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This document discusses pulmonary ventilation, which includes the mechanics and processes of breathing. It covers: 1) How breathing is accomplished by the diaphragm and rib cage moving to expand the lungs. 2) How air moves into and out of the lungs due to pressure differences between the alveoli and pleural space. 3) The role of surfactant in reducing surface tension and improving lung compliance. 4) Measurements of lung volumes and capacities using spirometry to assess pulmonary function.
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- 2. Pulmonary Ventilation - The goals of respiration are to provide oxygen to the tissues and to remove carbon dioxide. - (1) pulmonary ventilation, which means the inflow and outflow of air between the atmosphere and the lung alveoli; - (2) diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood; - (3) transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and body fluids to and from the body’s tissue cells; and - (4) regulation of ventilation and other aspects of respiration.
- 3. Mechanics of PV - The lungs can be expanded and contracted in two ways: - (1) by downward and upward movement of the diaphragm to lengthen or shorten the chest cavity, - (2) by elevation and depression of the ribs to increase and decrease the anteroposterior diameter of the chest cavity.
- 4. Mechanics of PV - Normal quiet breathing is accomplished almost entirely by movement of the diaphragm. - During inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm pulls the lower surfaces of the lungs downward. - During expiration, the diaphragm simply relaxes, and the elastic recoil of the lungs, chest wall, and abdominal structures compresses the lungs and expels the air
- 5. Mechanics of PV - During heavy breathing, however, the elastic forces are not powerful enough to cause the necessary rapid expiration, - so that extra force is achieved mainly by contraction of the abdominal muscles, - which pushes the abdominal contents upward against the bottom of the diaphragm, thereby compressing the lungs.
- 6. Mechanics of PV - The second method for expanding the lungs is to raise the rib cage. - This expands the lungs because, in the natural resting position, the ribs slant downward, thus allowing the sternum to fall backward toward the vertebral column. - But when the rib cage is elevated, the ribs project almost directly forward, so that the sternum also moves forward, away from the spine, making the anteroposterior thickness of the chest about 20 per cent greater during maximum inspiration. - So muscles that elevate the chest cage are classified as muscles of inspiration, and those muscles that depress the chest cage are classified as muscles of expiration.
- 7. Mechanics of PV - The most important muscles that raise the rib cage are the external intercostals, but others that help are the - (1) sternocleidomastoid muscles, which lift upward on the sternum; - (2) anterior serrati, which lift many of the ribs; and - (3) scaleni, which lift the first two ribs. - The muscles that pull the rib cage downward during expiration are mainly the - (1) abdominal recti, which have the powerful effect of pulling downward on the lower ribs at the same time that they and other abdominal muscles also compress the abdominal contents upward against the diaphragm, and - (2) internal intercostals.
- 10. Movement of Air - lung “floats” in the thoracic cavity, surrounded by a thin layer of pleural fluid that lubricates movement of the lungs within the cavity. - continual suction of excess fluid into lymphatic channels maintains a slight suction between the visceral surface of the lung pleura and the parietal pleural surface of the thoracic cavity. - Pleural pressure is the pressure of the fluid in the thin space between the lung pleura and the chest wall pleura. – Negative due to suction
- 11. Movement of Air - The normal pleural pressure at the beginning of inspiration is about –5 centimeters of water - during normal inspiration, expansion of the chest cage pulls outward on the lungs with greater force and creates more negative pressure, to an average of about –7.5 centimeters of water. - Alveolar pressure is the pressure of the air inside the lung alveoli. - When the glottis is open and no air is flowing into or out of the lungs, the pressures in all parts of the respiratory tree, all the way to the alveoli, are equal to atmospheric pressure, which is considered to be zero centimeters water pressure.
- 12. Movement of Air - during normal inspiration, alveolar pressure decreases to about –1 centimeter of water. - This slight negative pressure is enough to pull 0.5 liter of air into the lungs in the 2 seconds required for normal quiet inspiration. - During expiration, opposite pressures occur: - The alveolar pressure rises to about +1 centimeter of water, - and this forces the 0.5 liter of inspired air out of the lungs during the 2 to 3 seconds of expiration.
- 13. Movement of Air - difference between the alveolar pressure and the pleural pressure is called the transpulmonary pressure. - It is the pressure difference between that in the alveoli and that on the outer surfaces of the lungs, - and it is a measure of the elastic forces in the lungs that tend to collapse the lungs at each instant of respiration, - called the recoil pressure.
- 14. b
- 15. Compliance of the Lungs - The extent to which the lungs will expand for each unit increase in transpulmonary pressure is called the lung compliance. - The total compliance of both lungs together in the normal adult human being averages about 200 milliliters of air per centimeter of water transpulmonary pressure. - That is, every time the transpulmonary pressure increases 1 centimeter of water, the lung volume, after 10 to 20 seconds, will expand 200 milliliters.
- 16. Compliance Diagram - The characteristics of the compliance diagram are determined by the elastic forces of the lungs. - (1) elastic forces of the lung tissue itself and - (2) elastic forces caused by surface tension of the fluid that lines the inside walls of the alveoli and other lung air spaces. - The elastic forces of the lung tissue are determined mainly by elastin and collagen fibers linked among the lung parenchyma. - In deflated lungs, these fibers are in an elastically contracted state; then, when the lungs expand, the fibers become stretched, so extending and applying even more elastic force.
- 18. Surface Tension - When water forms a surface with air, the water molecules on the surface of the water have an especially strong attraction for one another - water surface is always attempting to contract. - This is what holds raindrops together - there is a tight contractile membrane of water molecules around the entire surface of the raindrop. - Alveoli - the water surface is also attempting to contract - force the air out of the alveoli through the bronchi - causes the alveoli to try to collapse. - The net effect is to cause an elastic contractile force of the entire lungs, which is called the surface tension elastic force.
- 19. Surfactant - Surfactant is a surface active agent in water – it greatly reduces the surface tension of water. - It is secreted by special surfactant-secreting epithelial cells called type II alveolar epithelial cells, which constitute about 10 per cent of the surface area of the alveoli. - These cells are granular, containing lipid attachments that are secreted in the surfactant into the alveoli.
- 20. Surfactant - Surfactant is a complex mixture of several phospholipids, proteins, and ions. - The most important components are the phospholipid dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, surfactant apoproteins, and calcium ions. - The dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, along with several less important phospholipids, is responsible for reducing the surface tension. - It does this by not dissolving uniformly in the fluid lining the alveolar surface - part of the molecule dissolves, while the remainder spreads over the surface of the water in the alveoli.
- 21. Surfactant - the surface tension of different water fluids is approximately the following: - Pure water, 72 dynes/cm; - normal fluids lining the alveoli but without surfactant, 50 dynes/cm; - normal fluids lining the alveoli and with normal amounts of surfactant , between 5 and 30 dynes/cm.
- 22. Surfactant - If the air passages leading from the alveoli of the lungs are blocked, the surface tension in the alveoli tends to collapse the alveoli. - This creates positive pressure in the alveoli, attempting to push the air out. The amount of pressure generated in this way in an alveolus can be calculated from the following formula: - Pressure = 2 X Surface tension Radius of alveolus - P = 2T R
- 23. Surfactant - For the average-sized alveolus with a radius of about 100 micrometers and lined with normal surfactant, this calculates to be about 4 centimeters of water pressure (3 mm Hg). - If the alveoli were lined with pure water without any surfactant, the pressure would calculate to be about 18 centimeters of water pressure, 4.5 times as great. - Thus, surfactant is important in reducing alveolar surface tension and therefore also reducing the effort required by the respiratory muscles to expand the lungs.
- 24. Surfactant - the pressure generated as a result of surface tension in the alveoli is inversely affected by the radius of the alveolus, which means that the smaller the alveolus, the greater the alveolar pressure caused by the surface tension. - when the alveoli have half the normal radius (50 instead of 100 micrometers), the pressures noted earlier are doubled. - This is especially significant in small premature babies, many of whom have alveoli with radii less than one quarter that of an adult person.
- 25. Surfactant - Further, surfactant does not normally begin to be secreted into the alveoli until between the sixth and seventh months of pregnancy, and in some cases, even later than that. - Therefore, many premature babies have little or no surfactant in the alveoli when they are born, and their lungs have an extreme tendency to collapse, sometimes as great as six to eight times that in a normal adult person. - This causes the condition called respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn. - It is fatal if not treated with strong measures, especially properly applied continuous positive pressure breathing.
- 26. Thoracic Cage - The thoracic cage has its own elastic and viscous characteristics, similar to those of the lungs; - even if the lungs were not present in the thorax, muscular effort would still be required to expand the thoracic cage. - the compliance of the combined lung-thorax system is almost exactly one half that of the lungs alone - 110 milliliters of volume per centimeter of water pressure
- 27. “Work” of Breathing - The work of inspiration can be divided into three fractions: - (1) that required to expand the lungs against the lung and chest elastic forces, called compliance work or elastic work; - (2) that required to overcome the viscosity of the lung and chest wall structures, called tissue resistance work; and - (3) that required to overcome airway resistance to movement of air into the lungs, called airway resistance work.
- 30. Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities - A simple method for studying pulmonary ventilation is to record the volume movement of air into and out of the lungs, a process called spirometry. - A spirometer consists of a drum inverted over a chamber of water, with the drum counterbalanced by a weight. - In the drum is a breathing gas, usually air or oxygen; a tube connects the mouth with the gas chamber. - When one breathes into and out of the chamber, the drum rises and falls, and an appropriate recording is made on a moving sheet of paper.
- 32. Pulmonary Volumes - 1. The tidal volume is the volume of air inspired or expired with each normal breath; it amounts to about 500 milliliters in the adult male. - 2. The inspiratory reserve volume is the extra volume of air that can be inspired over and above the normal tidal volume when the person inspires with full force; it is usually equal to about 3000 milliliters. - 3. The expiratory reserve volume is the maximum extra volume of air that can be expired by forceful expiration after the end of a normal tidal expiration; this normally amounts to about 1100 milliliters. - 4. The residual volume is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after the most forceful expiration; this volume averages about 1200 milliliters.
- 33. Pulmonary Capacities - 1. The inspiratory capacity equals the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. - This is the amount of air (about 3500 milliliters) a person can breathe in, beginning at the normal expiratory level and distending the lungs to the maximum amount. (IC = TV + IRV) - 2. The functional residual capacity equals the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. - This is the amount of air that remains in the lungs at the end of normal expiration (about 2300 milliliters). - (FRC = ERV + RV)
- 34. Pulmonary Capacities - 3. The vital capacity equals the inspiratory reserve volume plus the tidal volume plus the expiratory reserve volume. - (VC = IRV + TV + ERV) - This is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after first filling the lungs to their maximum extent and then expiring to the maximum extent (about 4600 milliliters). - 4. The total lung capacity is the maximum volume to which the lungs can be expanded with the greatest possible effort (about 5800 milliliters); (TLC = VC + RV) - All pulmonary volumes and capacities are about 20 to 25 per cent less in women than in men, and they are greater in large and athletic people than in small and asthenic people.
- 37. Helium Dilution Method - A spirometer of known volume is filled with air mixed with helium at a known concentration. - Before breathing from the spirometer, the person expires normally – At the end of this expiration, the remaining volume in the lungs is equal to the functional residual capacity. - At this point, the subject immediately begins to breathe from the spirometer, and the gases of the spirometer mix with the gases of the lungs. - As a result, the helium becomes diluted by the functional residual capacity gases, and the volume of the functional residual capacity can be calculated from the degree of dilution of the helium, using the formula
- 38. Helium Dilution Method - CiHe is initial concentration of helium in the spirometer, - CfHe is final concentration of helium in the spirometer, - ViSpir is initial volume of the spirometer. - RV = FRC – ERV - TLC = FRC + IC
- 39. Minute Respiratory Volume - The minute respiratory volume is the total amount of new air moved into the respiratory passages each minute; - this is equal to the tidal volume times the respiratory rate per minute. (MRV = TV X RR) - The normal tidal volume is about 500 milliliters, and the normal respiratory rate is about 12 breaths per minute. Therefore, the minute respiratory volume averages about 6 L/min. - A person can live for a short period with a minute respiratory volume as low as 1.5 L/min and a respiratory rate of only 2 to 4 breaths per minute.
- 40. Alveolar Ventilation - The ultimate importance of pulmonary ventilation is to continually renew the air in the gas exchange areas of the lungs, where air is in proximity to the pulmonary blood. - These areas include the alveoli, alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts, and respiratory bronchioles. - The rate at which new air reaches these areas is called alveolar ventilation.
- 41. “Dead Space” - Some of the air a person breathes never reaches the gas exchange areas but simply fills respiratory passages where gas exchange does not occur, - such as the nose, pharynx, and trachea - This air is called dead space air because it is not useful for gas exchange. - On expiration, the air in the dead space is expired first, before any of the air from the alveoli reaches the atmosphere. - Therefore, the dead space is very disadvantageous for removing the expiratory gases from the lungs.
- 42. “Dead Space” - Measurement - the subject suddenly takes a deep breath of oxygen. This fills the entire dead space with pure oxygen. - Some oxygen also mixes with the alveolar air but does not completely replace this air. - Then the person expires through a rapidly recording nitrogen meter, which makes the record as graph. - The first portion of the expired air comes from the dead space regions of the respiratory passageways, where the air has been completely replaced by oxygen. - Therefore, in the early part of the record, only oxygen appears, and the nitrogen concentration is zero.
- 43. “Dead Space” - when alveolar air begins to reach the nitrogen meter, the nitrogen concentration rises rapidly, because alveolar air containing large amounts of nitrogen begins to mix with the dead space air. - After still more air has been expired, all the dead space air has been washed from the passages, and only alveolar air remains. - Therefore, the recorded nitrogen concentration reaches a plateau level equal to its concentration in the alveoli - The gray area represents the air that has no nitrogen in it; - measure of the volume of dead space air.
- 45. “Dead Space”
- 46. Anatomic V/s Physiologic - The method measures the volume of all the space of the respiratory system other than the alveoli and their other closely related gas exchange areas; this space is called the anatomic dead space. - Sometimes, some of the alveoli themselves are nonfunctional or only partially functional because of absent or poor blood flow through the adjacent pulmonary capillaries. - Therefore, from a functional point of view, these alveoli must also be considered dead space – alveolar dead space
- 47. Anatomic V/s Physiologic - When the alveolar dead space is included in the total measurement of dead space, this is called the physiologic dead space (Physiological = Anatomical + Alveolar) - In a normal person, the anatomic and physiologic dead spaces are nearly equal because all alveoli are functional in the normal lung, (Physiological = Anatomical) - but in a person with partially functional or nonfunctional alveoli in some parts of the lungs, the physiologic dead space may be as much as 10 times the volume of the anatomic dead space, 1 to 2 liters.
- 48. Rate of Alveolar Ventilation - Alveolar ventilation per minute is the total volume of new air entering the alveoli and adjacent gas exchange areas each minute - equal to the respiratory rate times the amount of new air that enters these areas with each breath. VA = Freq • (VT – VD) - VA is the volume of alveolar ventilation per minute, - Freq is the frequency of respiration per minute, - VT is the tidal volume, and VD is the physiologic dead space volume. - Thus, with a normal tidal volume of 500 milliliters, a normal dead space of 150 milliliters, and a respiratory rate of 12 breaths per minute, alveolar ventilation equals - 12 X (500 – 150), or 4200 ml/min.
- 49. Functions of the Respiratory Passageways
- 50. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - The air is distributed to the lungs by way of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. - One of the most important problems in all the respiratory passageways is to keep them open and allow easy passage of air to and from the alveoli. - To keep the trachea from collapsing, multiple cartilage rings extend about five sixths of the way around the trachea.
- 51. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - In the walls of the bronchi, less extensive curved cartilage plates also maintain a reasonable amount of rigidity yet allow sufficient motion for the lungs to expand and contract. - These plates become progressively less extensive in the later generations of bronchi and are gone in the bronchioles, which usually have diameters less than 1.5 millimeters. - The bronchioles are not prevented from collapsing by the rigidity of their walls - they are kept expanded mainly by the same transpulmonary pressures that expand the alveoli.
- 52. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - In all areas of the trachea and bronchi not occupied by cartilage plates, the walls are composed mainly of smooth muscle. - Also, the walls of the bronchioles are almost entirely smooth muscle, with the exception of the most terminal bronchiole, - called the respiratory bronchiole, which is mainly pulmonary epithelium and underlying fibrous tissue plus a few smooth muscle fibers. - Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles, often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself.
- 53. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - Under normal respiratory conditions, air flows through the respiratory passageways so easily that less than 1 centimeter of water pressure gradient from the alveoli to the atmosphere is sufficient to cause enough airflow for quiet breathing. - The greatest amount of resistance to airflow occurs not in the minute air passages of the terminal bronchioles but in some of the larger bronchioles and bronchi near the trachea. - The reason for this high resistance is that there are relatively few of these larger bronchi in comparison with the approximately 65,000 parallel terminal bronchioles, through each of which only a minute amount of air must pass.
- 54. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - In disease conditions, the smaller bronchioles play a far greater role in determining airflow resistance because of their small size and because they are easily occluded by - (1) muscle contraction in their walls, - (2) edema occurring in the walls, or - (3) mucus collecting in the lumens of the bronchioles.
- 55. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - the bronchial tree is exposed to NE and E released into the blood by sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal gland medullae. - Both these hormones — especially epinephrine, because of its greater stimulation of beta-adrenergic receptors — cause dilation of the bronchial tree. - A few parasympathetic nerve fibers derived from the vagus nerves penetrate the lung parenchyma. - These nerves secrete acetylcholine and, when activated, cause mild to moderate constriction of the bronchioles.
- 56. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - When a disease process such as asthma has already caused some bronchiolar constriction, superimposed parasympathetic nervous stimulation often worsens the condition. - When this occurs, administration of drugs that block the effects of acetylcholine, such as atropine, can sometimes relax the respiratory passages enough to relieve the obstruction.
- 57. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - Sometimes the parasympathetic nerves are also activated by reflexes that originate in the lungs. - Most of these begin with irritation of the epithelial membrane of the respiratory passageways themselves, initiated by noxious gases, dust, cigarette smoke, or bronchial infection. - Also, a bronchiolar constrictor reflex often occurs when micro emboli occlude small pulmonary arteries.
- 58. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - histamine and slow reactive substance of anaphylaxis - released in the lung tissues by mast cells during allergic reactions, especially those caused by pollen in the air. - Therefore, they play key roles in causing the airway obstruction that occurs in allergic asthma;
- 59. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - All the respiratory passages, from the nose to the terminal bronchioles, are kept moist by a layer of mucus that coats the entire surface. - The mucus is secreted partly by individual mucous goblet cells in the epithelial lining of the passages and partly by small submucosal glands. - In addition to keeping the surfaces moist, the mucus traps small particles out of the inspired air and keeps most of these from ever reaching the alveoli
- 60. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles - The entire surface of the respiratory passages, from nose to the terminal bronchioles, is lined with ciliated epithelium, with about 200 cilia on each epithelial cell. - These cilia beat continually at a rate of 10 to 20 times per second and the direction of their “power stroke” is always toward the pharynx - the cilia in the lungs beat upward, whereas those in the nose beat downward. - This continual beating causes the coat of mucus to flow slowly, at a velocity of a few millimeters per minute, toward the pharynx - Then the mucus and its entrapped particles are either swallowed or coughed to the exterior.
- 61. Cough Reflex - The bronchi and trachea are so sensitive to light touch that very slight amounts of foreign matter or other causes of irritation initiate the cough reflex. - The larynx and carina (the point where the trachea divides into the bronchi) are especially sensitive, and the terminal bronchioles and even the alveoli are sensitive to corrosive chemical stimuli such as sulfur dioxide gas or chlorine gas. - Afferent nerve impulses pass from the respiratory passages mainly through the vagus nerves to the medulla of the brain. There, an automatic sequence of events is triggered by the neuronal circuits of the medulla
- 62. Cough Reflex - First, up to 2.5 liters of air are rapidly inspired. - Second, the epiglottis closes, and the vocal cords shut tightly to entrap the air within the lungs. - Third, the abdominal muscles contract forcefully, pushing against the diaphragm while other expiratory muscles, such as the internal intercostals, also contract forcefully. - Consequently, the pressure in the lungs rises rapidly to as much as 100 mm Hg or more.
- 63. Cough Reflex - Fourth, the vocal cords and the epiglottis suddenly open widely, so that air under this high pressure in the lungs explodes outward. - Sometimes this air is expelled at velocities ranging from 75 to 100 miles per hour. - The rapidly moving air usually carries with it any foreign matter that is present in the bronchi or trachea.
- 64. Sneeze Reflex - The sneeze reflex is very much like the cough reflex, except that it applies to the nasal passageways instead of the lower respiratory passages. - The initiating stimulus of the sneeze reflex is irritation in the nasal passageways; - the afferent impulses pass in the fifth cranial nerve to the medulla, where the reflex is triggered. - A series of reactions similar to those for the cough reflex takes place; - the uvula is depressed, so that large amounts of air pass rapidly through the nose, thus helping to clear the nasal passages of foreign matter.
- 65. Functions of the Nose - (1) the air is warmed by the extensive surfaces of the conchae and septum, a total area of about 160 square centimeters - (2) the air is almost completely humidified even before it passes beyond the nose; and - (3) the air is partially filtered. - These functions together are called the air conditioning function of the upper respiratory passageways
- 66. Functions of the Nose - The hairs at the entrance to the nostrils are important for filtering out large particles. - Removal of particles by turbulent precipitation - the air passing through the nasal passageways hits many obstructing plates: the conchae (also called turbinates, because they cause turbulence of the air), the septum, and the pharyngeal wall. - Each time air hits one of these obstructions, it must change its direction of movement. - The particles suspended in the air, having far more mass and momentum than air, cannot change their direction of travel as rapidly as the air can. - Therefore, they continue forward, striking the surfaces of the obstructions, and are entrapped in the mucous coating and transported by the cilia to the pharynx to be swallowed.
- 67. Functions of the Nose - The nasal turbulence mechanism for removing particles from air is so effective that almost no particles larger than 6 micrometers in diameter enter the lungs through the nose. - particles between 1 and 5 micrometers settle in the smaller bronchioles as a result of gravitational precipitation - smaller particles (smaller than 1 micrometer in diameter) diffuse against the walls of the alveoli and adhere to the alveolar fluid
- 68. Functions of the Nose - particles smaller than 0.5 micrometer in diameter remain suspended in the alveolar air and are expelled by expiration - Many of the particles that become entrapped in the alveoli are removed by alveolar macrophages, - others are carried away by the lung lymphatics. - An excess of particles can cause growth of fibrous tissue in the alveolar septa, leading to permanent debility.
- 69. Vocalization - Speech involves not only the respiratory system but also - (1) specific speech nervous control centers in the cerebral cortex, - (2) respiratory control centers of the brain; and - (3) the articulation and resonance structures of the mouth and nasal cavities. - Speech is composed of two mechanical functions: - (1) phonation, which is achieved by the larynx, and - (2) articulation, which is achieved by the structures of the mouth.
- 70. Phonation
- 71. Articulation and Resonance - The three major organs of articulation are the lips, tongue, and soft palate - The resonators include the mouth, the nose and associated nasal sinuses, the pharynx, and even the chest cavity. - the function of the nasal resonators is demonstrated by the change in voice quality when a person has a severe cold - that blocks the air passages to these resonators.
- 72. Thank You…