Robotic Sensors types applications and uses in plants

ROBOTICS
ROBOTICS
SENSORS
SENSORS

Introduction
• Industrial robot requires sensory feedback to:
1. Locate randomly placed object;
2. Allow for variations in shape of objects;
3. Protect against dangerous and unexpected situations. Especially if the
robot must work close to humans:
4. Allow “intelligent” recovery form error conditions;
5. Perform quality control.
• The main objective of incorporating sensors in robotic system is to
enable robots to work in nonstructural and random environments.
• Sensors will make robots more intelligent. But the associated
robotic software must have the ability to receive data from the
sensors and to process the necessary real time information and
commands needed for the decision making.

What is Sensing ?
• Collect information about the world
• Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device that maps an
environmental attribute to a quantitative measurement
• Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of
energy from one form to another

Transduction to electronics
• Thermistor: temperature-to-resistance
• Electrochemical: chemistry-to-voltage
• Photocurrent: light intensity-to-current
• Pyroelectric: thermal radiation-to-voltage
• Humidity: humidity-to-capacitance
• Length (LVDT: Linear variable differential
transformers) : position-to-inductance
• Microphone: sound pressure-to-<anything>

Human sensing and organs
• Vision: eyes (optics, light)
• Hearing: ears (acoustics, sound)
• Touch: skin (mechanics, heat)
• Odor: nose (vapor-phase chemistry)
• Taste: tongue (liquid-phase chemistry)

Extended ranges and modalities
• Vision outside the RGB spectrum
– Infrared Camera, see at night
• Active vision
– Radar and optical (laser) range measurement
• Hearing outside the 20 Hz – 20 kHz range
– Ultrasonic range measurement
• Chemical analysis beyond taste and smell
• Radiation: , , -rays, neutrons, etc

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible Spectrum
700 nm 400 nm

Solar Cell
Digital Infrared Ranging
Compass
Touch Switch
Pressure Switch
Limit Switch
Magnetic Reed Switch
Magnetic Sensor
Miniature Polaroid Sensor
Polaroid Sensor Board
Piezo Ultrasonic Transducers
Pyroelectric Detector
Thyristor
Gas Sensor
Gieger-Muller
Radiation Sensor
Piezo Bend Sensor
Resistive Bend Sensors
Mechanical Tilt Sensors
Pendulum Resistive
Tilt Sensors
CDS Cell
Resistive Light Sensor
Hall Effect
Magnetic Field
Sensors
Compass
IRDA Transceiver
IR Amplifier Sensor
IR Modulator
Receiver
Lite-On IR
Remote Receiver
Radio Shack
Remote Receiver
IR Sensor w/lens
Gyro
Accelerometer
IR Reflection
Sensor
IR Pin
Diode
UV Detector
Metal Detector

Sensors used in robot
navigation
• Resistive sensors
– bend sensors, potentiometer, resistive photocells, ...
• Tactile sensors
– contact switch, bumpers…
• Infrared sensors
– Reflective, proximity, distance sensors…
• Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
• Inertial Sensors (measure the second derivatives of position)
– Accelerometer, Gyroscopes,
• Orientation Sensors
– Compass, Inclinometer
• Laser range sensors
• Vision
• Global Positioning System

Classification of Sensors
• Internal state (proprioception) v.s. external state
(exteroceptive)
– feedback of robot internal parameters, e.g. battery
level, wheel position, joint angle, etc,
– observation of environments, objects
• Active v.s. non-active
– emitting energy into the environment, e.g., radar,
sonar
– passively receive energy to make observation, e.g.,
camera
• Contact v.s. non-contact
• Visual v.s. non-visual
– vision-based sensing, image processing, video
camera

• In general, robotic sensors can be divided into two classes:
i. Internal state sensors - device being used to measure
the position, velocity and acceleration of the robot joint
and/or end-effector. These devices are potentiometer,
tachometers, synchros, resolvers, differential
transformers, optical interrupters, optical encoders and
accelerometer.
ii. External state sensors – device being used to monitor
the relationship between the robot kinematics and/or
dynamics with its task, surrounding, or the object being
manipulated.
Robotic Sensor Classification

Sensor Selection/Sensing Taxonomy
• There are many different types of robot sensors available and
there are many different parameter measured by these sensors.
• The application process, should be carried out in a top down
manner, starting with task requirements, and going through
several levels of analysis, eventually leading to the selection of a
specific device.
• A taxonomy for sensing to aid this process consists of five levels
of refinement leading to sensor selection:
1. Specification of task requirements :eg localization, slippage
detection, size confirmation, inspection, defect testing.
2. Choice of modality :eg,vision, force, tactile
3. Specification on sensor attributes :eg,output, complexity,
discrete or continuous variable, imaging or non-imaging, local or
global
4. Specification of operational parameters :eg size, accuracy, cost
5. Selection of mechanism :eg switching devices, inductive
sensors, CCD vision imaging

Some tasks requirements features:
•Insertion Monitoring
•Assembly Verification
•Detection of Reject Parts
•Recognition of Part Types
•Assembly Test Operations
•Check Gripper/Tool Operation
•Location & Orientation of Parts
•Workspace Intrusion Detection
•Check Correct Manipulation of Parts
•Analysis of Spatial Relations Between Parts

Some typical sensor
operational data:
• Ultrasonic
• Resistive Effects
• Capacitive Effects
• Piezo-Electric Effects
• Visible Light Imaging
• Photo-Electric & Infrared
• Mechanical Switching
• Inductive Effects
• Thermal Effects
• Hall Effect
Primary physical mechanisms
employed in sensors:
•Cost
•Range
•Accuracy
•Repeatability
•Power Requirements
•Output Signal Specification
•Processing Requirements
•Sensitivity
•Reliability
•Weight
•Size

SENSORS FOR INDUSTRIAL
ROBOTS
Proximity and Range Sensors
Tactile Sensors
Vision Sensors
Miscellaneous Sensors

I
• It is a technique of detecting the presence or absence of
an object with electronic noncontact sensors.
• Typical application of proximity sensors includes:
‫ש‬ Object detection
‫ש‬ Collision avoidance
‫ש‬ Object verification & counting
• Commonly available proximity sensors are:
1. Photoelectric/optical sensors
2. Inductive proximity sensors
3. Capacitive proximity sensors
4. Ultrasonic proximity sensors

Bend Sensors
• Resistance = 10k to 35k
• As the strip is bent, resistance increases
Potentiometers
• Can be used as position sensors for
sliding mechanisms or rotating shafts
• Easy to find, easy to mount
Light Sensor (Photocell)
• Good for detecting direction/presence of
light
• Non-linear resistance
• Slow response to light changes
Resistive Sensors
Resistive Bend Sensor
Photocell
Potentiometer
R is small when brightly
illuminated

Sensor
 Measure bend of a joint
 Wall Following/Collision
Detection
 Weight Sensor
Sensors
Sensor
Applications

Inputs for Resistive Sensors
Voltage divider:
You have two resisters,
one
is fixed and the other
varies, as well as a
constant voltage
V
micro
R1
R2
Vsense
Comparator:
If voltage at + is greater than
at -, digital high out
+
-
Binary
Threshold
V
V
R
R
R
Vsense
2
1
2


A/D converter
Digital I/O

Infrared Sensors
• Intensity based infrared
– Reflective sensors
– Easy to implement
– susceptible to ambient light
• Modulated Infrared
– Proximity sensors
– Requires modulated IR signal
– Insensitive to ambient light
• Infrared Ranging
– Distance sensors
– Short range distance measurement
– Impervious to ambient light, color and reflectivity of object

Intensity Based Infrared
• Easy to implement (few components)
• Works very well in controlled environments
• Sensitive to ambient light
time
voltage
time
voltage
Increase in ambient light
raises DC bias
Break-Beam sensor
Reflective Sensor

IR Reflective Sensors
• Reflective Sensor:
– Emitter IR LED + detector photodiode/phototransistor
– Phototransistor: the more light reaching the phototransistor, the
more current passes through it
– A beam of light is reflected off a surface and into a detector
– Light usually in infrared spectrum, IR light is invisible
• Applications:
– Object detection,
– Line following, Wall tracking
– Optical encoder (Break-Beam sensor)
• Drawbacks:
– Susceptible to ambient lighting
• Provide sheath to insulate the device from outside lighting
– Susceptible to reflectivity of objects
– Susceptible to the distance between sensor and the object

Modulated Infrared
• Modulation and Demodulation
– Flashing a light source at a particular frequency
– Demodulator is tuned to the specific frequency of light flashes.
(32kHz~45kHz)
– Flashes of light can be detected even if they are very week
– Less susceptible to ambient lighting and reflectivity of objects
– Used in most IR remote control units, proximity sensors
Negative true
logic:
Detect = 0v
No detect = 5v

IR Proximity Sensors
• Proximity Sensors:
– Requires a modulated IR LED, a detector module with built-in modulation
decoder
– Current through the IR LED should be limited: adding a series resistor in
LED driver circuit
– Detection range: varies with different objects (shiny white card vs. dull
black object)
– Insensitive to ambient light
• Applications:
– Rough distance measurement
– Obstacle avoidance
– Wall following, line following
limiter demodulator
bandpass filter
amplifier
comparator
integrator

IR Distance Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
– IR emitter + focusing lens + position-sensitive detector
Location of the spot on the detector
corresponds to the distance to the target
surface, Optics to covert horizontal distance to
vertical distance
Modulated IR
light

IR Distance Sensors
• Sharp GP2D02 IR Ranger
– Distance range: 10cm (4") ~ 80cm (30").
– Moderately reliable for distance measurement
– Immune to ambient light
– Impervious to color and reflectivity of object
– Applications: distance measurement, wall following, …

Range Finder
(Ultrasonic, Laser)

Range Finder
• Time of Flight
• The measured pulses typically come form
ultrasonic, RF and optical energy sources.
– D = v * t
– D = round-trip distance
– v = speed of wave propagation
– t = elapsed time
• Sound = 0.3 meters/msec
• RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to
measure short distances 1-100 meters)

Ultrasonic Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
– Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
– Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is
detected.
– Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
 D = v * t
D = round-trip distance
v = speed of propagation(340 m/s)
t = elapsed time
Bat, dolphin, …

Ultrasonic Sensors
• Ranging is accurate but bearing has a 30 degree
uncertainty. The object can be located anywhere in the arc.
• Typical ranges are of the order of several centimeters to 30
meters.
• Another problem is the propagation time. The ultrasonic
signal will take 200 msec to travel 60 meters. ( 30 meters
roundtrip @ 340 m/s )

Ultrasonic Sensors
• Polaroid ultrasonic ranging system
– It was developed for auto-focus of cameras.
– Range: 6 inches to 35 feet
Ultrasonic
transducer
Electronic board
Transducer Ringing:
 transmitter + receiver @
50 KHz
 Residual vibrations or
ringing may be interpreted
as the echo signal
 Blanking signal to block
any return signals for the
first 2.38ms after
transmission
http://www.acroname.com/robotics/info/articles/sonar/sonar.html

Operation with Polaroid Ultrasonic
• The Electronic board supplied has the following I/0
– INIT : trigger the sensor, ( 16 pulses are transmitted )
– BLANKING : goes high to avoid detection of own signal
– ECHO : echo was detected.
– BINH : goes high to end the blanking (reduce blanking
time < 2.38 ms)
– BLNK : to be generated if multiple echo is required
t

Ultrasonic Sensors
• Applications:
– Distance Measurement
– Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the
proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
chair
Robot
chair
Doorway
Scan moving from left to right
Length
of
Echo
Scanning at an angle of 15º apart can achieve best results

Laser Ranger Finder
• Range 2-500 meters
• Resolution : 10 mm
• Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees
• Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees
• Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.
• These lasers are more immune to Dust and
Fog
http://www.sick.de/de/products/categories/safety/

• Tactile sensing includes any form of sensing which requires physical
touching between the sensor and the object to be sense.
• The need for touch or tactile sensors occurs in many robotic
applications, from picking oranges to loading machines. Probably the
most important application currently is the general problem of locating,
identifying, and organizing parts that need to be assembled.
• Tactile sensor system includes the capability to detect such things
as:
1. Presence
2. Part shape, location, orientation, contour examination
3. Contact are pressure and pressure distribution
4. Force magnitude, location, and direction
5. Surface inspection : texture monitoring, joint checking, damage
detection
6. Object classification : recognition, discrimination
7. Grasping : verification, error compensation (slip,
position ,orientation)
8. Assembly monitoring
TACTILE SENSORS

The major components of a tactile/touch sensor system are:
1. A touch surface
2. A transduction medium, which convert local forces
or moments into electrical signals.
3. Structure
4. Control/interface

• It is the transduction method in
tactile sensor design which has
received the most attention. It is
concerned with the change in
resistance of a conductive
material under applied
pressure.
• This technique involves
measuring the resistance either
through or across the thickness
of a conductive elastomer. Most
elastomers are made from
carbon- or silicon-doped rubber.
Resistive
Resistive Tactile Element –
Resistance Measured Through
The rubber
METHOD OF TRANSDUCTION

• Advantages:
1. Wide dynamic range
2. Durability
3. Good overload tolerance
4. Compatibility with integrated
circuitry, particularly VLSI.
• Disadvantages:
1. Hysteresis in some designs.
2. Elastromer needs to be optimized
for both mechanical and electrical
properties.
3. Limited spatial resolution
compared with vision sensors.
4. Larger numbers of wires may have
to be brought away from the
sensor.
5. Monotonic response but often not
linear.
Resistive Tactile Element –
Resistance Measured Across the rubber

Piezoelectric & Pyroelectric Effects
• Piezoelectric effect is the
generation of a voltage across a
sensing element when pressure
applied to it. The voltage generated
is proportionally related to the
applied pressure. No external
voltage is required, and a
continuous analogue output is
available from such sensor.
• A pyroelectric effect is the
generation of a voltage when the
sensing element is heated or
cooled.
• Polymeric materials with
piezoelectric and pyroelectric
properties are appropriate for use
with sensors.
Piezoelectric/Pyroelectric
Effects Tactile element

• Advantages:
2. Durability
3. Good mechanical properties of piezoelectric from pyroelectric materials
4. Temperature as well as force sensing capabilities
• Disadvantages:
1. Difficult of separating piezoelectric from pyroelectric effects
2. Inherently dynamic - output decay to zero for constant load
3. Difficult of scanning elements
4. Good solution are complex

CAPACITIVE TECHNIQUE
• Tactile sensors within this category are concerned with measuring
capacitance, which made to vary under applied load.
• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends upon the
separation of the plates and their area, so that a sensor using an
elastomeric separator between the plates provides compliance such
that the capacitance will vary according to applied load.

• Advantages:
2. Linear response
3. Robust
• Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to noise
2. Some dielectrics are temperature sensitive
3. Capacitance decreases with physical size ultimately limiting spatial
resolution.

Mechanical Transduction
• A Linear Potentiometer
• Advantages:
1. Well known Technology
2. Good for probe application
• Disadvantages:
1. Limited spatial resolution
2. Complex for array construction
Mechanical Transducer
A linear Potentiometer

Magnetic Transduction Methods
• Sensors using magnetic
transduction are divided into two
basic categories:
1. Groups together sensors which
use mechanical movement to
produce change in magnetic flux.
• Advantages:
2. Large displacements possible
3. Simple
• Disadvantages:
1. Poor spatial resolution
2. Mechanical problems when
sensing on slopes.
Magnetic tactile Element

2. Concerns magneto-elastic
materials which show a change in
magnetic field when subjected to
mechanical stress.
• Advantages:
2. Linear response
3. Low hysteresis
4. Robust
• Disadvantages:
1. Susceptible to stray field and
noise.
2. A.C. circuit required
Magneto resistive tactile Element

Optical Transduction Methods
• Advantages:
1. Very high resolution
2. Compatible with vision
sensing technology
3. No electrical interference
problems
4. Processing electronics can
be remote from sensor
5. Low cabling requirements
• Disadvantages:
1. Dependence on elastomer
in some designs – affects
robustness
2. Some hysteresis
Optical Tactile Element
Pressure to light Transduction

• Vision is the most powerful robot sensory capabilities.
Enables a robot to have a sophisticated sensing mechanism
that allows it to respond to its environment in intelligent and
flexible manner. Therefore machine vision is the most
complex sensor type.
• Robot vision may be defined as the process of extracting,
characterizing, and interpreting information from images of
a three-dimensional world. This process, also known as
machine or computer vision may be subdivided into six
principle areas. These are:
1. Sensing : the process that yields visual image
2. Preprocessing : deals with techniques such as noise reduction and
enhancement of details
3. Segmentation : the process that partitions an image into objects of
interest
4. Description: deals with that computation of features for example size or
shape, suitable for differentiating one type of objects from another.
5. Recognition: the process that identifies these objects (for example
wrench, bolt, engine block, etc.)
6. Interpretation: assigns meaning to an ensemble of recognized objects.

• The imaging component, the “eye” or sensor, is the first link in
the vision chain. Numerous sensors may be used to observe the
world. There are four type of vision sensors or imaging
components:
• 1. Point sensors
capable of measuring light only at a single point in space. These
sensor using coupled with a light source (such as LED) and used
as a noncontact ‘feeler’
It also may be used to create a higher – dimensions set of vision
Information by scanning across a field of view by using
mechanisms such as orthogonal set of scanning mirrors
IMAGING COMPONENTS

Noncontact feeler-point sensor

Image scanning using a point sensor
and oscillating deflecting mirrors

2. Line Sensor
• Line sensors are one-dimensional
devices used to collect vision
information from a real scene in the
real world.
• The sensor most frequently used is
a “line array” of photodiodes or
charger-couple-device components.
• It operates in a similar manner to
analog shift register, producing
sequential, synchronized output of
electrical signals, corresponding to
the light intensity falling on an
integrated light-collecting cell.
Circular and cross configurations
of light sensors

• Line array may be used to image scene. E.g. by fixing the position of a straight-line
sensor and moving an object orthogonally to the orientation of the array, one may
scan the entire object of interest.
An automated robot sorting
system using
a line scan camera to generate
two-dimensional images.

3. Planar Sensor
• A two dimensional configuration of the line-scan concept. Two generic
types of these sensors generally in use today are scanning
photomultipliers and solid-state sensors.
• Photomultipliers are represented by television cameras, the most
common of which is the vidicon tube, which essentially an optical-to-
electrical signal converter.
• In addition to vidicon tubes, several types of solid-state cameras are
available. Many applications require the solid-state sensors because of
weight and noise factor (solid-state arrays are less noisy but more
expensive). This is important when mounting a camera near or on the
end-effector of a robot.

4. Volume Sensor
• A sensor that provide
three-dimensional
information. The sensor
may obtain the
information by using the
directional laser or
acoustic range finders.
Schematic representation
of a triangulation range finder

IMAGE REPRESENTATION
• From the diagram below. F(x,y) is used to denote the two-dimensional
image out of a television camera or other imaging device.
• “x” and “y” denote the spatial coordinates (image plane)
• “f” at any point (x,y) is proportional to the brightness (intensity) of the
image at that point.
• In form suitable for computer processing, an image function f(x,y) must be
digitized both spatially and in amplitude (intensity). Digitization of the
spatial coordinates (x,y) will be known as image sampling, while amplitude
digitization is known as intensity or grey-level quantization.
• The array of (N, M) rows and columns, where each sample is sampled
uniformly, and also quantized in intensity is known as a digital image. Each
element in the array is called image element, picture element (or pixel).

Effects of reducing sampling grid size.
a) 512x512.
b) 256x256.
c) 128x128.
d) 64x64.
e) 32x32.

Effect produced by reducing the number of intensity levels while maintaining the
spatial resolution constant at 512x512. The 256-, 128- and 64-levels are of
acceptable quality.
a) 256, b) 128, c) 64, d) 32, e) 16, f) 8, g) 4, and h) 2 levels

ILLUMINATION TECHNIQUES
• Illumination of a scene is an important factor that often affects the
complexity of vision algorithms.
• A well designed lighting system illuminates a scene so that the complexity
of the resulting image is minimised, while the information required for
object detection and extraction is enhanced.
• Arbitrary lighting of the environment is often not acceptable because it
can result in low contras images, specular reflections, shadows and
extraneous details.
• There are 4 main illumination techniques for a robot work space :

1. DIFFUSE-LIGHTING
• This technique is for smooth, regular
surface object. It is used where surface
characteristic are important.
• Example:
Diffuse-lighting technique

2. BACKLIGHTING
• Produce black and white image.
This technique suited for
applications in which silhouettes
of object are sufficient for
recognition or other
measurement.
• Example:
Backlighting technique

3. STRUCTURED LIGHTING
• Consist of projecting points, stripes,
grids onto work surface.
• This lighting technique has 2
important advantages:
1. It establishes a known light pattern
on the work space and disturbances
of this indicate the presence of an
object, thus simplifying the object
detection problems.
2. By analysing the way which the light
pattern distorted, it is possible to
gain insight into three-dimensional
characteristics of the object.
Structured lighting technique

• The following figure illustrates the
structured lighting technique using two
light planes projected from different
directions, but converging on a single
stripe on the surface. The two light
sources guarantee that the object will
break the light stripe only when it is
directly below the camera.
• This technique is suitable for moving
object.
• Note: “The line scan camera sees only
the line on which the two light planes
converge, but two-dimension
information can be accumulated as the
object move past the camera”
3. STRUCTURED LIGHTING (cont.)
(a) Top view of two light planes
intersecting in a line sight
(b) Object will be seen by the camera only
When it interrupts both light planes

4. DIRECTIONAL LIGHTING
• This method is used to inspection of
object surfaces.
• Defects on the surface such as scratches,
can be detected by using a highly directed
light beam (such as laser beam) and
measuring the amount of scatter
Directional lighting technique

ROBOT VISION SYSTEM
• There are several commercial packages that can be bought for vision processing work.
A typical hardware configuration is shown below.
• Based on the technique used, the robotic vision systems can be grouped into the
following major types:
1. Binary vision systems 4.Structured light vision systems
2. Gray-level vision systems 5.Character recognition vision systems
3. Ad hoc special-purpose vision systems
Vision system hardware

• A typical system will have facilities for controlling the camera remotely and perhaps
interfaces for remote lighting control.
• The main problem with commercial vision packages is that they have to be general purpose in
order to be applicable in many situations. This very requirement sometimes means that they
are not suitable or are over complicated for a particular robot task in hand.
• In industrial robot world, vision is not used in an exploratory sense but is used to confirm or
measure or refine existing known data.
• Whichever commercial vision system one purchases, one is likely to use it for applications
such as those listed in the next section.

Vision Dev. Tools: Survey
• Commercial products
– Matrox: MIL, Inspector
– Coreco Imaging: Sapera,
MVTools, WiT
– MVTec: Halcon
– Euresys: eVision, EasyAccess
– AAI: Aphlion
• Free tools
– Intel: Open Source Computer
Vision
– Microsoft: Vision SDK
– XMegaWave: XMegaWave
– UTHSCSA: ImageTool

VISION APPLICATIONS
• 1. OBJECT LOCATION
Used in object handling and processing:
-Position -Orientation
• 2. OBJECT PROPERTIES
Used in inspection, identification, measurement:
-Size -Area
-Shape -Periphery length / area ratio
-Texture -Repetition of pattern
-Properties of internal features
• 3. SPATIAL RELATIONS
Used in measurement and task verification
-Relative positions
-Relative orientations -Occlusions
-Alignments -Connectivity
• 4. ACTION MONITORING
Used in actuator control and verification:
-Direct feedback -Error measurement
-Action confirmation -Inspection
-Collision avoidance planning.

MISCELLANEOUS SENSORS
• There are several type of sensor that
can be used to determine the position
of robot joints like potentiometer,
optical encoder, Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT) Force
& Torque Sensors.
POSITION, VELOCITY&
ACCELERATION SENSORS

Potentiometer
• Potentiometer transducers can be
used to measure both linear and
angular displacement
(a) Potentiometer
(b) (b) Schematic diagram of the potentiometer

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• LDVT is a robust and precise
device which produce a
voltage output proportional
to the displacement of a
ferrous armature for
measurement of robot joints
or end-effectors. It is much
expensive but outperforms
the potentiometer
transducer.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Force & Torque Sensors
• Force transducers are often based
on displacement principles. There
various type force and torque
transducer available
commercially
A force-measuring device based on
a compression spring and LDVT.

This figure illustrate a tension load cell.
It can be used to measure the force
required to pick up heavy load in industry

• Force can be measured using
piezoelectric principle.
• Figure shows a load washer
type piezoelectric force
transducer. It is designed to
measure axial forces. It is
preloaded when
manufactured and can
measure both tensile and
compressive forces.

• Measured using piezoelectric
principle.
• Figure shows a three-
component dynamometer
type piezoelectric force
transducer that measures
three orthogonal components
of force.

Incremental Optical Encoders
- direction
- resolution
grating
light emitter
light sensor
decode
circuitry
A
B A leads B
• Incremental Encoder:
• It generates pulses proportional to the rotation speed of the
shaft.
• Direction can also be indicated with a two phase encoder:

Absolute Optical Encoders
Gray Code
• Used when loss of reference is not possible.
• Gray codes: only one bit changes at a time ( less uncertainty).
• The information is transferred in parallel form (many wires are necessary).
000
001
011
010
110
111
101
100
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
Binary

Other Odometry Sensors
• Resolver
• Potentiometer
= varying resistance
It has two stator windings
positioned at 90 degrees. The
output voltage is proportional to
the sine or cosine function of the
rotor's angle. The rotor is made
up of a third winding, winding C

Inertial Sensors
• Gyroscopes
– Measure the rate of rotation independent of the
coordinate frame
– Common applications:
• Heading sensors, Full Inertial Navigation systems (INS)
• Accelerometers
– Measure accelerations with respect to an inertial frame
– Common applications:
• Tilt sensor in static applications, Vibration Analysis, Full INS
Systems

Accelerometers
• They measure the inertia force generated
when a mass is affected by a change in
velocity.
• This force may change
– The tension of a string
– The deflection of a beam
– The vibrating frequency of a mass

Accelerometer
• Main elements of an accelerometer:
1. Mass 2. Suspension mechanism 3. Sensing element
High quality accelerometers include a servo loop to improve the linearity of
the sensor.
kx
dt
dx
c
t
d
x
d
m
F 

 2
2

Gyroscopes
• These devices return a signal proportional to the
rotational velocity.
• There is a large variety of gyroscopes that are based
on different principles

Global Positioning System (GPS)
Space Segment
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/gps.html
24 satellites (+several spares)
broadcast time, identity, orbital
parameters (latitude, longitude,
altitude)

Noise Issues
• Real sensors are noisy
• Origins: natural phenomena + less-than-ideal
engineering
• Consequences: limited accuracy and
precision of measurements
• Filtering:
– software: averaging, signal processing algorithm
– hardware tricky: capacitor

Application Variable Sensor Type
Typical Measurement
Range
Key Specifications
Industrial Robotics Position and Joint Angle
- Rotary Encoder
- Resolver
- 0° to 360° (Rotary)
- High precision (up to
0.001°)
- Rugged for harsh
environments
Force and Torque
- Strain Gauge Force
Sensor
- 6-axis Force/Torque
Sensor
- 0–5000 N
- 0–500 Nm
- Multi-axis feedback
- High resolution (0.1%
FS)
Proximity & Object
Detection
- Inductive Proximity
Sensor
- Capacitive Proximity
Sensor
- 0–10 mm (Inductive)
- 0–25 mm (Capacitive)
- Millisecond response
- Suitable for metal/non-
metal detection
Vibration Monitoring
- MEMS Vibration
Sensor
- Piezoelectric
Accelerometer
- 0–10g or 0–1000 Hz
- Early fault detection in
machinery
Temperature
Monitoring
- Infrared Temperature
Sensor
- Thermocouple (K-type)
- -50°C to +1200°C
- Fast, non-contact
monitoring
- Essential for welding
robots
Pressure Monitoring
(Grippers, Hydraulic
Systems)
- Piezoresistive Pressure
Sensor
- 0–10 bar to 0–1000 bar
- High reliability
- Real-time pressure
feedback

Application Variable Sensor Type
Typical Measurement
Range
Key Specifications
Autonomous Robotics Localization and Mapping
- LIDAR
- Time-of-Flight (ToF)
Camera
- GPS Module
- 0.05 m – 100 m (LIDAR)
- Global coverage (GPS)
- mm-level resolution
(LIDAR)
- Real-time 3D mapping
Obstacle Detection
- Ultrasonic Sensor
- Infrared Sensor
- Radar
- 2 cm – 4 m (Ultrasonic)
- 20 m – 100 m (Radar)
- Environmental
robustness
- Effective in low-visibility
conditions
Velocity and Movement
- Wheel Encoder
- IMU (Inertial
Measurement Unit)
- 0–10,000 RPM
(Encoder)
- ±2g to ±16g (IMU)
- Accurate speed and
orientation tracking
Object Recognition
- Vision Sensor
- RGB-D Camera (e.g.,
Intel RealSense)
- Up to 10 m (Depth
sensing)
- AI/ML-based object
classification
- 3D perception
Path Planning and
Terrain Analysis
- Stereo Vision Camera
- 3D LIDAR
- 0–100 m
- Dense point cloud
generation
- Essential for
autonomous navigation
Tactile Sensing (Grasping,
Interaction)
- Capacitive Tactile
Sensors
- Resistive Touch Arrays
- 0–10 N (Force range)
- Sensitive to fine touch
- Adaptive grasp control

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