Research methodology methods, methodology and techniques
- 1. Social Science Research Ashitha T PhD Research Scholar DCMS Calicut University
- 2. Research It is an organized and systematic study of materials and sources in order to discover new things and establish facts and reach new conclusion. Characteristics . Aims at solving a problem . Purposive . New knowledge . Primary and secondary data . Expertise and skills . Objective and logical . Documentation and reporting
- 3. Objectives – To explore – To describe – To diagnose – To establish causal relationship Significance of research – Discovery and innovations – Decision making – Helps to ascertain trend – Frame government policies – Useful for business organizations
- 4. Social Science Research – Sciences are broadly divided into natural and social science – Social science includes various disciplines dealing with human life ,behavior, social groups and social institution – Social science research ─ refers to any scientific study of human action and interaction focusing on elements of thought and behavior that are in some sense social. Assumptions – Neutral and unbiased study – Same kind of natural law or norms in the society – Similar causes produce similar effect under similar conditions – Results are generalizable – Samples are true representatives
- 5. Functions of SR – Discovery of facts and their interpretation – Diagnosis of problem and their analysis – Control over social phenomenon – Prediction – Development planning – Social welfare Objectives – To discover new facts or to verify and test existing facts – To understand human behavior – To develop new tools, concepts and theories – To identify social problems
- 6. Inductive approach – Bottom up – Specific to general – It consist of studying several individual cases and drawing a generalization – Conclusion are tentative in nature Enumerative induction Analytic induction Deductive approach – Top down – General to specific – The process starts with an existing theory from which we develop a specific hypothesis Hypothetical deductive approach – Used to improve or clarify previous theories according to new knowledge gathered through observation.
- 7. Deductive and Inductive approaches to Research – Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations, and deductive reasoning the other way around. – The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.
- 8. Research Methodology Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability. It’s about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims and objectives. In social science – There won’t be a single methodology for all social sciences. – Both qualitative and quantitative research go hand in hand – Modern approach is demanding interdisciplinary approach
- 9. Contents of Research methodology section – Introduce your method – Methodological connection – Instruments using – Discuss analysis – Background information – Sampling process – Research limitations
- 10. Business Research Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the areas of business and using such information in maximizing the sales and profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which product/service is most profitable or in demand. Research is an important part of a business’ decision-making process, especially when it comes to major structural changes or new product lines. Even highly innovative companies rely on extensive information about consumer needs, market trends and management practices when developing a business strategy. -Market and consumer research -Competition research - Internal research
- 12. Types of Business Research Applied To solve a current problem faced by the manager Basic To generate a body of knowledge about how to solve problems that could be occurred in organisation Research in Business Decisions In management – Employee attitude and behavior – HRM – Production operation management – Information system In marketing – Advertising – Sales promotion – Product packing – Consumer preferences – New product development
- 13. Scientific research It is systematic step by step procedure following the logical process of reasoning. Basis – Empirical evidence – Relevant concepts – Ethical neutrality – Generalization – Verifiability – Logical reasoning process Scientific research process by Horton and Hund – Defining the problem – Review of literature – Formulation of hypothesis – Research design – Data collection – Analysis – Drawing conclusion – Replicate the study for generalization
- 15. Research methods . All the techniques that have been used to conduct the research. It explain the modus operandi of conducting research. There will be different research methods for different research questions. – Fundamental – Applied – Action – Qualitative – Quantitative – Explanatory – Exploratory – descriptive – Longitudinal – Cross sectional – Mixed – Experimental research – Historical – Philosophical – Ex post facto – Correlational studies
- 16. Research methodology – The science of research method – For each method there will be certain steps to follow that is called its methodology – Logic behind research – It is the systematic and theoretical analysis of the methods applied to the field of study – Researcher will describe, explain and justify the method chosen for the study – It will determine study’s validity and reliability.
- 17. Research techniques – Instruments and behaviors used in the research. – It is the particular step taken to collect data foe further analysis and interpretation process. – Used mainly for data collection and selection of statistical analysis procedure. – Questionnaire, interview schedule, score cards, measurement scales,..
- 18. Methodology & Method Research methodology Research methods Beginning of any scientific or non scientific research End of any scientific or non scientific research Involves learning various techniques that can be used to conduct research Involves conducts experiments, tests, surveys, etc. Aims at employment of the correct procedures to find solution to research problem Aims at finding solutions to research problems
- 19. Method & Techniques Type Methods Techniques Library research Analysis of historical records Recording notes, content analysis, etc. Analysis of documents Statistical compilation and manipulations, reference and abstract guides, content analysis. Field research Personal/ group/ focused group interviews Telephone surveys, observations Case studies, Mailed questionnaire. Behavioural scales, score cards Attitude scales, projective techniques Detailed schedule with open and closed questions. Laboratory research Small group study of random behavior, play and role analysis Use of audio visual recording devices, use of observation Hypothesis testing Pre test, post test, measuring and recording.
- 20. Basis Methodology Method Technique Definition It is the science of methods. Techniques used for conducting research They are the instruments and behaviors used in research Purpose Explain the logic behind research. Explain the modus operandi of conducting research Help in actually conducting the research Example It is given in the research proposal prepared in response to a problem. Interview, content analysis, observation Questionnaire, interview schedule, score cards, measurement scales.
- 21. Different research techniques used in research – Questionnaire and schedule – Observation schedule or observationnaire – Interview guide – Rating scale – Check list – Opinionnaire – Scales and indices Arbitrary scales Thurstone differential scales Rating scale Ranking scale Guttman scale Semantic differential scale Attitude scales Socio economic status scales Pilot study and pre testing
- 22. Questionnaire and schedule – Both contain set of questions logically related to a problem under study – Both aims to record response from respondents – Schedule is used as a tool for interviewing. It will be filled by the interviewer or enumerator. – Questionnaire is filled by the respondent Observation schedule or observationnaire – A form on which observations of an object or phenomenon are recorded. – Observation will be based on the study – It helps to avoid observational mistakes and biases.
- 23. Interview guide – Directive and depth interviews – Broad topic or area to be covered. It is not specific – Provides outline for the interview. – Flexible Rating scales – Recording form used to measure individuals attitude, aspirations and other psychological and behavioral aspects. – Either a graphic rating scale or an itemized scale
- 24. Check list – Simplest – It consist of a prepared list of items pertinent to an object or particular task. The presence or absence of each item maybe indicated by checking yes or no or multiple scale – Can be a independent tool or as part of questionnaire/ schedule Opinionnaire – List of questions or statements related to an issue or programe – Used for studying the opinions of people. – Commonly used in opinion polls – Respondents are asked to express their response to the listed questions or statements.
- 25. Scales and indices Arbitrary scales – Constructed by assigning arbitrary numerical values to the responses to a set of questions appropriate to a given attribute. – Values are summed up to secure the attribute scale Thurstone differential scale (Judgement scaling) – Scale consist of number of statemnets whose position on the scale has been determined previously based on the ranking operation performed by judges – 3 to 7 point scale is used Rating scale
- 26. Ranking scale – Meant for arranging objects or persons in order from most to least with regard to some attribute – Does not indicate the difference or distance between ranks Guttman scale (Cumulative scale of scalogram) – Qualitative data – Possible to know which item respondent has answered positively – It is a procedure for determining the unidirectionality and reproducibility of a set of items.
- 27. Semantic differential scale (SD Scale)- Osgood – Attempts to measure the psychological meaning of a concept to individual – It consist of a set of bipolar rating scales, usually seven points by which groups or subjects are asked to rate one or more concepts relevant to the selected research problem. Attitude scales – An attitude is a tendency to act or react in a certain manner based on certain stimuli. – It is the degree of positive or negative feelings about an object or issue. – It is not directly observable, but is inferred from one’s verbal and non verbal behavior. – Their main function is to divide the respondents into a number of broad groups with regard to particular attitude.
- 28. Socio economic status scales – It covers socio economic status such as economic status, social participation, educational status. occupational ranking, source of income, material possession, etc. – Arbitrary values will be assigning for measurement. – Socio economic status is correlated with several variables like opinion, attitude, voting behavior, etc. Pilot study and pretesting – Pretesting is done to test the questionnaire – Pilot study is to conduct a sample research and find out hindrance in data collection and also to check reliability and validity of data collected
- 29. Classification of research 1. Based on objective – Fundamental – Applied – Action 2. Based on nature of data – Qualitative – Quantitative 3. Based on nature of findings – Explanatory – Exploratory – descriptive 4. Based on approach involved – Longitudinal – Cross sectional – Mixed 5. Based on experimental manipulations Experimental research – True experimental – Quasi experimental Non experimental research – Historical – Philosophical – Ex post facto – Correlational studies
- 30. Pure/ Basic/ Fundamental research – Undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply that knowledge – Undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness – Aims to extension of knowledge. It may leads to the development of new theory or refinement of an existing theory – It lays foundation for applied research. Applied research – Carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision. – It is problem oriented and action driven – They need empirical study for finding solution – Incidentally it will contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge.
- 31. Action research - Evaluation study of an action program launched for solving a problem or to improve existing situation - Attempts to solve actual problem in work situation - Success of action research depends on the corporation of action implementing people and beneficiaries of the action program Qualitative research – To understand a phenomenon from a closer perspective and to uncover prevalent trends in thoughts and opinion – Tries to observe and interpret – Non statistical data analysis – Open ended questions – Data collection methods are semi structured or unstructured – Use either hypothesis or research questions – Interview, focus groups, GD, ethnography, case study,.. Quantitative research – To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest. – Tries to measure and test – Statistical tools using for data analysis – Mostly closed questions – Data collection methods are highly structured – Mainly uses hypothesis – Online and postal survey, simulations, etc.
- 32. Explanatory research – A type of research that attempts to explain why certain phenomenon work in the way that they do. – Mainly using in science. And usually after exploratory and descriptive research – Links different ideas to understand the nature of cause and effect relationship in order to explain why certain phenomenon occurs Exploratory research/ Formulative – Type of research that attempts to explore and investigate a problem that is not clearly defined – Won’t give a conclusive or final solution – It is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. Descriptive research – A research that explore and explain an individual group or a situation. – Aims to test specific hypothesis, examines relationships and describes characteristics and functions. – Structured and results are more conclusive.
- 34. Longitudinal research – A type of correlational research that involves observing certain variables over an extended period of time – Period can be weeks, months or even years – A fixed example of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same variable – Types • Trend studies • Cohort analysis • Panel study Trend studies – It samples different group of people at different time from the same population – Permits researchers to examine pattern and rate of changes and to make prediction about future direction based on previously identified patterns and rate of changes.
- 35. Cohort analysis – A cohort is a group of individuals who are linked in some way or who have experienced the same significant life event within a given period. – Cohort analysis is a study in which some characteristics of one or more cohorts is measured at 2 or more points in time Panel studies – Measures the same sample of respondents at different points in time – It reveals information about both net change and gross change in the dependent variable – Mostly used in market research Static panel- same members throughout Dynamic panels- members substituted from time to time.
- 36. Cross sectional research – Collects data to make inferences about a population of interest at one point in time. – Provides snapshot of the population about which they gather data – Can adopt any mode of data collection- interview, telephone interview, mailed questionnaire, etc. – More generalizable than longitudinal Single cross sectional study- only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target population Multiple cross sectional study- two or more samples. • Each sample will be approached once. • Different samples is obtained at different time over long intervals. • Comparison at aggregate level but not at the respondents level.
- 38. Experimental research - Strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher and a variable that can be measured, calculated and compared. • True experiment – used to establish cause and effect relationship Manipulation Control Randomisation • Quasi experimental- involves manipulation of Independent Variable to observe the effect on DV
- 39. Historical research A procedure supplementary to observation in which the researcher seeks to test the authenticity of the reports or observation made by others Analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past Ex Post Facto research It is a deal for conducting social research when it is not possible or acceptable to manipulate the characteristics of human participants Correlational studies • It measures the association and covariation of 2 or more dependent variables • Used to – Relationship between two variables – For prediction • If there is no association between two variables, then there is no causal connection.
- 40. Case study A systematic inquiry into an event or a set of related events which aims to describe and explain the phenomenon of interest -Bromley (1990) Purpose- exploratory, explanatory and descriptive research Survey research – To study the relationship and strategies – Surveys are method of data collection in which information is gathered through oral or written questioning – Used to know or get the opinion of a large group of people about a particular topic or issue. Evaluation research Also called program evaluation, refers to a research purpose rather than a specific method A form of applied research- intended to have some real life effect “Research seeks to prove, evaluation seeks to improve”- M.Q. Patton
- 41. Assessment research Research assessment includes the evaluation of research quality and measurements of research inputs, outputs and impacts. Comparative method It is a process of comparing situations, groups, cultures or whatever, which are similar and yet which differ in known ways Interdisciplinary research – Multidisciplinary, cross disciplinary. Transdisciplinary, sub disciplinary, etc. – Process of answering a question, solving a problem, or addressing a topic that is too broad or complex to be dealt with adequately by a single discipline or profession.
- 42. THANK YOU..