elements using the table of random numbers Developing a time-frame for your study An example of a code book Respondents by age (frequency table for one population—hypothetical data) Respondents by age (frequency table comparing two populations—hypothetical data) Respondents by attitude towards uranium mining and age (cross-tabulation—hypothetical data) Attitude towards uranium mining by age and gender (hypothetical data) Age and income data Types of evaluation from the perspective of its focus and the questions they are designed to answer 174 204 220 249 250 250 Zon 261 280
  • 23. PREFACE This book is based upon my experiences as a research student, practitioner and teacher. The difficulties I faced in understanding research as a student, my discoveries about what was applicable and inapplicable in the field as a practitioner, and my development of the ability to communicate difficult concepts in simple language without sacrificing technicality and accuracy as a teacher have become the basis of this book. Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines such as health, education, psychology, social work, nursing, public health, library studies and marketing research. The core philosophical base for this book comes from my conviction that, although these disciplines vary in content, their broad approach to a research inquiry is similar. This book, therefore, is addressed to these academic disciplines. It is true that some disciplines place greater emphasis on quantitative research, and some on qualitative research. My own approach to research is a combination of both. Firstly, the objective decides whether a study should be carried out adopting a qualitative or a quantitative approach. Secondly, in real life most research is a combination of both methods. In a study, some aspects may be qualitative, and others quantitative. This book, therefore, has been written to provide theoretical information in an operational manner about methods, procedures and techniques that are applicable to both approaches, though heavily slanted towards quantitative research. Research as a subject is taught at different levels. The book is designed specifically for students who are newcomers to research, and who may have a psychological barrier with regard to the subject. I have therefore not assumed any previous knowledge on the part of the reader; I have omitted detailed discussion of aspects that may be inappropriate for beginners; I have used many flow charts and examples to communicate concepts; and areas covered in the book follow a ‘simple to complex’ approach in terms of their discussion.
  • 24. xviii Preface The structure of this book, which is based on the model developed during my teaching career, is designed to be practical. The text of the book is therefore organised around the operational steps in the research process. All the information needed to take a particular step is provided in one place. Each chapter is devoted to a particular aspect of that step (see figure below). For example, ‘Formulating a research problem’ is the first operational step in the research process. For this you need to know how to review literature, formulate a research problem, deal with variables and their measurement, and construct hypotheses. Hence, under this step, there are four chapters. The information they provide will enable you to formulate a problem that is researchable. These chapters are titled: ‘Reviewing the literature’, ‘Formulating a research problem’, ‘Identifying variables’, and ‘Constructing hypotheses’. Similarly, for the operational step III, ‘Constructing an instrument for data collection’ the chapters titled ‘Selecting a method of data collection’, ‘Collecting data using attitudinal scales’, and ‘Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument’ will provide sufficient information for you to develop an instrument for data collection for your study. At each step, a smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures is provided so the most appropriate one can be selected. Chapter 7 The research design Chapter 14 Chapter 8 Chapter 12 Considering ethical Chapter 17 Selecting a study design Sampling issues in data collection Writing a research report 5 Constructin; ‘ ey, eee ae Conceptualising |an aaa Selecting nee Collecting Processing W aro a research for data a sample 2 data data preseare problem design éollection proposal report Step I Step II Step HI Step IV Step V Step VI Step VII Chapter 3 Chapter 9 Chapter 13 Chapter 15 Reviewing the literature Selecting a method of Writing a research Processing Chapter 4 data collection proposal Chapter 16 Formulating a research Chapter 10 Displaying data problem Collecting data using Chapter 5 attitudinal scales Identifying variables Chapter 11 Chapter 6 Establishing the validity Constructing hypotheses and reliability ofa research instrument It is my belief that a sound knowledge of research methodology is essential for undertaking a valid study. Up to the process of data collection to answer your research questions, a knowledge of research methods is crucial. Statistics and computers play a significant role in research but their application is mainly after the data has been collected. To me, Statistics are useful in confirming or contradicting conclusions drawn from analysed data, in providing an indication of the magnitude of the relationship between two or more variables under study, in helping to establish causality, and in ascertaining the level of confidence that can be placed in your findings. A computer’s application is primarily in data analysis, the calculation of statistics, word processing and the graphic presentation of data, where it saves time and makes it easier for you. This book does not include statistics or information about computers.
  • 25. Preface xix The second edition of the book incorporates some of the suggestions received from reviewers and colleagues. A new chapter has been added: Chapter 18 “Research methodology and practice evaluation’. This chapter explores the links between research methodology and intervention/program evaluation, and provides information about different aspects of evaluation research. Chapter 9 ‘Selecting a method of data collection’ has been expanded to incorporate, in greater depth, commonly used qualitative methods of data collection. There is now more in-depth discussion of research paradigms. There was a suggestion to change the placement of Chapter 13, ‘Writing a research proposal’ and bring it forward as some academic departments expect students to start developing their research proposals quite early; however, I decided against it because of its logical current placement. Additions have also been made in many other chapters to provide a balanced picture. In places the language has been changed to enhance flow and ease in reading. I am grateful to a number of people who have helped me in the writing of this book. I am immensely thankful to Dr Norma Watson, who has put enormous effort into editing this book and in providing valuable comments on its contents. Iwould not have been able to complete the task without her unqualified help. My students have taught me how to teach research. This book is an outcome of the feedback I have received from them over the years. How, and at what stage, a concept should be taught, I have learnt from my students. I thankfully acknowledge their contribution to this book. I also thank Dr Denis Ladbrook, who has reviewed some of the chapters of the first edition and given valuable suggestions, Dr Deenaz Damania, a long-time friend and an expert in qualitative research, for her inspiration and comments, and Valerie Marlborough for her excellent copy editing of this edition. Ranjit Kumar
  • 26. aw? <r eila iten)s for ® Peat say es oS oypina
  • 27. Research: a way of examining your practice Applications of research Definitions of research Characteristics of research Types of research Application Objectives Inquiry mode Paradigms of research Summary CHAPTER Clie Research: a way of thinking
  • 28. 2 Research Methodology Research: a way of examining your practice Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, research is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your day-to-day professional work; understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure; and developing and testing new theories for the enhancement of your practice. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the observed information to find answers, with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more effective professional service. Let us take some disciplines as examples. Suppose you are working in the field of health. You may be a front-line service provider, supervisor or health administrator/planner. You may be in a hospital or working as an out reach community health worker. You may be a nurse, doctor, occupational therapist, physiotherapist, social worker or other paramedic. In any of these positions, some of the following questions may come to your mind: * How many patients do I see every day? * What are some of the most common conditions prevalent among my patients? ¢ What are the causes of these conditions? ¢ Why do some people have a particular condition whereas others do not? * What are the health needs of the community? * Why do some people use the service while others do not? * What do people think about the service? * How satisfied are patients with the service? * How effective is the service? * How can the service be improved? You can add many other questions to this list. At times it may be possible to ignore these questions because of the level at which you work, at other times you may make an effort to find answers on your own initiative, or, sometimes, you may be required to obtain answers for effective administration and planning. Let us take another discipline: business studies. Assume you work in the area of marketing. Again, you can work at different levels: as a salesperson, sales manager or sales promotion executive. The list of questions that may come to your mind can be endless. The types of question and the need to find answers to them will vary with the level at which you work in the organisation. You may just want to find out the monthly fluctuation in the sale of a particular product, or you may be asked to develop anR& D strategic plan to compete for a greater share of the market for the products produced by your company. Besides these, there could be many other questions for which you require answers. For example: * What is the best strategy to promote the sale of a particular product? * How many salespersons do I need? * What is the effect of a particular advertising campaign on the sale of this product?
  • 29. Chapter! Research: a way of thinking 3 How satisfied are the consumers with this product? How much are consumers prepared to spend on this item? What do consumers like or dislike about this product? What type of packaging do consumers prefer for this product? What training do the salespersons need to promote the sale of this product? What are the attributes of a good salesperson? To take a different example, let us assume that you work as a psychologist, counsellor or social worker. While engaging in the helping process you may ask yourself (or someone else can ask) the following questions: What are my clients’ most common presenting problems? What are their most common underlying problems? What is the socioeconomic background of my clients? Why am I successful in certain cases and not in others? What resources are available in the community to help a client with a particular need? What intervention strategies are appropriate for this problem? How satisfied are my clients with my services? As a supervisor, administrator or manager of an agency, again different questions relating to efficient and effective service may come to your mind. For example: How many people are coming to my agency? What are the socioeconomic-demographic characteristics of my clients? How many cases in a day can a worker effectively handle? Why do some people use the service while others do not? How effective is the service? What are the most common needs of clients who come to this agency? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the service? How satisfied are the clients with the service? How can I improve this service for my clients? As a professional you might be interested in finding answers to theoretical questions, such as: Which is the most effective intervention for a particular problem? What causes X or what are the effects of Y? What is the relationship between two phenomena? How do I measure the self-esteem of my clients? How do J ascertain the validity of my questionnaire? What is the pattern of program adoption in the community? Which is the best way of finding out community attitudes towards an issue? Which is the best way to find out the effectiveness of a particular treatment? How can I select an unbiased sample? What is the best way to find out about the level of marriage satisfaction among my clients? In this age of consumerism you cannot afford to ignore the consumers of a service. Consumers have the right to ask questions about the quality and effectiveness of the service they are receiving and you, as a service
  • 30. 4 Research Methodology provider, have an obligation to answer their questions. Some of the questions that a consumer may ask are: * How effective is the service that I am receiving? - Am I getting value for money? ¢ How well-trained are the service providers? Most professions that are in the human service industry would lend themselves to the questions raised above and you as a service provider should be well prepared to answer them. Research is one of the ways to help you to answer such questions objectively. Applications of research Very little research in the field is pure in nature. That is, very few people do research in research methodology per se. Most research is applied research, which has wide application in many disciplines. Every profession uses research methods in varying amounts in many areas. They use the methods and procedures developed by research methodologists in order to increase understanding in their own profession and to advance the professional knowledge base. It is through the application of research methodology that they strengthen and advance their own profession. Examine your own field. You will find that its professional practice follows procedures and practices tested and developed by others over a long period of time. It is in this testing process that you need research skills, the development of which fall in the category of pure research. As a matter of fact, the validity of your findings entirely depends upon the soundness of the research methodology adopted. Research techniques applied entirely in nature are used primarily for professional consolidation, understanding, development and advancement. As just mentioned, the questions that can be raised about any profession where you directly or indirectly provide a service—health (nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, community health, health promotion, public health), education, town planning, library studies, psychology, business studies, social work—can be considered from four different perspectives: 1 the service provider; 2 the service administrator, manager and/or planner; 3 the service consumer; and 4 the professional. These perspectives are summarised in Figure 1.1. It is impossible to list allthe issues in every discipline but this framework can be applied to most disciplines and situations in the humanities and the social sciences to identify, from the viewpoint of the above perspectives, the possible issues in your own academic field.
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  • 32. 6 Research Methodology Definitions of research There are several ways of obtaining answers to your professional questions. These methods range from the fairly informal, based upon clinical impressions, to the strictly scientific, adhering to the conventional expectations of scientific procedures. Research is one of the ways to find answers to your questions. When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find out answers to a question, you are implying that the process: 1 is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies; 2 uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability; 3 is designed to be unbiased and objective. Your philosophical orientation may stem from one of the several para- digms and approaches in research—positivist, interpretive, phenomenolist, action or participatory, feminist, qualitative, quantitative—and the academic discipline in which you have been trained. The concept of ‘validity’ can be applied to any aspect of the research process. It ensures that in a research study correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. ‘Reliability’ refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy. ‘Unbiased and objective’ means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest. The author makes a distinction between bias and subjectivity. Subjectivity is an integral part of your way of thinking that is conditioned by your educational background, discipline, philosophy, experience and skills. Bias, on the other hand, is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something. For example, a psychologist may look at a piece of information differently from the way in which an anthropologist or a historian looks at it. Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’. Therefore, when you say you are undertaking a research study to find the answer to a question, this implies that the method(s) you are adopting fulfils these expectations (discussed later in the chapter). However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another. For example, the expectations of the research process are markedly different between the physical and the social sciences. In the physical sciences a research endeavour is expected to be strictly controlled at each step, whereas in the social sciences rigid control cannot be enforced and sometimes is not even demanded. Within the social sciences the level of control required also varies markedly from one discipline to another, as social scientists differ over the need for the research process to meet the above expectations. Despite these differences among disciplines, their broad approach to inquiry is similar. The research model in this book is based upon this broad approach. As beginners in research you should understand that research is not all technical, complex, statistics and computers. It can be a very simple activity designed to provide answers to very simple questions relating to day-to-day activities. On the other hand, research procedures can also be employed to
  • 33. Chapter! Research: a way of thinking 7 formulate intricate theories or laws that govern our lives. The difference be- tween research and non-research activity is, as mentioned, in the way we find answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research. To identify these requirements let us examine some definitions of research. The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993: 4). Grinnell further adds: ‘research is a structured inquiry that utilises acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is generally applicable.’ (1993: 4) Lundberg (1942) draws a parallel between the social research process, which is considered scientific, and the process that we use in our daily lives. According to him: Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and inter- pretation of data. Now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage in the course of their daily lives. The main difference between our day-to- day generalisations and the conclusions usually recognised as scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter (Lundberg 1942: 5). Burns (1994: 2) defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’. According to Kerlinger (1986: 10), ‘scientific research is a systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena’. Bulmer (1977: 5) states: ‘Nevertheless sociological research, as research, is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge about the social world’. Characteristics of research From these definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical, and critical. Let us briefly examine these characteristics to understand what they mean. * Controlled—in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular event is seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship. Some relationships are more complex than others. Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and interacting factors. In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa. In the study of causation, the establishment of this linkage is essential; however, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is extremely difficult—and often impossible—to make the link.
  • 34. Research Methodology The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that minimises the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues relating to human beings living in society, where such controls are impossible. Therefore, in the social sciences, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact. Rigorous—you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical and the social sciences and within the social sciences. Systematic—this implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others. Valid and verifiable—this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others. Empirical—this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or observations. Critical—critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research inquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny. For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics. Types ofresearch Research can be classified from three perspectives (Figure 1.2): 1 Z ) application of the research study; objectives in undertaking the research; inquiry mode employed. These three classifications are not mutually exclusive—that is, a research study classified from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’ and ‘inquiry mode employed’. For example, a research project may be classified as pure or applied research (from the perspective of application), as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory (from the perspective of objectives) and as qualitative or quantitative (from the perspective of the inquiry mode employed).
  • 35. Chapter] Research: a way of thinking 9 Figure 1.2 Types of research |Types of research | From the viewpoint of Application Pure Descriptive research research Applied Correlational research research Application If you examine a research endeavour from the perspective of its application, there are two broad categories: pure research and applied research. In the social sciences, according to Bailey (1978: 17): —Inquirymode Quantitative research Qualitative research Objectives Exploratory research Explanatory research Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts. Pure research is also concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology. Examples of pure research include developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a particular situation; developing a methodology to assess the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of research methods. Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon so that information gathered can be used in other ways—such as for policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.
  • 36. 10 Research Methodology Objectives If you examine a research study from the perspective of its objectives, broadly a research endeavour can be classified as descriptive, correlational, explanatory or exploratory. A study classified as descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information about, say, the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organisation, the administrative structure of an organisation, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the outback, the needs of a community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels living in a house with domestic violence, or the attitudes of employees towards management. The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the issue/problem under study. The main emphasis in a correlational research study is to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and unemployment? What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home environment on educational achievement? These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called correlational studies. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example, why stressful living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed by fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievement. The fourth type of research, from the viewpoint of the objectives of a study, is called exploratory research. This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study. When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called a feasibility study or a puot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. A small-scale study is undertaken to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the basis of the assessment made during the exploratory study, a full study may eventuate. Exploratory studies are also conducted to develop, refine and/or test measurement tools and procedures. Table 1.1 shows types of research study from the viewpoint of objectives. Although, theoretically, a research study can be classified in one of the above perspectives, in practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories; that is, they contain elements of descriptive, correlational and explanatory research. In this book the guidelines suggested for writing a research report encourage you to integrate these aspects. .
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  • 38. 12 Research Methodology Inquiry mode The third perspective in our typology of research concerns the process you adopt to find answers to your research questions. Broadly, there are two approaches to inquiry: 1 the structured approach; 2 the unstructured approach. The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research and unstructured as qualitative research. In the structured approach everything that forms the research process—objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents—is predetermined. The unstructured approach, by contrast, allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process. The structured approach is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon; the unstructured, to explore its nature. Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, you should not ‘lock’ yourself into solely quantitative or qualitative research. The choice of a structured or unstructured approach, and of a quantitative or qualitative mode of inquiry, should depend upon: ¢ Aim of your inquiry—exploration, confirmation or quantification. * Use of the findings—policy formulation or process understanding. The distinction between quantitative and qualitative research, in addition to the structured/unstructured process of inquiry, is also dependent upon some other considerations which are briefly presented in Table 2.1 on page 17. The study is classified as qualitative if the purpose of the study is primarily to describe a situation, phenomenon, problem or event; the information is gathered through the use of variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales (qualitative measurement scales); and if analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation, phenomenon or problem without quantifying it. The description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of the different opinions people have about an issue, and a description of the living conditions of a community are examples of qualitative research. On the other hand, the study is classified as a quantitative study if you want to quantify the variation in a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue; if information is gathered using predominantly quantitative variables; and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the magnitude of the variation. Examples of quantitative aspects of a research study are: How many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude? The use of statistics is not an integral part of a quantitative study. The main function of statistics is to act as a test to confirm or contradict the conclusions that you have drawn on the basis of your understanding of analysed data. Statistics, among other things, help you to quantify the magnitude of an association or relationship, provide an indication of the confidence you can place in your findings and help you to isolate the effect of different variables. .
  • 39. Chapter! Research: a way of thinking 13 It is strongly recommended that you do not lock yourself into becoming either solely a quantitative or solely a qualitative researcher. It is true that there are disciplines that lend themselves predominantly either to qualitative or to quantitative research. For example, such disciplines as anthropology, history and sociology are more inclined towards qualitative research, whereas psychology, epidemiology, education, economics, public health and marketing are more inclined towards quantitative research. However, this does not mean that an economist or a psychologist never uses the qualitative approach, or that an anthropologist never uses quantitative information. There is increasing recognition by most disciplines in the social sciences that both types of research are important for a good research study. The research problem itself should determine whether the study is carried out using quantitative or qualitative methodologies. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches have their strengths and weaknesses, and advantages and disadvantages. ‘Neither one is markedly superior to the other in all respects’ (Ackroyd & Hughes 1992: 30). The measurement and analysis of the variables about which information is obtained in a research study are dependent upon the purpose of the study. In many studies you need to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example, suppose you want to find out the types of service available to victims of domestic violence in a city and the extent of their utilisation. Types of service is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the services. The extent of utilisation of the services is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who use the services and calculating other indicators that reflect the extent of utilisation. Paradigms of research There are two main paradigms that form the basis of research in the social sciences. It is beyond the scope of this book to go into any detail about these. The crucial question that divides the two is whether the methodology of the physical sciences can be applied to the study of social phenomena. The paradigm that is rooted in the physical sciences is called the systematic, scientific or positivist approach. The opposite paradigm has come to be known as the qualitative, ethnographic, ecological or naturalistic approach. The advocates of the two opposing sides have developed their own values, terminology, methods and techniques to understand social phenomena. However, since the mid-1960s there has been a growing recognition that both paradigms have their place. The research purpose should determine the mode of inquiry, hence the paradigm. To indiscriminately apply one approach to all the research problems can be misleading and inappropriate. A positivist paradigm lends itself to both quantitative and qualitative research. You can conduct qualitative research within the positivist paradigm. However, the author makes a distinction between qualitative data on the one hand and qualitative research on the other as the first is confined to the measurement of variables and the second to a use of methodology.
  • 40. 14 Research Methodology The author believes that no matter what paradigm the researcher works within, s/he should adhere to certain values regarding the control of bias, and the maintenance of objectivity in terms of both the research process itself and the conclusions drawn. It is the application of these values to the process of information gathering, analysis and interpretation that enables it to be called a research process. | SUMMARY There are several ways of collecting and understanding information and finding answers to your questions—research is one way. The difference between research and other ways of obtaining answers to your questions is that in a process that is classified as research, you work within a framework of a set of philosophies, use methods that have been tested for validity and reliability, and attempt to be unbiased and objective. Research has many applications. You need to have research skills to be an effective service provider, administrator/manager or planner. As a professional who has a responsibility to enhance professional knowledge, research skills are essential. The typology of research can be looked at from three perspectives: application, objectives and the inquiry process. From the point of view of the application of research, there is applied and pure research. Most of the research undertaken in the social sciences is applied, the findings being designed either for use in understanding a phenomenon/issue or to bring change in a program/situation. Pure research is academic in nature and is undertaken in order to gain knowledge about phenomena that may or may not have application in the near future, and to develop new techniques and procedures that form the body of research methodology. A research study can be carried out with four objectives: to describe a situation, phenom- enon, problem or issue (descriptive research); to establish or explore a relationship between two or more variables (correlational research); to explain why certain things happen the way they do (explanatory research); and to examine the feasibility of conducting a study (exploratory research). From the point of view of the mode of inquiry, there are two types of research: quantitative and qualitative. The main objective of a qualitative study is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude, whereas quantitative research, in addition, helps you to quantify the variation. There are two main paradigms that form the basis of social science research: positivist and naturalist. The crucial question that divides the two is whether the methodology of research in the physical sciences can be applied to research in the social sciences.
  • 41. The research process: an eight-step model Steps in planning a research study Step I: formulating a research problem Step II: conceptualising a research design Step Il: constructing an instrument for data collection Step Iv: selecting a sample Step V: writing a research proposal Steps in conducting a study Step VI: collecting data Step VII: processing data Step VII: writing a research report Summary CHAPTER LWO The research process: a quick glance
  • 42. 16 Research Methodology But much advantage will occur if men of science become their own epistemologists, and show to the world by critical exposition in non-technical terms the results and methods of their constructive work, that more than mere instinct is involved in it: the community has indeed a right to expect as much as this (Poincaré 1952: xii). The research process: an eight-step model Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines at various levels by people committed to a variety of research paradigms. Though paradigms vary in their contents and substance, their broad approach to inquiry, in the author’s opinion, is similar. Such ideas have also been expressed by Festinger and Katz, who in the foreword of their book Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences say that ‘Although the basic logic of scientific methodology is the same in all fields, its specific techniques and approaches will vary, depending upon the subject matter’ (1966: vi). Therefore, the model developed here is generic in nature and can be applied to a number of disciplines in the social sciences. It is based upon a practical and step-by-step approach to a research inquiry and each step provides a smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures. Suppose you want to go out for a drive. Before you start, you must decide where you want to go and then which route to take. If you know the route, you do not need to consult a street directory but, if you do not, you need to use one. Your problem is compounded if there is more than one route. You need to decide which one to take. The research process is very similar to undertaking a journey. As with your drive, for a research journey there are also two important decisions to make. The first is to decide what you want to find out about or, in other words, what research questions you want to find answers to. Having decided upon your research questions or problems, you then need to think how to go about finding their answers. The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology. Just as there are posts along the way to your travel destination, so there are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find the answers to your research questions (Figure 2.1). The sequence of these steps is not absolute. With experience you can change it. At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives. This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role. The aim of this book is to provide you with knowledge that will enable you to select the most appropriate methods and procedures. The strength of this book lies in anchoring the theoretical knowledge to the posts of the research journey. A smorgasbord choice at each operation step aims to
  • 43. Chapter 2 The research process: a quick glance 17 provide, at a beginner’s level, knowledge of methods and procedures used both by qualitative and quantitative researchers, though the book is more inclined towards the quantitative way of thinking. Figure 2.1 The research journey—touch each post and select methods and procedures appropriate for your journey Deciding Planning how Actually what doing S88 @ SOE LO |OY ONE Le) Ce RESEARCH JOURNEY Stage I Stage II Stage III Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies differ in the philosophy that underpins their mode of inquiry as well as, to some extent, in methods, models and procedures used. Though the research process is broadly the same in both, quantitative and qualitative research are differentiated in terms of the methods of data collection, the procedures adopted for data processing and analysis, and the style of communication of the findings. If your research problem lends itself to a qualitative mode of inquiry, you are more likely to use the unstructured interview or observation as your method of data collection. When analysing data in qualitative research you go through the process of identifying themes and describing what you have found out during your interviews or observation rather than subjecting your data to statistical procedures. Table 2.1 summarises the differences between qualitative and quantitative research. Table 2.1 Differences between qualitative and quantitative research Quantitative research Qualitative research Difference with respect to: Rationalism: “That human Empiricism: “The only beings achieve knowledge knowledge that human beings because of their capacity to acquire is from sensory reason’ (Bernard 1994: 2) experiences’ (Bernard 1994: 2) Underpinning philosophy Structured/rigid/predetermined| Unstructured/flexible/open methodology methodology Approach to inquiry To quantify extent of variation | To describe variation in a in a phenomenon, situation, phenomenon, situation, issue issue etc. etc. Main purpose of investigation (Continued on next page)
  • 44. 18 Research Methodology Table 2.1—Continued Difference with respect to: | Quantitative research Qualitative research | Measurement of variables Emphasis on some form of Emphasis on description of either measurement or variables classification of variables Sample size Emphasis on greater Fewer cases sample size ai Focus of inquiry Narrows focus in terms of Covers multiple issues but extent of inquiry, but assembles required information assembles required information | from fewer respondents from a greater number of respondents Dominant research value Reliability and objectivity Authenticity but does not (value-free) claim to be value-free Dominant research topic Explains prevalence, incidence, |Explores experiences, meanings, extent, nature of issues, perceptions and feelings opinions and attitude; discovers regularities and formulates theories —— ee ee eee | Analysis of data Subjects variables to frequency| Subjects responses, narratives or distributions, cross-tabulations | observation data to identification or other statistical procedures | of themes and describes these Communication of findings | Organisation more analytical in nature, drawing inferences and conclusions, and testing magnitude and strength of a relationship Organisation more descriptive and narrative in nature Since, at a number of steps of the research process the choice of methods and procedures is influenced by quantitative/qualitative distinction, the methods and procedures discussed in some chapters are differentiated; however, I have tried to keep this distinction to the minimum as the model is applicable to both. Note that this book is for beginners. There is not enough space to cover extensively the applicability and use of each method, model and procedure. I have elaborated on those associated with quantitative research more than on those linked to qualitative research. For a deeper understanding of a method or procedure relating to either, you may wish to consult other books identified in the text. Figure 2.2 shows the proposed model. The tasks identified in arrows are the operational steps you need to follow in order to conduct a study, quantitative or qualitative. Topics identified in rectangles are the required theoretical knowledge needed to carry out these steps. The tasks identified in circles are the intermediary steps that you need to complete to go from one step to another. It is important for a beginner to work through these steps in the proposed sequence, though with experience you do not need to follow the sequence.
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  • 46. 20 Research Methodology This book is written around the theoretical knowledge required to undertake each operational step and follows the same sequential progression as is needed to undertake a research investigation. For each operational step, the required theoretical knowledge is further organised, in different chapters, around the operational step to which, in the author’s opinion, it is most logically related (Figure 2.3). Again, for a beginner, it is important to study this diagram to relate the theoretical knowledge to the operational steps. The following sections of this chapter provide a quick glance at the whole process to acquaint you with the various tasks you need to undertake to carry out your study, thus giving you some idea of what the research journey involves. Steps in planning a research study Step |:formulating a research problem Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process. A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell you, your research supervisor and your readers what you intend to research. The more specific and clear you are the better, as everything that follows in the research process—study design, measurement procedures, sampling strategy, frame of analysis and the style of writing of your dissertation or report—is greatly influenced by the way in which you formulate your research problem. Hence, you should give it considerable and careful thought at this stage. The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide what you want to find out about. Chapter 4 deals in detail with various aspects of formulating a research problem. It is extremely important to evaluate the research problem in the light of the financial resources at your disposal, the time available, and your own and your research supervisor’s expertise and knowledge in the field of study. It is equally important to identify any gaps in your knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics required for analysis. Also, ask yourself whether you have sufficient knowledge about computers and software if you plan to use them. Step Il: conceptualising a research design An extremely important feature of research is the use of appropriate methods. Research involves systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous exploration and description of what is not known and establishment of associations and causation that permit the accurate prediction of outcomes under a given set of conditions. It also involves identifying gaps in knowledge, verification of what is already known, and identification of past errors and limitations. The strength of what you find largely rests on how it was found. The main function of a research design is to explain how you will find answers to your research questions. The research design sets out the logic
  • 47. The research process: a quick glance 21 IIIA de3s uoda1 yoreasal & sunuU Rlep SUISSSD0Ig elep surseldsiq g{ JoideyD Blep SUISSIDOIg GT doideyD IIA dais JUSUINIISUI YOIBIsSaI InoA jo Aqyiqeijai pue Apres ot Surysrqeisy II toidey soyeos [euIpnainie Suisn elep SuNd2][07) OT JoideyD UOTIDIT[OO elVp jO poyleur Be SUNDaTIS 6 JoideyD jesodoid yoreosal & SUNLIY €1 qoadeyD sesomjoddAy Sunonmsuo7) sopqeiiea SuLAJNUApyT wra,qoid yolevasal & SUNL[NUIIO dINJeIOU] SY] SUIMITAIY 9 Jaideyy ¢ rndeyD p ioideyD € dlaideyD Ill 423s odar yoreasal & BUN LI saideyD UOTD9][09 B1eP UI sonssI Surdues usIsap Apnis & 3uNdaTaS [Borie SULIapIsuo7) ZI aaideyp g JoideyD pl doideyD USISOp YOIBISaI IU, L JoideyD ASopOpoyjoul yO.1e9sSa1 pue sdais [euonessdg sdays jeuoneiado ayi 02 UONeIa4 UI 4YOOg ayy UI s4aadey> ay] jesodoid HORS STS uSIsap wrajqoid - bie yoreasai a : EReP 203 yoreasal & yoreasal & peut? eB SUNIIAY UNd2[9S eat es ue sutstyenjdssu07d Sune[NULIOT unonnsuos I daig €7T aansi4
  • 48. 22 Research Methodology of your inquiry. A research design should include the following: the study design per se and the logistical arrangements that you propose to undertake, the measurement procedures, the sampling strategy, the frame of analysis and the time-frame. For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research design is crucial in enabling you to arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions. A faulty design results in misleading findings and is therefore tantamount to wasting human and financial resources. In scientific circles, the strength of an empirical investigation is primarily evaluated in the light of the research design adopted. When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is valid, workable and manageable. Chapter 7 provides details about research design. There is an enormous variety of study designs and you need to be acquainted with some of the most common ones. Chapter 8 explains some of these designs. Select or develop the design that is most suited to your study. You must have strong reasons for selecting a particular design; you must be able to justify your selection; and you should be aware of its strengths, weaknesses and limitations. In addition, you will need to explain the logistical details needed to implement the suggested design. Step Ill: constructing an instrument for data collection Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a ‘research tool’ or a ‘research instrument’. For example, observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires and interview guides are all classified as research tools. The construction of a research tool is the first ‘practical’ step in carrying out a study. You will need to decide how you are going to collect data for the proposed study and then construct a research instrument for data collection. Chapter 9 details the various methods of data collection and Chapter 10 deals with methods for collecting data using attitudinal scales. If you are planning to collect data specifically for your study (primary data), you need to either construct a research instrument or select an already constructed one. The process of developing a research instrument is also discussed in Chapter 9. The concepts of validity and reliability in relation to a research instrument are discussed in Chapter 11. If you are using secondary data (information already collected for other purposes), develop a form to extract the required data. In order to determine what information is required, go through the same process as described for primary data above. Field testing, also known as pre-testing, a research tool is an integral part of instrument construction. As a rule, the field test should not be carried out on the sample of your study but on a similar population. If you are planning to use a computer for data analysis, you may wish to provide space for coding the data on the research instrument.
  • 49. Chapter 2. The research process:aquick glance 23 Step IV: selecting a sample The accuracy of your findings largely depends upon the way you select your sample. The basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise, within the limitation of cost, the gap between the values obtained from your sample and those prevalent in the population. The underlying premise in sampling is that, if a relatively small number of units is selected, it can provide—with a sufficiently high degree of probability— a fairly true reflection of the sampling population that is being studied. Sampling theory is guided by two principles: 1 the avoidance of bias in the selection of a sample; and 2 the attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources. There are three categories of sampling design (Chapter 12): 1 random/probability sampling designs; 2 non-random/probability sampling designs; and 3 ‘mixed’ sampling design. There are several sampling strategies within the first two categories. You need to be acquainted with these sampling designs to select the one most appropriate for your study. You need to know the strengths and weaknesses of each and the situations in which they can or cannot be applied in order to select the most appropriate design. The type of sampling strategy you use also determines your ability to generalise from the sample to the total population and the type of statistical tests you can perform on the data. Step V: writing a research proposal Now, step by step, you have done all the preparatory work. Next put everything together in a way that provides adequate information, for your research supervisor and others, about your research study. This overall plan tells a reader about your research problem and how you are planning to investigate, and is called a research proposal. Broadly, a research proposal’s main function is to detail the operational plan for obtaining answers to your research questions. In doing so it ensures—and reassures the readers of— the validity of the methodology to obtain answers accurately and objectively. Universities and other institutions may have differing requirements regarding the style and content of a research proposal, but the majority of institutions would require most of what is set out here. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to discipline or from supervisor to supervisor. However, the guidelines set out in Chapter 13 provide a framework which will be acceptable to most. A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor and a reviewer the following information about your study: * what you are proposing to do; * how you plan to proceed; * why you selected the proposed strategy. Therefore it should contain the following information about your study (Chapter, 13):
  • 50. 24 Research Methodology * astatement of the olyectives of the study; * a list of hypotheses, if you are testing any; * the study design you are proposing to use; * the setting for your study; * the research instrument(s) you are planning to use; * information on sample size and sampling design; ¢ information on data-processing procedures; * an outline of the proposed chapters for the report; * the study’s problems and limitations; and ¢ the proposed wme-frame. Steps in conducting a study Step VI: collecting data Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design, con- structed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a part of the research design, you decided upon the procedure you wanted to adopt to collect your data. At this stage you actually collect the data. For example, depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct nominal/focused group discussions or make observations. Collecting data through any one of the methods may involve some ethical issues, which are discussed in Chapter 14. Step VII: processing data The way you analyse the information you collected largely depends upon two things: 1 type of information—descriptive, quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal; 2 the way you want to communicate your findings to your readers. There are two broad categories of report: quantitative and qualitative. As mentioned earlier, the distinction is more academic than real as in most studies you need to combine quantitative and qualitative skills. Nevertheless, there are some solely qualitative and some solely quantitative studies. Chapter 15 describes different ways of analysing quantitative data and Chapter 16 details various methods of displaying analysed data. In addition to the qualitative—quantitative distinction, it is equally important for data analysis that you consider whether the data is to be analysed manually or by a computer. If your study is purely descriptive, you can write your dissertation/report on the basis of your field notes, manually analyse the contents of your notes (content analysis), or use a computer program such as NUD*DIST N6, NVIVO or Ethnograph for this purpose. If you want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide upon the type of analysis required (i.e. frequency distribution, cross-tabulations or
  • 51. hapter 2. The research process: a quick glance 25 other statistical procedures, such as regression analysis, factor analysis and analysis of variance) and how it should be presented. Also identify the variables to be subjected to these statistical procedures. Step VIII: writing a research report Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step of the research process. This report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you have drawn from your findings. If you are clear about the whole process, you will also be clear about the way you want to write your report. Your report should be written in an academic style and be divided into different chapters and/or sections based upon the main themes of your study. Chapter 17 suggests some of the ways of writing a research report. SUMMARY | This chapter has provided an overview of the research process, which has been broken into eight steps, the details of which are covered in the remainder of this book. At each step the model provides a smorgasbord of methods, models, techniques and procedures so you can select the one most appropriate for your study. It is like a buffet party with eight tables, each with different dishes, but the dishes are made out of similar ingredients. You go to all eight tables and select the dish that you like most from each table. The main difference between the model and the example given is that in the model you select what is most appropriate for your study and not what you like the most, as in a buffet. For a beginner it is important to go through all the steps, although perhaps not in the same sequence. With experience you can take a number of short cuts. The eight steps cover the total spectrum of a research endeavour, starting from problem formulation through to writing a research report. The steps are operational in nature, following a logical sequence, and detailing the various methods and procedures in a simple step-by-step manner.
  • 52. (. -—<—=_6<= caus Gari al? rw? bow aleiien® pel G. c1g0eOD oo ‘ lt Chigeetit.eudd, Apitipgny) ote tthe Gy ! awe f cy a es ee ual sf eo? we 4 Laats ~ e > pepe hie oma an & : Oe Oe isyeh ite pik » pl - We hides a a 187, agen rich ah Ct]
  • 53. CHAPTER 3 : Reviewing the literature : CHAPTER 4 ’ Formulating a research problem CHAPTER 5 Identifying variables CHAPTER 6 | ) ) Constructing hypotheses
  • 55. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
  • 56. “Quite gave me a scare,” said the Major. “Life here is so uneventful. Very beautiful, but lonely, especially in the winter.” “But you do not stay here in the winter?” “Oh yes; I have lived here ten years now.” “No accounting for taste,” thought Reed; and he glanced sidewise at his companion, but learned nothing. He only saw a quiet-looking country gentleman, whose sun-browned face told of an open-air life. Sturgess followed them to the great natural gateway at the end of the chasm, where he had stood some days before, but not alone; and he now remained watching them as they went on westward along the narrow path, and round by the huge buttress formed by the refuse of the mine, carried and cast down there for hundreds upon hundreds of years. Then as they passed on out of sight, the man raised one of his fingers to his lips, and began gnawing roughly at the side of the nail, till he seemed to make up his mind, and took a step or two forward after them, next stopped short again, for a hail came from behind. “Coming on down to the village, Mr Sturgess?” He turned and faced one of the two men, and nodded, walking away with him in the other direction, taciturn and strange, answering his companion in monosyllables, and with his thoughts evidently far away. Not so very, though, for they were with Clive Reed, and promised him no good. “So you have been examining the old ‘White Virgin’ mine, eh?” said Major Gurdon. “I heard it was sold. A new company, eh?”
  • 57. “Yes,” said Reed, smiling; “a new company—a solid one.” “Eh? I hope so. But if I had to go in for a mining adventure, I think I should begin here with the material the old miners cast away as rubbish.” He pointed to the great buttress they were skirting. “There it is, already extracted from the mountain, and though poor, rich enough, I should say, to pay a company if worked with modern appliances.” “You understand these things?” said Reed, looking at his elderly companion searchingly, and noting how deeply lined his brow seemed, and that care and sorrow more than age had given him his hollow-cheeked, anxious air. “A man who likes geology, mineralogy, and who always lives among these hills, cannot help picking up a little mining lore,” said the Major, with a smile. “I have searched and toiled, my dear sir—much loss and little gain. I hope yours may prove to be a successful venture.” “Let’s hope so,” said Reed quietly. “All mining is speculative, and in speculative matters there must be losses as well as gains.” “And after all, what does it amount to, my young friend? The chase of a will o’ the wisp who bears a golden lamp not worth the winning, you will say when you grow as old as I. But there, I shall bore you with this twaddle. What do you say to that for a view? Derbyshire in front; broad, honest, hardworking old Yorkshire away to your right; at your feet the Swirl—my river, I call it.” “A lovely prospect, but rather wild,” said Reed, smiling. “Say savage, and you will be nearer the truth; but I can show you something a little less stern;” and, chatting away pleasantly, he led on along first one slope and then another,
  • 58. till at last they came down upon a narrow track beside a rippling stream, shut in between two perpendicular walls of rock, draped with ivy, and with every cleft and crevice green and bright with trailing birch, moss, and clustering fern. The water of the little river ran swiftly babbling here among the rocks, there swirling round, eddying and forming whirlpools, one of which, across the river where it washed the perpendicular rock, was evidently very deep, for the water gradually subsided there and grew still and glassy, reflecting the ivy-curtained walls as it slowly glided round. “Ah! this is delightful,” cried Reed, as he stopped to gaze at the glancing waters, where the sun made the ripples dazzling to the eye, and then turned to the deep shadows. “Eden may have been lovely, but this would be good enough for a poor commonplace nineteenth-century fellow like myself.” “You like it?” said the Major, smiling. “It’s glorious. Is there much of it like this?” “About a mile. I call it my river here, and the mining men respect my rights generally—that is, unless the trout they catch sight of in some pool is a very fat one indeed.” He said this with a peculiar smile, as he met Reed’s eye. “Not bad fellows, the miners, but I don’t quite take to your guardian of the mine.” “I suppose not,” said Reed. “He is rather a rough customer, but he was recommended to my father for his knowledge of underground work.—You have plenty of trout here, I suppose?”
  • 59. “Oh yes, and I take toll of them all along this stretch of river. Possession is nine points of the law, but I really have only my right on one side as far as my bit of property extends.” “Ah! you have an estate along here?” “Yes, and I am glad to meet my neighbours, sir. My rough piece of mountain is bounded by the river along here from the corner we just passed, and on another side by the mine land of your Company—the old ‘White Virgin’ estate. A worthless stretch of barren rock and ravine; but I bought it for the sake of this piece of river fifteen years ago. A place to retire to, my dear sir, suitable for a man weary of the world, and one of whom the world had had enough.” His face was overcast as he spoke, and he frowned heavily, while Reed noticed the sad, careworn aspect of the man, who looked as if he had suffered from some terrible trouble —that which had so deeply lined his face. But it brightened up again directly, as Reed hung back to admire the lovely meandering stream. “You do like it?” said the Major. “Like it, my dear sir! If I were not a busy man, bound to go on carving my way, it is just the place where I should like to come and dream away my days.” “Do you care for fishing?” “Oh yes.” “Then, as we are neighbours, if you come much to the mine, I shall at any time be glad to show you a few good places where you can throw a fly.”
  • 60. “Some day I shall certainly ask you,” said Reed frankly; “not often, I have no time.” “Whenever you like, and you will be welcome, Mr Reed; for —excuse me—I like you.” “So soon,” said Reed, raising his eyebrows. “The liking of one man for another comes at once, sir, I think, and seldom errs,” said the Major gravely. “You will be welcome if you can content yourself with cottage fare and our simplicity. This is my little home.” Reed stopped short astonished, for they had turned a sharp corner of the rugged wall of rock which towered up, and came suddenly upon a sheltered nook, which ran from the river-side right up into the mountains. There was but one level space of about half an acre; the rest was knoll, crag, mound, and rift, a natural garden full of waving birch, shrubs, evergreens, and flowers all growing in wild luxuriance, with myrtle, fuchsia, hydrangea, and geranium, developing into trees more than plants, showing how sheltered the place must be, how warm and suited to their lives. There was no ugly fence, but moss and ivy covered walls of rugged stone, placed here and there as a protection from wandering sheep, while on the level patch, quaintly built of limestone, thatched, porched with rugged wood, its windows embayed, and the whole covered with wistaria, myrtle, and creeping plants, which fought for a hold upon the walls, stood a cottage, out of whose porch Dinah Gurdon, pale of face, anxious-looking, and troubled, came slowly down. “Welcome to the wilderness, Mr Reed,” said the Major, smiling sadly, as he noted the young man’s enthusiastic look of admiration; and then frowning slightly as he saw a
  • 61. wondering look when the figure in white came toward them from the porch. “My daughter, sir. Dinah, my child, I bring a guest to partake of our poor hospitality this evening. Don’t look so pale and frightened, my dear. Mr Reed is, I am glad to say, a deceiver. There was no cause for alarm, and his aspect is only due to a long journey underground. He is not hurt.” “I—I am very glad,” said Dinah, holding out her hand, which was eagerly taken, and then shrinking as she encountered Clive Reed’s eager look. “The men brought such startling news.” “That we were prepared to turn your bedroom into a cottage hospital, Mr Reed, and send off twelve miles for a doctor,” said the Major, as he saw his child’s large dark eyes sink beneath their visitor’s gaze, and a couple of red spots begin to glow in her pale cheeks. “Now, Dinah, my child, Mr Reed must be shown to his room, and let’s have your colour back. My daughter is a little unwell, Mr Reed. She was crossing the mountain the other day, coming back from Bedale, and as she passed over one of the ragged pieces by your mine, she had an ugly fall.” “Not serious, I hope?” said Reed, with a look of interest, and his searching eyes once more met those of the pale, intense countenance before them, eyes so full of shrinking horror and fear, that though he could not read them, Clive Reed wondered at their expression, as a flow of crimson suffused the cheeks, rising right up to the forehead, and then died out, leaving the girl deadly pale. The Major waited, as if expecting that his child would speak, but as she remained silent, he said gravely—
  • 62. “No; she assures me that it was not serious, but she came back looking horribly startled. It was quite a shock to the system, from which she has not quite recovered yet. Now, Mr Reed, Martha will show you your room.” Reed took a step forward, to find Martha, the hardest- looking, harshest-faced woman of forty he had ever seen, waiting to lead the way. “A fall,” he said, as he stood alone in the prettily furnished bedroom: “alone in the mountains, and no one by to help. I wish I had been there—with Janet, too, of course.” Dinah Gurdon was at that moment indulging in similar thoughts—naturally omitting Janet—and as she stood nearly opposite a glass, she became aware of her face reflected there, when she turned away with a shiver.
  • 63. Chapter Eight. Undermining. “Hallo, Jess, you here?” cried Clive, as he suddenly encountered his brother at Dr Praed’s door in Russell Square. Jessop Reed started, and in spite of his man-about-town confidence, he looked for the moment confused, but recovered himself directly. “Might say the same to you,” he retorted. “I thought you were down some hole in the Midlands.” “But I’ve come up again. Just got here from St. Pancras now. I say, though, what is it? Out of sorts—been to see the Doctor?” “Eh? Oh no. I’m all right. But I’m in a hurry. See you at dinner.” “Why, what’s the matter with him?” thought Clive, as his brother hurried away. “Fast life, I suppose. I’ll run in and ask the Doctor before I go up.” He rang; the Doctor’s confidential man opened the door, and stood back for him to enter. “Patient with the Doctor, Morgan?” “No, sir; past his time. Gone on to the hospital. Back soon.” Clive stared. “Miss Praed’s in the drawing-room, sir.”
  • 64. “Oh, all right. I’ll go up,” said Clive; and he began to ascend two steps at a time. “I hope Jess isn’t ill. Disappointed, I suppose, at finding the old man out.”—“Ah, Janet, darling,” he cried, as he entered the drawing-room, to find his fiancée standing with a bouquet in her hand, looking dreamy and thoughtful. She flushed up as he caught her in his arms and kissed her tenderly, and then frowned slightly, and put on the pouting look of a spoiled child. “Why, what a bonnie bunch of roses!” he cried. “Let’s have one for a button-hole.” “No, no,” she said hastily, and a pained look of perplexity crossed Clive’s countenance as she held the bouquet from him. Then with forced playfulness, “Mustn’t be touched.” “All right,” he cried merrily. “I came round this way so as to see you first, pet. Raced up by the early train this morning.” “Indeed!” said Janet, raising her eyebrows; “been in Derbyshire, have you not?” “My darling!” “Well, one knows so little of your movements now.” “Oh, I say, Janet dear, don’t be hard upon a poor busy fellow. You know why I am away so much. All for your sake, pet,” he whispered earnestly; “to make ourselves thoroughly independent, and you a home of which you may be proud.” There was a slight catching in Janet Praed’s breath, as she said jerkily, and with a show of flippancy, to hide the emotion from which she suffered, for self-accusation was
  • 65. busy with her just then, and a pang or two shot through her as she contrasted the frank, honest manner of her betrothed, and his words, so full of simple honest affection, with others to which she had in a foolish, half-jealous spirit listened again and again— “Oh yes, I know,” she said, curling up her pretty lip, and speaking hastily to hide her feelings; “but you might have called.” “Now, Janet, love, don’t tease me. How could I, dear?” “Well, then, you might have written. A whole week away and not a line.” “Gently, my own darling, judge, guide, and counsellor in one,” he cried warmly. “I might have written, and ought to have written, but I have been, oh so busy all day, and when I got back to quarters, there was the Major to talk to me, and I could not slight Miss Gurdon.” “The Major—Miss Gurdon? May I ask who these people are?” “Oh, a very jolly old sort of fellow, who lives close to the mine, with an only daughter. He insisted upon my staying there while I was down, and I wasn’t sorry; for—O Janet! let me whisper it in your lovely little shell of an ear,” he continued playfully—“the miner’s cottage I slept at one night was not comfortable; it was grubby, and oh, those fleas! If it had not been for my stout walking-stick—” “What sort of a person is Miss Gurdon?” said Janet, interrupting him quickly. “Oh, very nice and ladylike.”
  • 66. “Pretty?” “Pretty! Well, you would hardly call it pretty. A sad, pensive face, very sweet and delicate, and with the look of one who had known trouble. There seemed to be some secret about father and daughter.” “Oh!” said Janet softly, and the colour came into her cheeks very warmly. “And you were very comfortable there?” “Yes, very,” said Clive emphatically. “Too comfortable to remember me and write, of course.” “O Janet, my darling!” he said tenderly, as he passed his arm about her waist, “how can you be such a jealous little thing! As if I could think of any one but you. You were with me night and day. It was always what is Janet doing? how does she look? and is she thinking of me? Whether I was scrambling about down in the mine like a mud-lark, or more decent and talking to Miss Gurdon of an evening in their tiny drawing-room.” “About me, of course,” said Janet coldly. “No, dear,” said Clive innocently, “I never mentioned your name. I dared not, pet, for fear they should laugh at me, and think what a great goose I was. For I am, pet. Once I begin talking to any one about you, I can’t leave off.” “Indeed!” she said sarcastically. “Why, Janet, dear,” he said earnestly, and he tried to take her hand, “what have I said or done? Surely you don’t think —Oh, my love, my dear love!” he cried, with his voice growing deep and earnest, “how can you be so ready to take pique over such trifles! Janet, I love you with all my
  • 67. heart, dear. I have not a thought that is not for my own darling.” “No, no; don’t touch me,” she panted, as he drew her towards him. “I will—I will, darling wifie to be; but you must master these little bits of uncalled-for jealousy, dear. They are not fair to me, and next time I am away I will at any cost write to you, even if the business fails, and—” “Scoundrel! ruffian! how dare you put your arm around my daughter, sir? She is not your wife yet.” The words came so fiercely and suddenly that Clive started away, and Janet hurriedly escaped to the other side of the chair. For the Doctor had bustled in just as Clive was trying to take the kiss withheld from him, and now stood there with a terrific frown upon his heavy grey brow. The next moment he had burst into a hearty roar of laughter. “Nice guilty pair you look,” he cried. “Ah! you may well turn red, you unblushing puss! Eh? No, that won’t do, it’s a bull. And you, sir, how dare—Well, how are you, Clive, my boy? Came round here first, eh? I called at Guildford Street as I went to the hospital, and they hadn’t heard of you.” “Yes, I was obliged to come here first,” said Clive. “Of course. That’s right. Janet has been looking pale since you went. Come and dine to-night, and don’t let me come in here and catch you behaving in that rude way again.” “Papa, for shame!” cried Janet, and she hurried out of the room.
  • 68. The Doctor laughed. “Well,” he cried eagerly, “what about the mine?—is it good?” “For your ears only, Doctor,” said Clive, “in confidence?” “On my honour, my dear boy,” said Dr Praed gravely. “Then you may invest as much as you like, sir.” “Not a company dodge?” “The mine teems with ore, sir. I have thoroughly examined it, and found out a new, enormously rich lode.” “Then it’s quite safe?” “Safe as the Bank of England, sir, and the dad will be a millionaire.” “Ah! I wish he would be a healthy man, instead of a wealthy,” said the Doctor. “Oh, you don’t think—you have not found him worse?” “I don’t like his looks, Clive, my boy,” said the Doctor; “and I beg that you will try to save him from all emotion. This great accession of wealth will do him no good, and—yes; what?—I didn’t ring.” “Messenger, sir,” said the Doctor’s man, with grave earnestness and a sharp glance at Clive. “From Mr Reed’s, sir—sudden attack, and will you come at once.” Then in a hurried whisper, “Dying!” But it sounded in trumpet-tones in Clive Reed’s ear, as with a sharp cry he sprang to his feet.
  • 69. “Good heavens!” he said, “and I came on here!” “Hush!” said the Doctor sternly. “Here, Morgan, the carriage?” “At the door, sir.” The Doctor nodded as he drew Clive’s arm through his own. “Do not fear the worst,” he whispered; “I may save him yet.”
  • 70. Chapter Nine. Two Days Earlier. “Well, what news?” said Wrigley, as Jessop Reed entered his gloomy office. “Bah! what a dandy you are! Why, you spend enough on barbers and buttonholes to keep you from borrowing money.” “And you spend enough on ballet-girls to keep you from making profits by lending,” retorted Jessop. “All right, my Jonathan,” said Wrigley. “All right, my David,” replied Jessop. “Let me see: David was a Jew.” “Whilst I am not,” said Wrigley sharply. “Oh, of course not. No one would suppose Wrigley to be an Israelitish name. There, don’t set up all your feathers, man, and look so indignant because I suggested that you belonged to the chosen race. There are good Jews.” “And precious bad Christians,” said Wrigley sourly. “Awfully! But I say, don’t be so ruffled, man. Lucky I didn’t come for some hard coin this morning.” “It is; and hang me if I ever lend you money again if I’ve to have blood thrown in my face.” “Bah! you shouldn’t be so sensitive about it. I don’t mind about your descent.”
  • 71. “Enough to make any man sensitive. Gad, sir, any one would think we were lepers, seeing the treatment we receive.” “Yes, it’s too bad,” said Jessop soothingly; “but you do have your recompense, old man. Nice refined revenge your people have had for the insult and contempt they have met with. There, let’s talk business.” “Yes, let’s talk business. Now, then, what about the hole in the earth down which people throw their money?” “Well, it’s a big hole.” “Yes, I know that, but is it a big do after all?” “No. As I told you, the old man wouldn’t have gone in for it if it hadn’t been right.” “Then he really does hold a great deal in it?” “More than half, that I know of.” “You’ve carefully made sure of that.” “Yes, carefully. It’s all right, I tell you.” “Good! And what about the dear brother?” “He’s still down there.” “Surveying the mine?” “Surveying? He has been down it every day for nearly a week, examining every crack and corner—adit, winze, shaft, driving, all the whole lot of it.” “Well?”
  • 72. “He sends reports to the old man every night.” “And what does he say? Do you know?” “Yes; the old man reads them to me.” “Fudge! Flams to rig the market. Chatter for you to spread on the Stock Exchange and make the shares go up.” “No,” said Jessop quietly, as he sat on a corner of the lawyer’s table, and swung his cane and one leg to and fro. “The dad and I don’t hit it, and we’ve had more quarrels than I can count about money and—other little matters; but he’s always straightforward with me over business, and I’d trust his word sooner than any man’s in London.” “Good son.” “Ah! you needn’t sneer; you’d only be too glad to get his name to a bit of paper.” “True, O king! He is a model that way. But then he is pretty warm, and can afford to lose.” “Yes; but it would be the same if he were hard up. The old man’s dead square.” “Then you believe your brother’s reports are all that are read to you?” “Implicitly.” “No garbling, you think?” “I’m sure there isn’t. No, old fellow, I hate my fortunate brother most bitterly, and I don’t love my father; but I’d sooner take their word than that of any one I know.”
  • 73. “Humph!” ejaculated the lawyer. “Well, then, the mine is not quite played out!” “Played out! Pish! It has never been worked properly. Only scratched and scraped. There’s plenty of ore to pay by following on the old workings with modern tackle, and a little fortune in re-smelting the old refuse that has been accumulating for fifteen hundred or two thousand years.” “Yes, it is very old,” said Wrigley thoughtfully. “Old! Why, no one knows how old it is. The Romans worked it, and I daresay the Phoenicians had a finger in it before them.” “Go on, old fellow,” said Wrigley, laughing. “Can you prove that pigs of lead were got from it to ballast the ark?” “Well, you needn’t believe it without you like.” “But I do believe a great deal of it. There’ll be quite enough for us, if you mean business.” “If I mean business! Why, of course I do. Do you suppose I am going to sit still and let my brother have all the cream of life? He’ll get all the old man’s money. Plenty without that. I’m not blind. Precious little for me there.” “Then what is going to be done?” “They are going to set to work directly. My brother has laid his reports before the board. I did not tell you that he has discovered a new untouched lode that promises to yield wonderfully.” “Indeed!” said Wrigley—“a new lode?” and he looked searchingly at his companion.
  • 74. “Yes; an important vein of ore that promises to be of immense value.” “Hah! that sounds well,” said Wrigley. “For the shareholders?” “No; for us. Have you forgotten?” “No,” said Jessop gloomily, “but will it work?” “Work? You, an old hand, and ask that. My dear Jessop, if we cannot work that between us it is strange.” “Yes, but the money necessary. It will be enormous.” “Pretty well, my dear boy,” said Wrigley, with quiet confidence; “but don’t you fidget about that. Millions are to be had for a safe thing, so we need not be scared about thousands. Yes; that new vein will do. Jessop, my lad, you and I must work that vein. The idea of the great lode is glorious and makes our task easy in that direction; but there is a stumbling-block elsewhere—a difficulty in the way.” “I don’t understand you,” said Jessop testily. “Hang it, man! Don’t be so mysterious. Now then, please, what do you mean?” “Let me take my own pace, my dear Jessop, as the inventor of our fortune.” “Anyhow you like, but let me see how we are going.” “Well, then, you shall. Now, then, we want an enemy. Clive Reed’s or your father’s enemy. Has your brother any?” “Yes; here he is, confound him!”
  • 75. “And you will not do, my dear boy! Besides, it would not be your work. I meant some man who dislikes him so consumedly that he would not stick at trifles for the sake of revenge—and hard cash. What is more,” continued Wrigley, as Jessop shook his head, “it must be some one connected with the mine.” “Bah! How can it be, when the mine is not started?” “Then it must be as soon as possible after the mine has been started. Some workman under him in a position of trust, whom he has injured: struck him, taken his wife or sweetheart, mortally injured in some way.” Jessop burst into a coarse laugh, and Wrigley looked at him inquiringly. “My dear boy,” said the stockbroker, “I thought this was to be a matter of finessing and making a few thousands.” “It is, and of making a good many thousands.” “And you talk as if it were a plot for an Adelphi drama. My dear fellow, my brother Clive is a sort of nineteenth-century saint—not the cad in a play. Clive doesn’t drink, bet, nor gamble in any way. He is a good boy, who is engaged, and goes to church regularly with the lady.” “Oh, yes; that’s as far as you know now.” “I do know,” cried Jessop. “Clive has never run away with any one’s wife, nor bullied men, nor gone to the—your friends for coin. If you can’t hit out a better way than that, we may pitch the thing up.” “At the first difficulty?” said Wrigley, smiling. “No, my boy. We want such a man as I have described—a man whose
  • 76. opinion about the mine will be worth taking. He must, as I say, hate your brother sufficiently to give that opinion when we want it, so as to say check to your brother and be believed.” “Well, then, there isn’t such a man,” said Jessop sourly. “Indeed! When do you expect your brother back?” “At any time now. To-morrow or next day, to meet the directors at the board and report again upon his inspection.” “Again?” “Yes; he has been down twice before.” “Who is down there?” “Only the man in charge of the mine.” “Who is he?” “Some fellow my father got hold of in connection with other mine speculations.” “Well, wouldn’t he do?” “Pooh! He is, I should say, out of the question.” “At a price?” “At a price!” Jessop started and looked keenly at the solicitor. “Every man they say has his price, my dear Jessop. We want the kind of man I describe. You say there is no such man. I say there are in the market, and I should say this is the very chap.”
  • 77. “But surely you would not bribe him to—” “Don’t use ugly terms. If I saw my way to make a hundred thousand pounds I should not shrink from giving a man five hundred to help me make it.” “No, nor a thousand,” said Jessop. “My dear boy, I would get him for five hundred if I could, but if I could not, I would go higher than you say; in fact, I would go up to ninety-five thousand sooner than lose five. Do you understand?” “Yes, I understand. Anything to turn an honest penny.” “Exactly! So now then, as soon as possible, we must begin to feel our way, so as to secure our man.” “But if there is not such a man to be had?” “Then we must make one.” “Wrigley, I thought I was sharp,” said Jessop, with a peculiar smile. “But you find there is always a sharper.” “Was that a lapsus linguae, Wrigley?” “If you like to call it so,” said the lawyer coldly. “But to business. Let me know the moment your brother gets back.” “Yes, but why?” “I am going down to see what I think of the mine.”
  • 78. Chapter Ten. The Grim Visitor. “The game’s up, then, Doctor, eh? There, man, don’t shuffle. This isn’t whist, but the game of life, and nature wins.” The Doctor stood holding his old friend’s hand, and gazing sadly down in the fine manly face, which looked wonderfully calm and peaceful as he lay back on the white pillow. “That’s right; don’t say medical things to me—clap-trap: you never did. We always understand each other, and I shouldn’t like it now I’m dying. For that’s it, Praed; the game’s up. I haven’t read so plainly how many trumps you held in your hand for all these years, old man, without being able to judge your face now.” “Reed, old fellow,” said the Doctor, in a voice full of emotion, “God knows I have done my best. Let me send for—” “Tchah! What for?” said the old man. “You know more than he does. It’s of no use fighting against it. Nature says the works must stop soon. Very well; I shall meet it as I have met other losses in my time. Do you hear, Clive—Jessop?” A murmur came from the other side of the bed, where the two young men were standing, and then all was still again, save the rumble of a vehicle in the street. “It’s disappointing just now, when I had made the coup of my life, and meant to settle down in peace; but it wasn’t to be, and I’m going to meet it like a man. Clive, boy, come here.”
  • 79. The young man came to the bedside and knelt down. “Ah! I like that,” said the old father. “Good lad!” and he laid his hand gently upon his son’s head. “I’m not a grand old patriarch,” he sighed. “What, Doctor?—not talk? Yes, I must have my say now, while there’s time. Not a good old patriarch, Clive—not a religious man; made too much of a god of money; but I said my wife and sons should never know the poverty from which I had suffered, and I think it was right; but I overdid it, boy. Don’t follow my example; there’s no need. There—my blessing for what it’s worth, boy. Now go: I want Jessop.” Clive rose, and his brother came and stood where he had knelt. “Well,” said the dying man, in a firm voice, “I have little to say to you, Jessop. Shake hands, my boy, and God forgive you, as I do—everything.” Jessop was silent, and after a few moments the old man went on— “I have settled everything, my lad. The Doctor here is one of my executors, and he will see that Clive does his duty by you; though he would without.” Jessop winced, for these words were very pregnant of meaning, and showed only too well the place he would take after his father’s death. “There,” said his father, pressing his hand, “that is all. I know your nature, boy, so I will not ask you to promise things which you cannot perform. Go now.” “Not stay with you, father?” said the young man, speaking for the first time.
  • 80. “No; go now. I’ve done my duty by you, boy; now go and do yours by your brother. Good-bye, Jessop.” There was dead silence, and the old man spoke again as he grasped his son’s hand, “Good-bye, Jessop, for the last time.” “Good-bye, father,” was the reply; and then, with head bent, the young man walked slowly out. “Hah! that’s over!” sighed the dying man. “He will not break his heart, Doctor; and if I had left him double, it would do him no good. Now then, Praed, I want to see little Janet. Where is she?” “Downstairs in the drawing-room.” “That’s right. Go and fetch her. Tell her not to be frightened. She shan’t see me die, for it won’t be yet.” The Doctor left the bedroom, and the old man was alone with his younger son. “Take hold of my hand, Clive. Sit down, my lad. That’s right. There, don’t look so cut up, my boy. I’m only going to sleep like a man should. It’s simply nature; not the horror fanatics teach us. Now I want to talk business to you for a few minutes, and then business and money will be dead to me for ever.” “You wish me to do something, father?” “Yes, boy. You will find everything in my will—you and the Doctor. He’s a good old friend, and his counsel is worth taking. Marry Janet, and make her a happy wife. She has some weaknesses, but you can mould her, my lad; and it will make her happy, and the Doctor too, for he loves you like a son.”
  • 81. “Yes, father.” “That’s good. You’re a fine, strong, clever man, Clive, but that was the dear, good, affectionate boy of twenty years ago speaking. Now then, about money matters. You’ll be enormously rich over that mine, so for heaven’s sake be a true, just man with it, and do your duty by all the shareholders. Stick to it through thick and thin. I remember all you told me when I recovered from my fit. I could repeat your report. But I was convinced before, when all the London world thought I was getting up a swindle. There! that’s enough about the mine—save this. You’ll be thinking of sharing with your brother. I forbid it. Keep to your portion as I have left it to you, and do good with it. To give to Jessop is to do evil. I am sorry, but it is the truth. He cannot help it perhaps, but he is not to be trusted, and you are not to league yourself with him in any way. You understand?” “Yes, father!” “I have made him a sufficiently rich man. Let him be content. You are not to trust him. I know Jessop by heart, and I can go from here feeling that I have done my duty by him.” At that moment the Doctor returned with his daughter, and the old speculator’s face lit up with pleasure. “Come here, Pussy,” he said. “I’m not very dreadful yet, my dear.” “Dear Mr Reed—dear Mr Reed!” cried Janet, running sobbing to his side; “don’t, pray, talk like that.” The old man smiled with content as the girl fell upon her knees by the bed, and embraced him tenderly, “Ah! that’s right. That’s like my little darling,” he said, and he stroked
  • 82. her cheek. “Don’t cry any more, my dear. There! you two go farther away; Janet and I have a few words to say together.” Clive and the Doctor moved to the window and stood with their backs to the bed, the old man watching them intently for a few moments, and then smiling at Janet as he held and fondled her hand. “There!” he said, “you are not to fret and be miserable about it, and when I’m gone it is not to interfere with your marriage.” “Oh, Mr Reed!” she cried passionately. “No, no, no,” he continued quietly; “not a bit. Life is short, my dear; enjoy it, and do your work in it while you can. And mind, there is to be no silly parade of mourning for me. I’m not going to have your pretty face spoiled with black crape, and all that nonsense. Mourn for me in your dear little heart, Janet: not sadly, but with pleasant, happy memories of one who held you when you were a baby, and who has always looked upon you as his little daughter.” Janet’s face went down on the old man’s hands with the tears flowing silently. “Now, just a few more words, my dear,” he almost whispered. “Your father and I have rather spoiled you by indulgence.” “Yes, yes,” she whispered quickly. “I have not deserved so much.” “Never mind; you are going to be a dear good girl now, and make Clive a true, loving wife.” “Yes, I’ll try so hard.”
  • 83. “It will not take much trying, Janet, for he loves you very dearly.” She raised her head sharply, and there was an angry look in her eyes. “No, no, you are wrong,” said the old man. “Always the same, my pet. I can read you with these little jealous fits and fancies. I tell you, he loves you very dearly, and I’m going to say something else, my pet, my last little bit of scolding, for I’ve always watched you very keenly for my boy’s sake.” “Mr Reed!” she whispered, shrinking from him and glancing towards the window; but he held her hands tightly. “They cannot hear us, little one,” he said, “and I want you to listen. For your own happiness, Janet, my child. It is poor Clive who ought to have been jealous and complained.” Janet hid her burning face. “It was not all your fault, little one, but I saw a great deal. Innocent enough with you; but Jacob has always been trying to win Esau’s heritage, and even his promised wife.” The girl sobbed bitterly now, and laid her burning face close to the old man’s, hiding it in the pillow. “Oh, don’t, don’t,” she whispered. “I never liked him, but he was always flattering me and saying nice things.” “Poison with sugar round them, my dear. But that’s all past. You are to be Clive’s dear honoured wife. No more silly, girlish little bits of flirtation. You are not spoiled, my dear, only petted a little too much. That’s all to be put behind us now, is it not?”
  • 84. “Yes, dear—yes, dear Mr Reed,” she whispered, with her arms about his neck; and it was as if years had dropped away, and it was the little child the old man had petted and scolded a hundred times, asking forgiveness, as she whispered, “I will be good now, and love him very dearly.” “That’s like my own child,” said the old man. “Now let’s hear the true woman speak.” “And do always what you wish,” she said, looking him full in the eyes. “That’s right—try,” he said, drawing her down to kiss her, and then signing to her to go. “I’m tired,” he said wearily. “Clive, take your little wife downstairs for a bit. Your hand, my boy. God bless you! Now, Doctor, I’ll have an hour’s sleep.” The Doctor signed for the young people to go down; and as he took a chair by the bed’s head, Grantham Reed turned his head away from the light, and went off into the great sleep as calmly as a tired child.
  • 85. Chapter Eleven. Jessop Plays Trumps. Jessop Reed, when he left his father’s bedroom, had gone straight down to the study, with his brow contracted and his heart full of bitterness, without seeing that he was closely watched, and that a pale, troubled face was raised over the top balustrade, which looked very dull and gloomy in the yellow light which streamed through the soot-darkened skylight panes. “So that’s it,” he said to himself, as he closed the door and threw himself into his father’s great morocco-covered chair. “I’m nobody at all. The new king is to reign, and his name is Clive. I’m not even executor. No voice in anything; only the naughty boy to be punished. If I could only see that will!” His eyes wandered about the dark room with its conventional cases of books that were never read, and he looked at the cabinets and writing-table as if he expected to see some drawer open with the key already in it, so that he could take out the will and read it at his ease. But he shook his head, for he knew that his father was too business-like a man to be careless over so important a document. “At the lawyer’s,” he said to himself; “and there is no need. I know the old man too well; but I wonder what he has said. A few hundred a year for his naughty boy, and the dear, good, industrious youth, who always did as father wished, nearly everything.”
  • 86. “I know,” he said, half aloud, as he sat back in the chair and took out his cigar-case to open it and select a strong, black roll of the weed, bit off the end savagely, and spat it upon the carpet. “I suppose I may smoke here now without getting into grief. Poor old boy! his game’s over; but, curse him, he might have played fair.” He lit the cigar, and began to smoke and muse with his eyes half closed. “I know,” he thought, and he laughed bitterly. “To my dear old friend, Peter Praed, M.D., my cellar of wine, the Turner picture, and one hundred pounds to buy a mourning ring and as recompense for acting as my executor. To my servants fifty pounds each and six months’ wages. To my son Jessop the interest on bank-stock to produce five hundred pounds per annum, paid in quarterly dividends. To my beloved son, Clive Reed, the whole of my remaining property in bank-stock, shares, and my interest in the ‘White Virgin’ mine in the county of Derby. Hah! yes,” he said aloud, “and it is good, or the old man would not have taken it up as he has. Yes, it is no balloon business puffed into a state of inflation, but a genuine, solid affair. All to him, and he is co-executor with the Doctor. He said he had made him so months ago; I am nowhere. And that’s my father!” He bit off a piece of the end of his cigar and spat it out angrily, but started up as a thought struck him. “No, that’s not all,” he muttered, as his eyes flashed, —“Janet!” “Of course,” he said, with a long-drawn breath, full of satisfaction, “he would not forget her. He worshipped the
  • 87. girl, and he would leave her quite independent of Clive. A hundred thousand, if he has left her a penny. The artful little jade: she played her cards right with the old man.” He started from the chair, threw the cigar-end into the fireplace, and hurried up to the drawing-room, to find it empty, and rang the bell. “Where is Miss Praed?” he asked, as the servant appeared. “She was fetched up into poor master’s room, sir.” Jessop Reed went back to the study, and shut himself in, his brow contracted more and more, and lighting another cigar, he lay back smoking and thinking intently, but with his face less clouded by anger, as he felt more and more satisfied that he was right about his father’s disposition of his property, and over his own plans and those of his friend Wrigley. “There is such a thing as salvage when there is a fire,” he said, with a laugh which disfigured his handsome features; “and it comes in too after a wreck. Well, we shall see, my dear brother; matters may balance themselves fairly after all.” He started almost out of his chair just then, for a hand was laid upon his shoulder, and there stood pretty, fair-haired Lyddy, with her eyes red and swollen with weeping. “How did you get here?” cried Jessop angrily. “I opened the door, dear, and came in softly; didn’t you hear me?” “Hear you? No; and how many more times am I to tell you not to call me dear?”
  • 88. “Oh, Jessop, don’t, don’t!” cried the poor girl, bursting into tears. “Poor master! he’s dying fast, they say, and there’ll be no need to hide anything from him now.” “But—but—” “I was on the staircase watching for you, dear, and you were shut up here so long, instead of being with master, that I was afraid you were ill.” “Well, I’m not; so now go, there’s a good girl; and wait a bit till I’ve settled something about you.” “Settled something about me, dear! Why, as soon as poor dear master’s dead you’ll be master then, and can do as you like. You won’t be the first gentleman who has married a servant.” “Oh no, of course not,” he replied, with a bitter sarcasm in his tone. “And you will make me happy then, won’t you, dear? For I am so miserable when I see you courting Miss Janet, I could find it in my heart to go some night to the Serpentine and end it all.” “Will you hold your tongue?” he cried, with a shiver. “Do you think I haven’t enough to worry me as it is? Now, my good girl, is this a time for you to come bothering me?” “I’m not a good girl,” she replied with spirit; “and it’s cruel of you, in your man’s selfishness, to talk of my bothering you. No, no, no, I won’t be angry with you,” she cried, hurriedly changing her tone. “And now, dear, that you can do as you like, you will not think of Miss Janet any more.”
  • 89. “Wait,” he said sullenly; “and now go. Do you think I want the servants to be tattling about your being shut up here?” “Let them tattle,” cried the girl proudly. “Let them, if they dare. They shall soon find that I’m their mistress. Tattle, indeed!” “You heard what I said. Now, then, go away from here at once. There’s a ten-pound note. Don’t bother about your pay, but get away from here, for your dignity’s sake. Your box can be fetched at any time. Go down home.” “Go down home!” said the girl in a low voice, full of suppressed anger; “home, eh? so as to be out of your way now? No,” she cried, flashing out into a fit of passion; “it’s to get rid of me. I’m in your way now that you are going to be master, and you don’t mean to marry me, as you’ve promised a hundred times. I know: it’s Miss Janet.” “Lyddy, don’t be a fool,” cried Jessop, in a tone full of suppressed passion. “Now, go, there’s a good girl. It’s all for the best. Hush! you will be heard.” “Then every one shall hear me,” she cried, tearing up the note he had placed in her hand and flinging it in his face. “No; I won’t be a fool any longer. You’re as good as master now; you’ve promised to marry me, and I will not be packed off in disgrace. You’re master here, Jessop, and I’m mistress; and come what may, I will not stir.” She flung her arms round him as she spoke, and in his rage he raised his doubled fist to strike her down, but it fell to his side. “Mr Jessop Reed is not master here,” said a stern voice at the door, “and you are not the mistress.”
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