Sapm

Securities Analysis
&
Portfolio Management
Presented By
Md. Ashraful Islam
Director, SEC

Contents
Part-A: Investment fundamentals
Understanding investment
Some definitions
Sources and types of risk
Risk-return trade-off in different types of securities
Important considerations in investment process
Part-B: Securities Analysis
Securities analysis concept and types
Framework of fundamental securities analysis
Intrinsic valuation & relative valuation
Part-C: Portfolio Management
Portfolio concept
Modern Portfolio Theory: Markowitz Portfolio Theory
Determination of optimum portfolio
Single-Index model, Multi-Index model
Capital Market Theory
Portfolio performance measurement

Part-A
Investment Fundamentals

Understanding investment
Investment is commitment of fund to one or more assets that
is held over some future time period.
Investing may be very conservative as well as aggressively
speculative.
Whatever be the perspective, investment is important to
improve future welfare.
Funds to be invested may come from assets already owned,
borrowed money, savings or foregone consumptions.
By forgoing consumption today and investing the savings,
investors expect to enhance their future consumption
possibilities by increasing their wealth.
Investment can be made to intangible assets like marketable
securities or to real assets like gold, real estate etc. More
generally it refers to investment in financial assets.

Investments refers to the study of the investment process,
generally in financial assets like marketable securities to
maximize investor’s wealth, which is the sum of investor’s
current income and present value of future income. It has
two primary functions: analysis and management.

Whether Investments is Arts or Science?

Some definitions:
Financial assets: These are pieces of paper (or
electronic) evidencing claim on some issuer.
Marketable securities: Financial assets that are easily and
cheaply traded in organized markets.
Portfolio: The securities held by an investor taken as a
unit.
Expected return: Investors invest with the hope to earn
a return by holding the investment over a certain time
period.
Realized return: The rate of return that is earned after
maturity of investment period.
Risk: The chance that expected return may not be
achieved in reality.

Risk-Free Rate of Return: A return on riskless asset,
often proxied by the rate of return on treasury bills.
Risk–Adverse Investor: An investor who will not assume a
given level of risk unless there is an expectation of
adequate compensation for having done so.
Risk Premium: The additional return beyond risk fee rate
that is required for making investment decision in risky
assets.

Definitions conti….
Passive Investment Strategy: A strategy that determines
initial investment proportions and assets and make few
changes over time.
Active Investment Strategy: A strategy that seeks to
change investment proportions and assets in the belief
that profits can be made.
Efficient Market Hypothesis(EMH): The proposition that
security markets are efficient, in the sense that price of
securities reflect their economic value based on price
sensitive information.
Weak-form EMH
Semi-strong EMH
Strong EMH

Definitions Conti….
Face value or Par value or Stated value: The value at which
corporation issue its shares in case of common share or
the redemption value paid at maturity in case of bond.
New stock is usually sold at more than par value, with
the difference being recorded on balance sheet as
“capital in excess of par value”.
Book Value: The accounting value of equity as shown in
the balance sheet. It is the sum of common stock
outstanding, capital in excess of par value, and retained
earnings. Dividing this sum or total book value by the
number of common shares outstanding produces the
book value par share. Although it plays an important
role in investment decision, market value par share is
the critical item of interest to investors.

Sources and Types of Risk
Sources of Risk:
Interest rate risk
Market risk
Inflation risk
Business risk
Financial risk
Liquidity risk
Exchange rate risk
Country risk
Broad Types:
Systematic/Market Risk
Non-systematic/Non-market/Company-specific Risk

Risk-return trade-off in different types of securities
Various types of securities:
Equity securities may be
-Ordinary share or Common share, gives real ownership because holder bears
ultimate risk and enjoy return and have voting rights
-Preferential share, enjoy fixed dividend, avoids risk, do not have voting right.
Debt securities may be
-Bond, a secured debt instrument, payable on first on liquidity
-Debenture, an unsecured debt instrument,
Derivative securities are those that derive their value in whole or in
part by having a claim on some underlying value. Options and
futures are derivative securities
Options
Corporate bonds
Expected return Futures

Common stocks
RF
Risk

Factors Affecting Security Prices
Stock splits
Dividend announcements
Initial public offerings
Reactions to macro and micro economic news
Demand/supply of securities in the market
Marketability of securities
Dividend payments
Many others

Direct investment and indirect
investment
In Direct Investing, investors buy and sell
securities themselves, typically through
brokerage accounts. Active investors may
prefers this type of investing.
In Indirect Investing, investors buy and sell
shares of investment companies, which in turn
hold portfolios of securities. Individual who
are not active may prefer this type of investing.

Important considerations in investment
decision process:
Investment decision should be considered based on economy,
industry consideration and company fundamentals including
management & financial performance
Investment decision process can be lengthy and involved
The great unknown may exist whatever be the individual actions
Global investment arena
New economy vrs old economy stocks
The rise of the internet- a true revolution for investment
information.
Institutional investors vrs individual investor
Risk-return preference
Traditionally, investors have analyzed and managed securities using a
broad two-step process:
security analysis and
portfolio management

Security Analysis Concept & Types
Security analysis is the first part of investment decision process
involving the valuation and analysis of individual securities. Two basic
approaches of security analysis are fundamental analysis and technical
analysis.
Fundament analysis is the study of stocks value using basic
financial variables in order to order to determine company’s intrinsic
value. The variables are sales, profit margin, depreciation, tax rate,
sources of financing, asset utilization and other factors. Additional
analysis could involve the company’s competitive position in the
industry, labor relations, technological changes, management, foreign
competition, and so on.
Technical analysis is the search for identifiable and recurring stock
price patterns.
Behavioral Finance Implications: Investors are aware of market
efficiency but sometimes overlook the issue of psychology in
financial markets- that is, the role that emotions play. Particularly,
in short turn, inventors’ emotions affect stock prices, and markets

Framework for Fundamental Analysis:
Bottom-up approach, where investors focus directly on a company’s
basic. Analysis of such information as the company’s products, its
competitive position and its financial status leads to an estimate of the
company's earnings potential and ultimately its value in the market. The
emphasis in this approach is on finding companies with good
growth prospect, and making accurate earnings estimates. Thus
bottom-up fundamental research is broken in two categories: growth
investing and value investing
Growth Stock:
It carry investor expectation of above average future growth in earnings
and above average valuations as a result of high price/earnings ratios.
Investors expect these stocks to perform well in future and they are
willing to pay high multiples for this expected growth.
Value Stock: Features cheap assets and strong balance sheets.

In many cases, bottom-up investing does not attempt to make a clear distinction
between growth and value stocks. Top-down approach is better approach.

Top-down Approach
In this approach
investors begin with economy/market considering
interest rates and inflation to find out favorable time to
invest in common stock
then consider future industry/sector prospect to
determine which industry/sector to invest in
Finally promising individual companies of interest in
the prospective sectors are analyzed for investment
decision.

Fundamental Analysis at
Company Level:
There are two basic approaches for valuation of
common stocks using fundamental analysis,
which are:
Intrinsic Valuation: Discounted cash flow(DCF)
technique. One form of DCF is Dividend Discount
Model(DDM), that uses present value method by
discounting back all future dividends
Relative Valuation Model, uses P/E ratio, P/B
ratio and P/S ratio

Intrinsic Valuation, DDM:
In this method, an investor or analyst carefully studies the future
prospects for a company and estimates the likely dividends to be paid,
which are the only payments an investor receives directly from a
company. In addition, the analyst estimates an appropriate required rate
of return on the risk foreseen in the dividends. Then calculate the
estimated discounted present value of all future dividends as below:
PV of stock, Vo= D1/(1+k) +D2/(1+k)2+ D3/(1+k)3+…..
=D1/(k – g) …… (after simplification)
where, D1, D2, D3..are future 1st, 2nd , 3rd years dividends, k is required rate of return
Now,
If Vo > Po, the stock is undervalued and should be purchased
If Vo < Po, the stock is overvalued and should be not be purchased
If Vo = Po, the stock is at correctly priced
Alternatively, in practice, investors can use DDM to select stocks. The expected
rate of return, k, for constant growth stock can be written as
k= D1/Po + g, where D1/Po is dividend yield and the 2nd part g is price change
component

Relative Valuation
Relative valuation technique uses comparisons to
determine a stock’s value. By calculating measures such
as P/E ratio and making comparisons to some
benchmark(s) such as the market, an industry or other
stocks history over time, analyst can avoid having to
estimate g and k parameters of DDM.

In relative valuation, investors use several different
ratios such as P/E, P/B, P/S etc in an attempt to
assess value of a stock through comparison with
benchmark.

Earning Multiplier or P/E Ratio
Model:
This model is the best-known and most widely used
model for stock valuation. Analysts are more
comfortable taking about earning per share (EPS) and
P/E ratios, and this is how their reports are worded.

P/E ratio simply means the multiples of earnings
at which the stock is selling. For example, if a stock’s
most recent 12 months earning is Tk 5 and its is selling
now at Tk 150, then it is said that the stock is selling for
a multiple of 30.

Determinants of P/E Ratio:
For a constant growth model of DDM,
Price of a stock, P=D1/(k - g)
Or, P/E=(D1/E)/(k - g)

This indicates that P/E depends on:
1. Expected dividend payout ratio, D1/E
2. Required rate of return, k, which is to be estimated
3. Expected growth rate of dividends

Thus following relationship should hold, being other things equal:
1. The higher the expected payout ratio, the higher the P/E ratio
2. The higher the expected growth rate, the higher the P/E ratio
3. The higher the required rate of return, the lower the P/E ratio

Valuation Using P/E Ratio:
To use the earnings multiplier model for valuation of a stock, investors
must look ahead because valuation is always forward looking. They can
do this by making a forecast of next year’s earnings per share E1,
assuming a constant growth model, as
Next years earning per share, E1=Eo(1+g)
where, g=ROE X (1 - Payout ratio)

Then calculate the forward P/E ratio as
Forward P/E ratio= Po/E1, where E1 is expected earning for next year

In practice, analysts often recommend stocks on the basis of this
forward P/E ratio or multiplier by making a relative judgment with some
benchmark.

Other Relative Valuation Ratios:
Price to Book Value(P/B): This is the ratio of stock
price to per share stockholders’ equity.
Analysts recommend lower P/B stock compared to its
own ratio over time, its industry ratio, and the market
ratio as a whole.

Price to Sales Ratio(P/S): A company’s stock price
divided by its sales per share.
A PSR 1.0 is average for all companies but it is
important to interpret the ratio within industry
bounds and its own historical average.

Risk Diversification- the objective of portfolio formation
without affecting the return significantly

If the rates of return on individual securities are dependent only on
company-specific risks of that company and these returns are
statistically independent of other securities’ returns, then in that case,
the standard deviation of return of the portfolio (formed by n
number of securities) is given by
σi
σp= ------------(1)
√n
Standard deviation of

Company-specific risk
portfolio return

Total risk

Systematic risk

No. of securities

Risk Diversification
Risk diversification is the key to the
management of portfolio risk, because it allows
investors to significantly lower the portfolio risk
without adversely affecting return.

Diversification types:
Random or naive diversification
Efficient diversification

Random or naive diversification:
It refers to the act of randomly diversifying
without regard to relevant investment characteristics such
as expected return and industry classification. An
investor simply selects relatively large number
of securities randomly.

Unfortunately, in such case, the benefits of
random diversification do not continue as we
add more securities, the reduction becomes
smaller and smaller.

Efficient diversification
Efficient diversification takes place in an efficient
portfolio that has the smallest portfolio risk for a given
level of expected return or the largest expected return
for a given level of risk. Investors can specify a portfolio
risk level they are willing to assume and maximize the
expected return on the portfolio for this level of risk.

Rational investors look for efficient portfolios, because
these portfolios are optimized on the two dimensions of
most importance to investors- return and risk.

Modern Portfolio Theory
In 1952, Markowitz, the father of modern portfolio theory, developed
the basic principle of portfolio diversification in a formal way, in
quantified form, that shows why and how portfolio diversification works
to reduce the risk of a portfolio to an investor. Modern Portfolio
theory hypothesizes how investors should behave.

According to Markowitz, the portfolio risk is not simply a weighted
average of the risks brought by individual securities in the portfolio but
it also includes the risks that occurs due to correlations among the
securities in the portfolio. As the no. of securities in the portfolio
increases, contribution of individual security’s risk decreases due to
offsetting effect of strong performing and poor performing securities in
the portfolio and the importance of covariance relationships among
securities increases. Thus the portfolio risk is given by
σ2p=∑wi2σi2 + ∑ ∑wiwjρijσiσj

=∑ ∑wiwjρijσiσj (the 1st term is neglected for large n)

Efficient Frontiers
Graph for the risk-return trade-off according to Markowitz portfolio theory is
drawn below.

B

Portfolio on AB section are better than those on
AC in risk-return perspective and so portfolios on
E(R) A AB are called efficient portfolios that offers best
risk-return combinations to investors

C

Global minimum portfolio

Risk σ

Computing Problem with Original
Markowitz Theory, and Later Simplification
As n increases, n(n-1) covariances (inputs) are required
to calculate under Markowitz model. Due to this
complexity of computation, it was mainly used for
academic purposes before simplification.

It was observed that mirror images of covariances were
present in Markowitz’s model. So after excluding the
mirror images in the simplified form, n(n-1)/2 unique
covariances are required for using this model and since
then it is being used by investors.

Markowitz Model for Selection of Optimal
Asset Classes-Asset Allocation Decision:
Markowitz model is typically thought of in terms
of selecting portfolios of individual securities. But
alternatively, it can be used as a selection
technique for asset classes and asset allocation.

Single Index Model - An Alternative
Simplified Approach to Determine
Efficient Frontiers
Single-Index model assumes that the risk of return from each
security has two components-
the market related component(βiRM)caused by macro events and
the company-specific component(ei) which is a random residual
error caused by micro events.

The security responds only to market index movement as
residual errors of the securities are uncorrelated. The residual
errors occur due to deviations from the fitted relationship
between security return and market return. For any period, it
represents the difference between the actual return(Ri) and the
return predicted by the parameters of the model(βiRM)

The Single Index model is given by the equation:
Ri=αi + βiRM + ei ………for security i, where
Ri= the return on security
RM=the return from the market index
αi =risk free part of security i’s return which is independent
of market return
βi=sensitivity of security i, a measure of change of Ri for per
unit change RM, which is a constant
ei=random residual error, which is company specific

ei
Ri

Single Index Model
βi
Diagram
αi
RM

Single Index Model……
Total risk of a security , as measured by its variance, consists of
two components: market risk and unique risk and given by
αi2=βi2[αM2}+ αei2
=Market risk + company-specific risk
This simplification also applies to portfolios, providing an
alternative expression to use in finding the minimum variance set
of portfolios:
αp2=βp2[α 2}+ αep2
M

The Single-Index model is an alternative to Markowitz model to
determine the efficient frontiers with much fewer calculations,
3n+2 calculations, instead of n(n-1)/2 calculations. For 20
securities, it requires 62 inputs instead of 190 in Markowitz
model.

Multi-Index Model
Some researchers have attempted to capture some
non-market influences on stock price by
constructing Multi-Index model. Probably the most
obvious non-market influence is the industry
factor. Multi-index model is given by the equation:
E(Ri)=ai+biRM+ciNF + ei, where NF=non-market factor

Capital Market Theory(CMT)
Capital market theory hypothesizes how investors behave rather than how they
should behave as in Markowitz portfolio theory. CMT is based on Markowitz
theory and but it is an extension of that.

The more the risk is involved in an investment, the more the return is required
to motivate the investors. It plays a central role in asset pricing, because it is the risk
that investors undertake with expectation to be rewarded.

CMT is build on Markowitz Portfolio theory and extended with introduction of
risk-free asset that allows investors borrowing and lending at risk-free rate and
at this, the efficient frontier is completely changed, which in tern leads to a
general theory for pricing asset under uncertainty. Borrowing additional ingestible
fund and investing together with investor’s wealth allows investors to seek higher
expected return, while assuming greater risk. Likewise, lending part of investor’s wealth
at risk-free rate, investors can reduce risk at the expense of reduced expected return.

CMT Graphs:
Borrowing

Market portfolio M1
M
Return
E(R) M2 M
Lending
RF RF
Risk σ

CAPM and Its Two Specifications:
CML, SML
CAPM(Capital Asset Pricing Model)
This is a form of CMT, and it is an equilibrium
model, allows us to measure the relevant risk of an
individual security as well as to assess the relationship
between risk and the returns expected from investing.
It has two specifications: CML & SML

CML:
CML(Capital Market Line): A straight line, depicts equilibrium
conditions that prevails in the market for efficient portfolios consisting
of the optimal portfolio risky assets and the risk-free asset. All
combinations of the risk-free asset and risky portfolio M are on CML,
and in equilibrium, all investors will end up with portfolios somewhere
on the CML.
M
E(RM)
Risk premium for market portfolio

E(R)

RF E(Rp)=RF+(E(RM)-RF)ρp/ σ2M

Risk of market

portfolio M, σM

Risk

SML:
SML (Security Market Line): It says that the expected rate of return from an
asset is function of the two components of the required rate of return- the risk
free rate and risk premium, and can be written by, k=RF+β(E(RM)-RF). At
market portfolio M, β=1.
M
Required rate of return

undervalued Overvalued
X Y

Assets more risky
Assets less risky than market portfolio

RF
than market portfolio
βM
1 β

SML…..
CAPM formally relates the expected rate of return for any
security of portfolio with the relevant risk measure. This is
the most cited form of relationship and graphical
representation of CAPM.

Beta is the change in risk on an individual security
influenced by 1 percent change in market portfolio return.
Beta is the relevant measure of risk that can not be
diversified away in a portfolio of securities and, as such, is
the measure that investors should consider in their portfolio
management decision process.

Portfolio Performance Measurement
Sharpe’s measure(Reward to Variability Ratio, RVAR):
The performance of portfolio is calculated in Sharpe’s measure as the
ratio of excess portfolio return to the standard deviation of return for
the portfolio.
CML of
RVAR=( TRp –RF)/SDp Y appropriate

Rate of return
benchmarks
Efficient portfolios lie on CML X
Outperformers lie above CML Z
Underperformers lie under CML
RF
Note about RVAR: SDp
It measures the excess return per unit of total risk(SDp) of the portfolio
The higher the RVAR, the better the portfolio performance
Portfolios can be ranked by RVAR and best performing one can be determined
Appropriate benchmark is used for relative comparisons in performance measurement

Portfolio Performance
Measurement…………
Treynor’s measure(Reward to Volatility Ratio, RVOR)
The performance of portfolio is calculated in Treynor’s measure as the ratio of
excess portfolio return to the beta of the portfolio which is systematic risk.
RVOR=( TRp –RF)/ βp SML of
Y

Rate of return
appropriate
Efficient portfolios lie on SML benchmarks
Outperformers lie above SML X
Z
Underperformers lie under SML
RF
βp

Note about RVOL:
It measures the excess return per unit of systematic risk (βp) of the portfolio
The higher the RVOR, the better the portfolio performance
Portfolios can be ranked by RVOR and best performing one can be determined

Portfolio Performance
Measurement…………
Jensen’s Differential Return Measure, α:
It is calculated as the difference between what the
portfolio actually earned and what it was expected
to earn given the portfolio’s level of systematic risk.
X
αp=(Rp – RF) – [βp (RM – RF)] Y

=Actual return –required return Z

Rp - RF

0
RM - RF

Portfolio monitoring and
rebalancing
It is important to monitor market conditions,
relative asset mix and investors’ circumstances.
These changes dynamically and frequently and
so there is need for rebalancing the portfolio
towards optimal point.

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