![other human beings. It focuses on the nature of human knowledge and
comprehension that you, as the researcher or knower, can possibly
acquire so as to be able to extend, broaden and deepen understanding
in your field of research.
o In considering the epistemology of your research, you ask questions
like: Is knowledge something which can be acquired on the one hand,
or, is it something which has to be personally experienced? What is the
nature of knowledge and the relationship between the knower and the
would-be known? What is the relationship between me, as the inquirer,
and what is known? These questions are important because they help
the researcher to position themselves in the research context so that
they can discover what else is new, given what is known. And so to
understand the epistemological element of your paradigm, you should
ask the very important question of how we know what we know? This
question is the basis for investigating ‘truth’. Whereas it might be
debatable as to whether there is such a thing as ‘truth’
o If we take factual evidence as truth, then epistemology helps you to ask
factual questions, such as how do we know the truth? What counts as
knowledge? These are particularly important questions because one of
the criteria by which higher degree research is judged is its contribution
to knowledge. In trying to articulate the answers to the above
questions, researchers can draw from four sources of knowledge.
Those sources are intuitive knowledge, authoritative knowledge, logical
knowledge, and empirical knowledge
. Axiology
o Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about the
value[1]. Specifically, axiology is engaged with assessment of the role
of researcher’s own value on all stages of the research process.
o Axiology primarily refers to the ‘aims’ of the research. This branch of
the research philosophy attempts to clarify if you are trying to explain or
predict the world, or are you only seeking to understand it.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/researchparadignm-lecturenotes-241030082657-0c379863/85/Research-Paradigm-An-Introduction-Lecture-Notes-pdf-5-320.jpg)
Research Paradigm - An Introduction Lecture Notes.pdf
- 1. 1 | P a g e QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS Research Paradigm An Introduction Dr. J. D. Chandrapal Visiting Faculty - BKSPSM Lecture Notes – Research Paradigm
- 2. Various Approaches for Decision Making • Decision making require some relevant-accurate knowledge about problem that anticipate outcomes and logical consequences • Personal experience and common sense • Experts and authorities • Popular and media messages • Ideological beliefs and values • Research Five Errors in Everyday Decisions • Overgeneralization • Selective observation • Premature closure • Halo effect • False consensus Research Reduces Errors in Decisions • Overgeneralization • Selective observation • Premature closure • Halo effect • False consensus Generalization Systematic Inquiry Careful Consideration Free From Bias Empirical Evidences Research Supports Decision Making Research supports decision making through collecting, analysing and interpreting information to identify and solve business problems. • Thus the business research is the specific management function relied upon to provide information for business decisions. • Well planned and well-executed research can provide accurate & relevant information needed to help organization to make its business decision. • Use of information & data is a function of the direct & indirect effects of environmental, informational, organizational, and individual factors • Successful Manager always tries to seek information and identify newer ways to create, communicate and deliver superior value.
- 3. Framework for Research Basic Assumptions and Belief o Ontological Assumption o Epistemological Assumption o Axiological Assumption Research Philosophy o Positivism o Realism o Interpretivism o Pragmatism Design & Methods o Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods o Questions, o Data collection and Data Analysis, o Interpretation and Validation Basic Assumptions and Belief Ontology o Ontology is the starting point of all research, after which one‟s epistemological and methodological positions logically follow. A dictionary definition of the term may describe it as the image of social reality upon which a theory is based o Ontology refers to assumptions about the nature of reality. o Ontology as a branch of philosophy in business research can be defined as “the science or study of being” it is the science of what is, of the kinds and structures of objects. o Ontology as a branch of philosophy is the science of what is, of the kinds and structures of objects, properties, events, processes and relations in every area of reality o In business and management these objects include organisations, management, individuals’ working lives and organisational events and artefacts.
- 4. o In simple terms, ontology deals with the nature of reality. o Ontology concerns claims about the nature of being and existence. o It seeks the classification and explanation of entities. o Ontology is about the object of inquiry, what you set to examine. o Ontology is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation by an individual about what constitutes a fact. o Therefore your ontology determines how you see the world of business and management o Ontology seeks to provide a definitive and exhaustive classification of entities in all spheres of being. o The classification should be definitive in the sense that it can serve as an answer to such questions as: What classes of entities are needed for a complete description and explanation of all the goings-on in the universe? Or: What classes of entities are needed to give an account of what makes true all truths? o It should be exhaustive in the sense that all types of entities should be included in the classification, including also the types of relations by which entities are tied together to form larger wholes. . Epistemology o Epistemology, one of the core branches of philosophy, is concerned with the theory of knowledge, especially in regard to its methods, validation and „the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever it is understood to be. o Epistemology deals with what we can know and how we can know it (the means and conditions for knowledge) o Epistemology how we know....and epistemology questions how these came into being of course through senses, perceptions, observations, etc. o ‘Epistemology – The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, methods & limits of knowledge o In short, claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known o It is concerned with the very bases of knowledge – its nature, and forms and how it can be acquired, and how it can be communicated to
- 5. other human beings. It focuses on the nature of human knowledge and comprehension that you, as the researcher or knower, can possibly acquire so as to be able to extend, broaden and deepen understanding in your field of research. o In considering the epistemology of your research, you ask questions like: Is knowledge something which can be acquired on the one hand, or, is it something which has to be personally experienced? What is the nature of knowledge and the relationship between the knower and the would-be known? What is the relationship between me, as the inquirer, and what is known? These questions are important because they help the researcher to position themselves in the research context so that they can discover what else is new, given what is known. And so to understand the epistemological element of your paradigm, you should ask the very important question of how we know what we know? This question is the basis for investigating ‘truth’. Whereas it might be debatable as to whether there is such a thing as ‘truth’ o If we take factual evidence as truth, then epistemology helps you to ask factual questions, such as how do we know the truth? What counts as knowledge? These are particularly important questions because one of the criteria by which higher degree research is judged is its contribution to knowledge. In trying to articulate the answers to the above questions, researchers can draw from four sources of knowledge. Those sources are intuitive knowledge, authoritative knowledge, logical knowledge, and empirical knowledge . Axiology o Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about the value[1]. Specifically, axiology is engaged with assessment of the role of researcher’s own value on all stages of the research process. o Axiology primarily refers to the ‘aims’ of the research. This branch of the research philosophy attempts to clarify if you are trying to explain or predict the world, or are you only seeking to understand it.
- 6. o In simple terms, axiology focuses on what do you value in your research. This is important because your values affect how you conduct your research and what do you value in your research findings. o When discussing axiology aspect of the research philosophy in your qualitative research, you need to make your values known in the study and reports your values and biases as well as the value-laden nature of information gathered from the field o Axiology is the study of value or, more adequately, theory on the nature of value. In plain-English; what’s good (or bad) in life and what do we find worthy. o Axiology incorporates ethics (theory of morality) and aesthetics (theory of taste and of beauty), as well as other forms of value. Asking what ‘ought to be’ is axiological. o Axiology is a part of value theory (video: 5 minutes), which has broader applicability, but here axiology is the core focus. o Axiological concerns infuse research. Two general examples are: what makes a good researcher (eg., impartial, curious; caring; diligent, etc); and, what is worthwhile science (eg., correlational, causal, problem- centred, hypothesis-centered, experimental, applied, private, public, etc). o A particular example concerns research question formation, as created and enacted from personal, scientific and other commitments; eg., what is valued as a research question and outcome. o Futhermore, these issues are multi-dimensional, eg., “In what context is the research situated (paradigmatic influences)? What are the philosophical values chosen and why (guiding the inquiry)? Why is a specific inquiry chosen (focus of research)? and, Which claims are made (and suggestions to practitioners)?” o Axiology then, is a part of the overall usefulness of philosophy to thinking about interdisciplinary research.
- 8. Research Philosophies Positivist Philosophy o Positivism adopted theory of the nature of reality (i.e., philosophical ontology) and reality consists of atomistic (micro-level) and independent events. o This approach implies the use of the senses to generate knowledge about reality (i.e., scientific method). o Thus it relies specifically on scientific evidence, such as experiments and statistics, to reveal a true nature of business world operates. o According to this approach reason is the best way to generate knowledge about reality. o It is believed that philosophical and logical reasoning could lead us to “see” non-existing links between events occurring simultaneously. Thus the positivist paradigm asserts that real events can be observed empirically and explained with logical analysis. o Positivism refers to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through observation (the senses) o Role of the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation in an objective way. o Research findings are usually observable and quantifiable. o Thus Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that lead to statistical analyses. o As a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist view that knowledge stems from human experience. o It has an atomistic, ontological view of the world as comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an observable, determined and regular manner” o in positivism studies the researcher is independent from the study; o Independent means that you maintain minimal interaction with your research participants when carrying out your research o and your research can be purely objective not subjective. o It means there are no provisions for human interests within the study.
- 9. o Pos pos hyp o In o fact o Pos hyp o Pos and gen o Pos Pos and o Pos sitivist stu sitivist res potheses. other word ts and con sitivism of potheses to sitivism re d entails wo neralisation sitivism – sitivism ha d interconn sitivism – Positiv experim comple econom suicide Recom derived udies usua searcher y ds, studies sider the w ften involv o be tested lates to th orking with ns. It prom A Deduct s a deduc nected, and A Resear vist resea mentation exity of the mic linkag e). mmendation d via the ally adopt you migh s with pos world to be ves the u d during the he philosop h an observ ises unam tive Appro tive appro d therefore rch Metho arch met in a lab-l e external w ges betwe ns are the “scientific t deductive ht use ex itivist para e external a use of ex e research phical stan vable socia mbiguous an oach ach it impl e reality is o dology thodology like enviro world (e.g een unem en prescri c method” e approac xisting the adigm are and objecti xisting the h process. nce of the al reality to nd accurat lies that ev ordered an emphas onment tha ., social, p mployment bed based (e.g., job h. Means eory to d based pu ive. eory to d e natural s o produce te knowled vents are o nd deducib izes mic at elimina psychologic , and cr d on conc b training s As a develop urely on develop scientist law-like dge ordered ble. cro-level tes the cal, and ime or clusions for the
- 10. unemployed, antidepressants for the suicidal, and jail time for the criminal). While the results obtained using experimental methods provide valuable insights into the nature of reality. A positivist dealing with complex business problems with their visible manifestations (i.e., the unemployed individual or criminal who can be sensed or perceived) rather than with the underlying causal mechanisms that are invisible to us. Hence, positivist prescriptions tend to treat the symptoms rather than the root cause of the problem. o Features of Positivism Scientific Objective Robust Identifying Causes Uses Method of Natural Sciences Hypothesis Testing Positivism – Advantage vs. Disadvantage Advantages Quantitative Approach - Positivism relies on QNT data; believed to be more reliable. More “scientific method” & more trustworthy than QLT data. QNT data provides objective information that researchers can use to make scientific assumptions Structure - structure gives little room for variance and drastic variable changes, thus making the study more accurate when it comes to experiments & applications as it tries to follow specific rules using objective mathematical-scientific tools. Disadvantages Human Behavior - It believes that objective inferences-conclusions can be reached when doing observation is objective & disregards emotions. It encourages to disregard human emotion-behavior, there is no guarantee that this will occur at all times during studies.
- 11. Inflexibility - Since positivists believe everything can be calculated, they tend to be inflexible. They see things as they are and tend to disregard unexplained phenomena. This belief can eliminate lateral thinking, which is process of finding answers by creatively and indirectly Objectivism vs. Subjectivism Objectivism consists of things that can be observed or reproduced or is made up of hard facts that come from consensus built over time. Objectivism is Factual & comes from Observation. Subjective knowledge is realm of personal perspective-belief as it referred to as phenomenological research. concerned with study of experiences Objectivism claims to describe a true & correct reality, which is independent of those involved in research process. It tends to be modelled on the methods of natural sciences such as experiments. Subjectivism refers to subjective experiences of participants & to the fact researcher’s perspective is embedded within research process, rather than seen as fully detached from it. While the statue of unity's location is objective knowledge, calling it tallest in the world is subjective knowledge. People who have traveled elsewhere may think that the Statue of Unity is tall compared to the Spring Temple Buddha or Statue of The Great Buddha of Thailand. Stating that the height of the statue of unity is 787 ft feet is objective, but the spring temple Buddha is over 682 feet in height Realism Philosophy Underlying Structures of Reality that Shape the Observable Events Realism is based on the assumption of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. It is an extension of positivist approach.
- 12. Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind. Realism is also a set of assumptions that we bring to empirical investigation. But in this case the assumptions are about ontology - how the world works, in the most general ways. Realism asserts that there are real underlying causes, structures, processes, and entities that give rise to the observations we make of the world, natural and social. It postulates that it is scientifically appropriate to form theories and hypotheses about these underlying causes in order to arrive at explanations of what we observe. Two types of Realism – Direct Realism and Critical Realism Direct Realism o Direct realism says that what you see is what you get: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accurately o Direct Realism relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind o Direct realists accept the world as relatively unchanging” and they concentrate on only one level be it individual, group and the organization Critical Realism o Critical realism focuses on explaining what we see and experience, in terms of the underlying structures of reality that shape the observable events. o Critical realism argues that humans do experience the sensations and images of the real world. o Critical realists, accept importance of multi-level study and appreciates influence & interrelationship between individual, group and the organization Critical Realism is more popular & appropriate than direct realist approach due to its ability to capture the fuller picture when studying a phenomenon.
- 13. In positivist approach we are trying to measure some cause and effect but in critical realism we are trying to consider correlations. Interpretivism Philosophy The subjective interpretations-Integrating Human Interest in to the Study Interpretive research is based on the assumption that… o Social reality is not singular or objective, o Shaped by human experiences & social contexts (ontology), o and is Best studied within its socio-historic context o by reconciling subjective interpretations of its participants (epistemology). An interpretivist concentrates on the meanings that people bring to situations and behaviour and the ways that they use this to interpret the world. Interpretivism emphasises that humans are different from physical phenomena because they create meanings. Interpretivism involves researchers to interpret elements of the study, Thus Interpretivism integrates human interest into a study Interpretivist approach is based on beliefs: Relativist ontology and Transactional or subjectivist epistemology These approaches that reject the objectivist view that meaning resides within the world independently of consciousness” As different people of different cultural backgrounds, under different circumstances and at different times make different meanings, and so create and experience different social realities The purpose of interpretivist research is to create new, richer understandings and interpretations of social worlds and contexts. For business and management researchers, this means looking at organisations from the perspectives of different groups of people. Interpretations of what on the surface appears to be the same thing can differ between historical or geographical contexts.
- 14. In P in In nterpretivi Positivism h nterconnec nterpretivi Interpr such a Secon emerg The m Herme unders and as Pheno the wo Symb objects symbo ism – An I has a ded cted, and th ism – A Re retivist app as interview ndary data ge usually t most notewo eneutics r standing. I s such, has omenolog orld throug olic intera s having ols provide Inductive A ductive ap herefore re esearch M proach is b ws and obs research i towards th orthy varia refers to It mainly f s a little re y is “the p h directly e actionism shared me means by Approach proach it eality is ord Methodolo based on n servations s also pop e end of th ations of Int the p focuses on levance to philosophic experiencin m accepts eanings. A y which rea h implies th dered and d ogy naturalistic . pular; in thi he researc terpretivism philosophy n biblical t business cal tradition ng the phe symbols a According ality is cons at events deducible. approach s type of s h process. m include.. of int texts and studies. n that see enomena”. as cultura to symbo structed are order of data co studies, me . ... erpretation wisdom lit eks to unde lly derived olic interac red and ollection eanings n and terature erstand d social ctionism
- 15. Characteristics of Interpretivism Natural Inquiry - Phenomena must be studied within their natural setting Researcher as Instrument - are considered part of the data collection instrument Interpretive Analysis - Observations must be interpreted through the eyes of the participants embedded in the social context Use of Expressive Language - Documenting the verbal and non-verbal language of participants Temporal nature - Not concerned with searching for specific answers, but with understanding or “making sense of” dynamic social process - chronological Hermeneutic circle - Iterative process of moving back and forth from pieces of observations (text) to the social phenomenon (context) Features of Interpretive Research Subjective - looking at something with bias & is value laden Own Choices - People make own choices and is not connected to laws of science or nature Ethnographic - Scientific description of peoples and cultures with their customs, habits, and mutual differences High Validity - Tend to look at general overview, therefore has high validity because it is a true representation and is trustworthy Qualitative - Prefer humanistic QLT methods. using methods such as unstructured interviews or participant observation Normative - Theory represents what ought to be or normative Interpretivism – Principles Hermeneutic Circle Contextualization Interaction between Researchers and Subjects Abstraction and Generalization Dialogical Reasoning Multiple Interpretations Suspicion
- 16. Positivism vs. Interpretive Assumptions Positivism Interpretivism Nature of reality Objective, tangible, single Socially constructed, multiple Goal of research Explanation, strong prediction Understanding, weak prediction Focus of interest What is general, average and representative What is specific, unique, and deviant Knowledge generated Laws, Absolute (time, context, and value free) Meanings Relative (time, context, culture, value bound) Subject/ Researcher relationship Rigid separation Interactive, cooperative, participative Desired information How many people think and do a specific thing, or have a specific problem What some people think and do, what kind of problems they are confronted with, and how they deal with them Pragmatism Pragmatics recognise, there are many different ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research, that no single point of view can ever give the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities Pragmatism strives to reconcile both objectivism and subjectivism, facts and values, accurate and rigorous knowledge and different contextualised experiences In pragmatism Research question is the most important determinant of the research philosophy. Pragmatics can combine both, positivist and Interpretivism positions within scope of a single research according to the nature of the research question.
- 17. P With reaso and a Pragmatism Indu Dedu Abdu pragmatis oning proc a deductive m – An Ab ctive Reas uctive Rea uctive Rea sm the re cess which e reasonin bductive A soning asoning asoning esearcher h moves b ng process Approach will typica back and f . Dete Spec Conc O1 = resul O2 = resul O3 = resul Conc Adve in inc Dete Gene Obse Conc Adve in inc Hypo Adve resul Conc Adve in inc Dete Gene Obse Conc Adve in inc Hypo Adve resul Conc Adve in inc ally emplo forth betw ermining R cific Obser clusion = Advertisin ted in incre = Advertisi ted in incre = Advertisi ted in incre clusion ertising of a crease in Sa rmining co eral conclu ervation clusion ertising of a crease of Sa othesis ertising of p t in increase clusion Dedu ertising of p crease of its ermining c eral conclu ervation clusion ertising of a crease of Sa othesis ertising of p t in increase clusion Dedu ertising of p crease of its oy an ‘abd ween an in Rule rvation ≥ ng of Prod ase of its sa ng of prod ase of its sa ng of prod ase of its sa any product ales onclusion usion ≥ any product ales product ‘A e in its Sale uced product A s Sales conclusion usion ≥ any product ales product ‘A e in its Sale uced product A s Sales ductive’ nductive General duct ‘A’ ales duct ‘B’ ales duct ‘C’ ales t results Specific t results A’ would es resulted n Specific t results A’ would es resulted
- 18. Pragmatism – A Research Methodology A pragmatists dealing with complex business problems with their visible manifestations (i.e., the unemployed individual or criminal who can be sensed or perceived) as well as with the underlying causal mechanisms that are invisible to us. Hence, pragmatic prescriptions tend to treat the symptoms and the root cause of the problem. Pragmatists prescribes recommendations based on conclusions derived via the “scientific method” as well as based on naturalistic approach of data collection such as interviews and observations. Thus the Pragmatists commonly utilize mixed-methods approach (QNT plus QLT) without considering the ontological and epistemological underpinnings of a research design. Pragmatism – Principles Emphasis on actionable knowledge - A central tenet in pragmatic inquiry is the view that all research should emanate from a desire to produce useful and actionable knowledge, solve existential problems or re-determine indeterminate situations, drawn from examination of effective habits or ways of acting Experience, Knowing and Acting - Recognition of the interconnectedness of experience, knowing and acting. first, it emphasizes that knowledge is based on experience; and second, it encourages the researchers to analyse business practices through experience as well as action. Inquiry as an Experiential Process - Inquiry links beliefs and action through a process of decision-making. This embeddedness encourages researchers to ask, ‘what difference would it make to act in one way rather than another?’ By encouraging business stakeholders to trace out the likely consequences of different lines of action, researchers are able to gain a more detailed understanding of the phenomena under investigation
- 19. Key Aspects in Pragmatism Belief o Believes in present and change, no belief in permanent values o Development takes place through interaction & environment Experience o Pragmatic approach gives an importance to Experience o It emphasis on humanistic philosophy and Democratic Value Practical o Give emphasis on practical philosophy o Gives Emphasis on experimentation Action o Pragmatic approach gives an importance to Action o It emphasis on the means not on ‘end’ Key Differences in Research Approach Positivism Interpretivism Pragmatism Research Approach Deductive Inductive Abductive Ontology Nature of Reality Objective Subjective Objective/ Subjective Epistemology Nature of Knowledge Observer is independent of study Observer is dependent of study Combination of both Axiology Role of Researcher Value Free Biased Value free/Biased Research Strategies Quantitative Qualitative Mixed method QNT/QLT Data Collection Experiments Quasi Experiments Tests Scales Interviews Observation Document Reviews Visual data Analysis May include tools from both Positivist and Interpretivist paradigm
- 20. Research approach Ontology Axiology Research strategy Positivism Deductive Objective Value-free Quantitative Interpretivism Inductive Subjective Biased Qualitative Pragmatism Deductive/ Inductive Objective or subjective Value- free/biased Qualitative and/or quantitative