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Project Management : Social Cost Benefit analysis ( SCBA)
MBA~ IM – VTU
Social Cost Benefit Analysis

MBA~ IM – VTU
Commercial Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)
• Benefit > Cost is desirable here.
• So it is nothing but a profitability analysis.
• But what will be the costs and/or the benefits that a
society may have to bear and/or get from the proposed
project are not considered here.
Expected future
benefit from the
project
Total cost of the
project

MBA~ IM – VTU
For example:
• Suppose, a manufacturer produces cigarettes and sell it
tk.40 a packet, and another manufacturer produces
soaps and sell it tk.20 a bar.
Now, if we think about the impact of soaps & cigarettes on
the society, the questions may be –
▫ Does the price of cigarettes take account of the
smokers’ higher probability of heart disease or cancer?
▫ Does the price of soap take note of the benefits from
the use of soap, e.g., reduced risk of spread diseases?
Obviously, a commercial entrepreneur can’t give well
answer to these questions.

MBA~ IM – VTU
What is Social Cost Benefit Analysis ?
• So, to reflect the real value of a project to society, we
must consider the impact of the project on society.
Impact
Positive Negative
(Social Benefit) (Social Cost)
Thus ,when we evaluate a project from the view point of
the society (or economy) as a whole, it is called Social Cost
Benefit Analysis (SCBA)/Economic Analysis.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Core differences between CBA & SCBA
CBA SCBA
• Limited range of effects
are considered as it
measures the profitability of
individuals who are only a
part of the society.
• The evaluator has to take a
wider view as it tries to
measure social values of the
whole society.
• It is quantitative in nature. • It can be quantitative or
qualitative.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Scope of SCBA
• SCBA can be applied to both Public & private
investments –
▫ Public Investment:
SCBA is important specially for the developing
countries where govt. plays a significant role in the
economic development.
▫ Private Investment:
Here, SCBA is also important as the private
investments are to be approved by various
governmental & quasi-governmental agencies.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Objectives of SCBA
The main focus of Social Cost Benefit Analysis is to
determine:
1. Economic benefits of the project in terms of shadow
prices;
2 The impact of the project on the level of savings and
investments in the society;
3. The impact of the project on the distribution of income
in the society;
4. The contribution of the project towards the fulfillment
of certain merit wants (self- sufficiency, employment
etc).

MBA~ IM – VTU
Significances of SCBA
• CBA is unable to reflect social values. Hence SCBA has
been emerged with some interesting significances. These
significances also make the SCBA different from the
CBA.
 Market Imperfections
 Externalities
 Taxes & Subsidies
 Concern for Savings
 Concern for Redistribution
 Merit Wants

MBA~ IM – VTU
Significances of SCBA (Contd.)
• Market Imperfections:
Market prices, the basis for CBA, do not reflect the
social values under imperfect market competition.
• Externalities:
A project may have beneficial or harmful external
effects that are considered in SCBA, not in CBA.
• Taxes & Subsidies:
From the social point of view, taxes & subsidies are
nothing but transfer payments. But in CBA, taxes
& subsidies are treated as monetary costs and
benefits respectively.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Significances of SCBA (Contd.)
 Concern for Savings:
In SCBA, the division between benefits & consumption is
relevant wherein higher valuation is placed on savings.
But in CBA such division is irrelevant.
 Concern for Redistribution:
In SCBA, the distribution of benefits is very much
concerning issue where commercial private firm does
not bother about it.
 Merit Wants:
Merit wants are important from the social point of view
and therefore, SCBA considers these wants.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Approaches to SCBA
• There are two principal approaches for Social Cost
Benefit Analysis.
A. UNIDO Approach, and
B. L-M Approach.
A. UNIDO Approach:
This approach is mainly based on the publication of UNIDO
(United Nation Industrial Development Organization)
named Guide to Practical Project Appraisal in 1978.
B. L-M Approach:
I.M.D Little & J.A.Mirlees have developed this approach for
analysis of Social Cost-Benefit in Manual of Industrial
Project Analysis in Developing Countries and Project
Appraisal & Planning for Developing Countries.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach
The UNIDO approach of Social Cost Benefit Analysis
involves five stages:
• Calculation of financial profitability of the project
measured at market prices.
• Obtaining the net benefit of the project at shadow
(efficiency) prices. (Objective of SCBA-1)
• Adjustment for the impact of the project on Savings &
Investment. (Objective of SCBA-2)
• Adjustment for the impact of the project on Income
Distribution. (Objective of SCBA-3)
• Adjustment for the impact of the project on Merit and
Demerit Goods whose social values differ from their
economic values. (Objective of SCBA-4)

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach (Contd.)
Stage-1: Calculation of financial profitability of the project
 A good technical and financial analysis must be done
before a meaningful economic (social) evaluation can be
made so as to determine financial profitability.
 Financial profitability is indicated by the Net Present
Value (NPV) of the project, which is measured by taking
into account inputs (costs) and outputs (benefits) at
market price.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage One (Contd.)
 Net Present value of a Project is calculated as:
Here,
Vt = Value of outputs at market price at time t
Ct = Value of inputs at market price at time t
K = Discount Rate
T = Lifetime of the project
I0 = Initial cost at the start of the project.
 The project is viewed as financially feasible if NPV > 0.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Stage-2: Obtaining the net benefit of the project at
economic (shadow) prices
 The Commercial Profitability analysis (calculated in
stage - 1) would be sufficient only if the Project is
operated in perfect market. Because, only in a perfect
market, market prices can reflect the social value.
 If the market is imperfect (most of the cases in reality),
net benefit of the Project is determined by assigning
shadow prices to inputs and outputs.
 Therefore, developing shadow prices is very much vital.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage Two (Contd.)
 Shadow Prices reflect the real value of a resource (input
or output) to society.
 Shadow Prices are also referred as economic prices,
accounting prices, economic/accounting efficiency prices
etc.
 Shadow Prices can be defined as the value of the
contribution to the country’s basic socio-economic
objectives made by any marginal change in the
availability of commodities (0utput) or factor of
production (input).
 Example: A project of power station may increase the
production of electricity which contributes to one of the
socio-economic objectives of the country.

MBA~ IM – VTU
General Principles of Shadow Pricing
Numeraire :
 A unit of account in which the values of inputs and
outputs are to be expressed.
 Numeraire is determined at-
• Domestic currency (BDT) rather than border price.
• Present value rather than future value.
Because, “a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.”
• Constant price rather than current price.

MBA~ IM – VTU
General Principles of Shadow Pricing (Contd.)
Tradability:
 Tradability refers to whether a good or service is tradable or
non-tradable; if tradable whether is fully traded or non-traded.
 A good/service is tradable in the absence of or within limited
trade barriers.
 A tradable good/service is actually traded when-
• the import (export) supply is perfectly elastic over the relevant
range of volume.
• all additional demand (production) must be made (consumed)
by import (export) due to the full capacity in the domestic
industry (fulfillment of demand by domestic consumer).

MBA~ IM – VTU
• the import (CIF) price is less or the export (FOB) price is
more than the domestic cost of production.
 A good/service is non-tradable; if
• its import (CIF) price is greater than its domestic cost of
production, and/or
• its export (FOB) price is less than its domestic cost of
production.
 A tradable good/service that is not actually traded is
called non-traded.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Sources of Shadow Pricing:
 Depending on the impact of the project on national
economy, there are three sources of shadow pricing:
Impact of the project on National Economy Sources of
Shadow Pricing
From production of output
angle
From consumption of input
angle
Increase total consumption in
the economy
Decrease consumption in the
rest of the economy
Consumer’s
willingness to pay
Decrease production in other
parts of the economy
Increase production within
the economy
Cost of production
Decrease imports or increase
exports
Increase imports or decrease
exports
Foreign Exchange
Value (Border Price)

MBA~ IM – VTU
Taxes:
• If the project augments domestic production, taxes
should be excluded;
• If the project consumes existing fixed supply of non-
traded inputs, tax should be included;
• For fully traded goods, tax should be ignored.
Consumer Willingness to Pay (CWP):
• What a consumer wants to spend for a product or service.
• The difference between CWP and actual payment is called
consumer surplus.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Shadow Pricing of Resources
Tradable inputs & outputs:
 For a fully traded good, the shadow price is border price
translated into the domestic currency at shadow foreign
exchange.
Tradability Type of Goods Shadow Prices
Input Output
Traded Border Price
• Export Export decreased Export increased Value of Export (FOB)
• Import Import increased Import decreased Cost of Import (CIF)

MBA~ IM – VTU
Shadow Pricing of Resources (contd.)
Assuming that a project uses two indigenous
equipment's costing Tk. 5,00,000. These equipment's
can be exported at $10,000. The shadow foreign rate of
$ 1.00 is equivalent to Tk. 68.
Therefore, shadow price of these equipment's (inputs)
are ($10,000 × Tk.68) = Tk. 6,80,000.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Non-Tradable Inputs & Outputs:
Input Output
Non-Traded:
Production More from local
producers
Less by other local
producers
Cost of Production
Consumption Less to other
local users
More to local users Consumer’s willingness
to pay

MBA~ IM – VTU
 Assuming that for a project, one-half of the required
input is collected from additional domestic production
which has a domestic cost of Tk. 2,00,000 and the rest
one-half is collected from diversion from other
consumers who are willing to pay Tk. 3,00,000.
Therefore, the shadow price of the inputs will be:
(cost of production + consumer’s willingness to pay)
= Tk. (2,00,000 + 3,00,000)
= Tk. 5,00,000

MBA~ IM – VTU
Input Output
Non-Traded:
Production More from local
producers
Less by other
local producers
Cost of Production
Consumption Less to other
local users
More to local
users
Consumer’s willingness
to pay

MBA~ IM – VTU
 Assuming that a newly establishes power station having
a total capacity of 100 million units of electricity, charges
tariff at Tk. 1 for per unit electricity consumption. The
consumers of that particular area are willing to pay Tk.
1.20 for per unit.
Therefore, the shadow price is
(Tk. 1.20 × 10 million) = Tk. 120 million, instead of Tk.
100 million.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Externalities:
 An externality is an external effect (either beneficial or
harmful) causes from a project which is –
• not deliberately created by the project sponsors but is an
incidental outcome.
• beyond the control of the persons who are benefited or
affected by it.
• not traded in the market place

MBA~ IM – VTU
Example of External Effects:
 Near about 100,000 people had lost lands 5,680
acres due to the project of Jamuna Bridge.
 People may be affected by erosion and flood
conditions brought about by changes to the river
which result from the construction activities of a
bridge.
 Environmental pollution created by brick field.
 A project of planting trees for commercial purpose
may give protection to the environment against the
increasing global warmth.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Shadow Pricing of Externalities:
Although valuation of external effects is difficult as they
are often intangible in nature and there is no market price,
shadow pricing of externalities may be made indirect
means such as :
 The harmful effect of the bridge may be measured by the
consumer willingness to pay for the output of the people
which has been reduced due to the bridge.
 The cost of pollution may be estimated in terms of the loss
of earnings as a result of damage to health caused by it.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Labor:
Possible Impact Shadow Price (Social Cost) of Labor
1. Taking labor away from other
employments
Willingness to pay of other users for this labor
2. Stimulating the production of
new workers
• the value assigned by the worker on the leisure that
he has forego.
• the additional consumption of food
• the cost of transport
• negative impact on savings and investments due to
the increased consumption by workers
• the cost of training
• the cost of urbanization
3. Importing workers Flighting of foreign currency equivalent to the wages
commanded by them along with a premium on
account of the foreign exchange.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Capital:
 Investment of capital in a project causes to happen two
things:
i. Financial resources are converted into physical assets
ii. Financial resources are withdrawn from national pool
of savings. Thus alternative projects are foregone and
there is an opportunity cost of it.
 The shadow price of physical assets is calculated in the
same manner in which inputs and outputs are calculated.
 The opportunity cost of capital (shadow price of capital)
depends on the source from which the capital has
generated.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Shadow Pricing of Resources (Contd.)
Generation of Capital Opportunity Cost of Capital
Generation from additional
savings
Consumption rate of interest or social
discount rate (the price must be paid
to the saver to sacrifice present
consumption)
Generation from the denial
of capital to alternatives
projects
Investment rate of interest
(Investment rate of return that would
be earned from those alternative
projects)

MBA~ IM – VTU
Obtaining Net Benefit of the Project at Shadow Prices
 Determining the shadow price of
 One-Shot Costs
Annual costs
Annual benefits
 Calculating Net-benefit of the project from social point
of view by :
Here,
Vt = Shadow price of Benefit at time t
Ct = Shadow price of Operating Expenses at time t
K = Social Discount Rate
T = Lifetime of the project
I0 = Initial cost at the start of the project.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Obtaining Net benefit of the Project (An illustration)
The Government is considering a project which would
supply water for irrigation, generate electricity and provide
a measure of protection against floods. The project is
expected to have a 25 year life time.
The costs and benefits of the project are:
COSTS:
1.Power equipment costing Tk. 30 crore.
(Additional Information: This equipment can be exported
at $ 4.5 million. The shadow price of per dollar is Tk. 70)
31.5 crore30 croreOne-ShotIndigenous
Power
Equipment
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Private Angle
(Market price)
NatureCost Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
Obtaining Net benefit of the Project (An illustration)
2. 30,000 tones of cement produced indigenously are used
in the project at a cost of Tk. 6,000.
(Additional Information: However, one-half of the cement
will come from additional domestic production which cost
Tk. 5,000 per tone and one-half come from diversion from
other consumers who are willing to pay Tk.6,500 for per
ton.)
Cost Type Nature Private Angle
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Cement One-Shot 18 crore 17.25 crore

MBA~ IM – VTU
Obtaining Net benefit of the Project
An illustration (contd.)
3. Other construction materials ( sand, bricks, steel etc.)
cost 20 crore.
(Additional Information: these materials comes from
additional production, production cost of which is 15 crore.)
Cost Type Nature Private Angle
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Other Materials One-Shot 20 crore 15 crore

MBA~ IM – VTU
4. Two million man days of unskilled labor for which the
project committee decided to pay a daily wage of Tk. 100.
(Additional Information: The shadow price of unskilled
labor is 80 Tk. Per day)
16 core20 croreOne-ShotUnskilled Labor
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Private Angle
(Market price)
NatureCost Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
5. Skilled labor costing Tk. 5 crore.
( However, this cost reflects what others are willing to pay
for the skilled labor)
6. Operating & Maintenance cost of the project will be Tk.
7.5 crore annually. (However, the operating cost should be
Tk. 6.5 crore from social view point)
5 crore5 croreOne-ShotSkilled labor
Social Angle
(Shadow
Price)
Private Angle
(Market price)
NatureCost Type
6.5 crore7.5 croreAnnualOperating Cost
Social AnglePrivate AngleNatureCost Type

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Benefits:
1. 0.5 million acres of land will be irrigated. The
Government will charge the water levy at Tk. 150 for
per acre. (Additional Information: The value of
additional output per acre due to the irrigation will be
Tk. 500 per acre).
Benefit Type Nature Private Angle
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Irrigation Annual 7.5 crore 25 crore

MBA~ IM – VTU
2. 100 million units of electricity will be generated for
domestic use. The electricity tariff will be charged at Tk.
1 per unit. (Additional Information: The consumers are
willing to pay Tk. 1.5 for per unit of electricity).
3. Flood damages can be saved by Tk. 2 crore annually.
However, the Government will not able to collect
anything for this.
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Flood Relief Annual - 2 crore
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Electricity Annual 10 crore 15 crore

MBA~ IM – VTU
Cost & Benefit of the Project (at a glance)
One-Shot cost:
Cost Type Private Angle
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Power Equipment 30 crore 31.5 crore
Cement 18 17.25
Other Materials 20 15
Unskilled Labor 20 16
Skilled Labor 5 5
Total 93 Crore 84.75 Crore

MBA~ IM – VTU
Cost & Benefit of the Project (at a glance) (contd.)
Annual cost:
Annual Benefit:
Cost Type Private Angle
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Operating Cost 7.5crore 6.5 crore
Total 7.5Crore 6.5 Crore
Benefit Type Private Angle
(Market price)
Social Angle
(Shadow Price)
Irrigation 7.5 crore 25 crore
Electricity 10 crore 15 crore
Flood Relief - 2 crore
Total 17.5 Crore 42 Crore

MBA~ IM – VTU
Determining Project Profitability from the Private Angle
• Net Present value of a Project is calculated as:
Here,
Vt = Annual Benefit at time t = 17.5 crore
Ct = Annual cost at time t = 7.5 crore
K = Discount Rate = 10% (assuming)
T = Lifetime of the project = 25 years
I0 = Initial cost at the start of the project = 93 crore
Therefore,
= {10 (PVAF.10%, 25) – 93}
= {10 X 9.0770 – 93}
= Tk.( 2.23) crore
Therefore, the project is generating a negative NPV of Tk. 2.23 crore
from the private angle.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Net Present value of a Project from Social angle is calculated as:
Here,
Vt = Shadow price of Benefit at time t = 42 crore
Ct = Shadow price of Operating Expenses at time t = 6.5 crore
K = Social Discount Rate = 10% (assuming)
T = Lifetime of the project = 25 years
I0 = Initial cost at the start of the project = 84.75 crore
Therefore,
= {35.5 (PVAF.10%, 25) – 84.75}
= {35.5 X 9.0770 – 84.75}
= {322.23 – 84.75}
= Tk. 237.48 crore
From the view point of society, the project is generating a
positive NPV of Tk. 237.48 crore.
Determining Project Profitability from the Social Angle

MBA~ IM – VTU
Stage – 3: Adjustment for the impact of the project on
Savings & Investment
 The purposes of this stage are to –
 determine the amount of income gained or lost because
of the project by different income groups (such as project
other than business, government, workers, customers
etc.)
 evaluate the net impact of these gains and losses on
savings
 measure the adjustment factor for savings and thus the
adjusted values for savings impact.
 adjust the impact on savings to the net present value
calculated in stage two.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage Three (Contd.)
 Measurement of Gain or Loss:
A project appoints 1,000 laborers at a wage rate of Tk.
150 per day. These workers were ready to work for a daily
wage of Tk. 100.
Therefore, the gain of the group of 1,000 workers from
the project is {(150 - 100) × 1,000} = Tk. 50,000 per day.
 Evaluation of the Net Impact on Savings:
Net Savings Impact of a project =
Here , Δ Yi = change in income of group i as a result of
the project
MPSi = marginal propensity to save of group i

MBA~ IM – VTU
Assuming that the income gained or lost by 4 group is:
Worker (W)=Tk. 2,50,000, Consumer (C) = Tk. -7,00,000
Project (P)=Tk. 10,00,000, External Sector(E)=Tk.5,00,000
The marginal propensity to save of these four groups is:
MPSW = 0.04, MPSC= 0.25, MPSP = 0.4 & MPSE =0.3
Therefore, the net impact of the project on savings is:
{2,50,000×0.04+(-7,00,000)×0.25+10,00,000×0.4
+ 5,00,000×0.3}
= 1,00,000 – 1,75,000 + 4,00,000 + 1,50,000
=Tk. 4,75,000

MBA~ IM – VTU
 Adjustment Factor for Savings (AFs):
AFs measures the percentage by which the social value of
investment of one taka exceeds social value of
consumption one taka.
Here,
MPC = Marginal Propensity to Consume
MPS = Marginal Propensity to Saving
MP Cap = Marginal Productivity of Capital
CRI = Consumption Rate of Interest (social discount
rate)

MBA~ IM – VTU
 Assuming that MPC, MPS, MPcap & CRI of an economy is
given:
MPC = 70%, MPS = 30%, MPcap = 25% and CRI = 10%
Therefore, adjustment factor for saving is:
 Adjusted value of the impact of the project on savings:
Adjusted value of saving = (Net impact on savings × AFs)
= Tk. 4,75,000 × 6
= Tk. 28,50,000.

MBA~ IM – VTU
• This Tk. 28,50,000 is now added to the net present value
of the project calculated in stage -2 ( Tk. 237.48 crore)
• Therefore, the adjusted net present value at this
stage will be Tk. ( 237.48 + .285) = Tk.237.765 crore.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Stage – 4: Adjustment for the impact of the project on
Income Distribution
 Government considers a project as an investment for the
redistribution of income in favor of economically weakens
sections or economically backward regions.
 This stage provides a value on the effects of a project on
income distribution between rich & poor and among
regions.
 Distribution Adjustment Factor (Weight) is calculated and
the impacts of the project on income distribution have
been valued by multiplying the adjustment factor with the
particular income of a group. This value will then be added
to the net present value re-calculated in stage three to
produce the social net present value of the project.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage Four (Contd.)
Determination of Weights:
 It there are only two groups in a society, poor and rich,
the determination of weight is just an iterative process
between the analysts (at the bottom) and the planners (at
the top). This is called “bottom-up” approach.
 When more than two groups are involved, weights are
calculated by the elasticity of marginal utility of income.
The marginal utility of income is the weight attached to an
income is:
Where, wi = weight of income at ci level
ci = level of income of group i
b = base level of income that has a weight of 1.00
n = elasticity of the marginal utility of income

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage Four (Contd.)
 Assuming that the worker group gains an income of Tk.
2,50,000 from a project, the base level of income is Tk.
50,000 which has a weight if 1.00 and elasticity of
marginal utility of income is 0.20.
Therefore, weight is:
 So, value of the impact of the project on income
distribution to this group is:
(Tk. 2,50,000 × 0.72) = Tk. 1,80,000.
 Now, this value will be added to the net present value
adjusted in stage three.
 Therefore, Adjusted NPV in this stage will be
Tk. (237.765+ 0.018) = Tk. 237.78 crore

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Stage – 5: Adjustment for Merit and Demerit Goods
 If there is no difference between the economic value of
inputs and outputs and the social value of those, the
UNIDO approach for project evaluation ends at stage four.
 In practical, there are some goods (merit goods), social
value of which exceed the economic value (e.g. oil, creation
of employment etc.) and also there are some goods
(demerits goods), social value of which is less than their
economic value (e.g., cigarette, alcohol, high-grade
cosmetics etc.)
 Adjustment to the net present value of stage 4 is required
if there is any difference between the social and economic
value.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage Five (Contd.)
 The steps of adjustment procedure are:
• Estimating the present economic value
• Calculating the adjustment factor
• Multiplying the economic value by the adjustment factor
to obtain the adjusted value
• Adding or subtracting the adjusted value to or from the net
present value of the project as calculated in stage four.

MBA~ IM – VTU
UNIDO Approach – Stage Five (Contd.)
An alcohol factory is under construction. The present
economic value of the project is Tk. 237.78 crore (Adjusted
NPV up to stage 4). The output of the project has no social
value than its cost of production. Cost of production is the
60 percent of the economic price.
Therefore, adjustment factor is:
So, the adjusted value = (Tk. 237.78 crore × - 0.40)
= - Tk. 95.11 crore
Therefore, the net present value of the project in terms of
socially acceptable consumption is
Tk.(237.78-95.11) = Tk. 142.67 crore.

MBA~ IM – VTU
L-M Approach
 I.M.D. Little and James A. Mirrlees have developed an
approach to SCBA which is famously known as L-M
approach.
 The core of this approach is that the social cost of using
a resource in developing countries differs widely from
the price paid for it.
 Hence, it requires Shadow Prices to denote the real
value of a resource to society. (mentioned earlier)

MBA~ IM – VTU
L-M Approach (Contd.)
Features of L-M Approach
• L-M Numeraire is present uncommitted social income.
 L-M methods opts for savings as the yardstick of
their entire approach. Present savings is more
valuable to them than present consumption since
the savings can be converted into investment for
future.
 L-M approach rejects the ‘consumption’ numeraire
of UNIDO approach since the authors (L & M) feel
that the consumption of all level is valuable.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Features of L-M Approach (Contd.)
• This approach measures the cost and benefits in terms
of international or border prices.
Why Border prices?
Because the border prices represent the correct social
opportunity costs or benefits of using or producing a
traded goods.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Social Cost-Benefit Analysis (SCBA)
The resources – inputs & outputs – of a project are
classified into mainly:
 Labor
 Traded Goods
 Non-traded Goods
Therefore, to find out the real value of these resources, we
should calculate –
a) Shadow wage rate (SWR)
b) Shadow price of Traded Goods
c) Shadow price of Non-traded Goods

MBA~ IM – VTU
a) Shadow Wage Rate (SWR)
The purpose of computing the SWR is to determine the
opportunity cost of employing an additional worker in the
project. For this we have to determine –
 The value of the output foregone due to the use of a unit of
labor
 The cost of additional consumption due to the transfer of
labor

MBA~ IM – VTU
L-M suggest the following formula for calculating the
SWR:
SWR = m + (c-c) + (1-1/s) (c-m)
Here, m = marginal productivity of the wage earner
c-c = cost of urbanization
(1-1/s) (c-m) = cost of additional committed
consumption
c= additional resources devoted to consumption
c = consumption of wage earner
1 = value of uncommitted resources
1/s = value of committed resources
c-m = additional consumption of labor
c (transportation system, e.g. road construction, motor vehicles) – c
(e.g. bus rent)
= cost of urbanization (e.g. road construction)

MBA~ IM – VTU
b) Shadow price of Traded Goods
Shadow price of traded goods is simply its border or
international price.
 If a good is exported, its shadow price is its FOB price;
 If a good is imported, its shadow price is its CIF price.
c) Shadow price of Non-traded Goods
 Non-traded goods are those which do not enter into
international trade by their very nature. (e.g. land,
building, transportation)
 Hence, no border price is observable for them.

MBA~ IM – VTU
 Ideally, Shadow price of Non-traded Good is defined in
terms of marginal social cost (MSC) and marginal social
benefit (MSB).
 L-M suggest that the monetary cost of non-traded goods
be broken down into –
• Labor SWR (Social Wage Rate)
• Tradable Social Conversion Factor (SCF)
• Residual components SCF

MBA~ IM – VTU
Accounting Rate of Return (ARR):
This is the rate used for discounting social profits.
• Experience is the best guide to the choice of ARR.
• ARR should be such that all mutually compatible
projects with positive present social value can be
undertaken.

MBA~ IM – VTU
A Comparative Illustration of UNIDO & L-M Approach
COSTS:
1. Power equipment costing Tk. 300 million. This
equipment can be exported at $4.5 million. The shadow
price of per dollar is Tk. 70.
$ 4.5 millionTk. 315 millionOne-ShotPower
Equipment
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureCost Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
2. 30,000 tones of cement produced indigenously are used
in the project at a cost of Tk. 6,000. One-third of the
cement will come from additional domestic production
which cost Tk. 5,000 per tone and Two-third will come
from diversion from other consumers who are willing to
pay Tk.6,500 for per ton. The shadow price of per dollar is
Tk. 70.
A Comparative Illustration of UNIDO & L-M Approach (contd.)
$ 1.48 millionTk. 180 millionOne-ShotCement
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureCost Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
3. Other construction materials ( sand, bricks, steel etc.)
cost 200 million. These materials comes from additional
production, production cost of which is 150 million.
4. Two million man days of unskilled labor for which the
project committee decided to pay a daily wage of Tk. 100.
The shadow price of unskilled labor is 80 Tk. Per day.
$ 2.29 millionTk. 160 millionOne-ShotUnskilled Labor
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureCost Type
$ 2.14 millionTk. 150 millionOne-ShotOther Materials
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureCost Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
5. Skilled labor costing Tk. 5o million. However, this cost
reflects what others are willing to pay for the skilled labor.
6. Operating & Maintenance cost of the project will be Tk.
75 million annually. However, the operating cost should be
Tk. 65 million from social view point.
$ 0.71 millionTk. 50 millionOne-ShotSkilled Labor
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureCost Type
$ 0.93 millionTk. 65 millionAnnualOperating Cost
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureCost Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
Benefits:
1. 0.5 million acres of land will be irrigated. The
Government will charge the water levy at Tk. 150 for
per acre. The value of additional output per acre due to
the irrigation will be Tk. 500 per acre.
$ 3.57 millionTk. 250 millionAnnualIrrigation
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureBenefit Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
2. 100 million units of electricity will be generated for
domestic use. The electricity tariff will be charged at Tk.
1 per unit. The consumers are willing to pay Tk. 1.5 for
per unit of electricity.
3. Flood damages can be saved by Tk. 20 million annually.
$ 2.14 millionTk. 150 millionAnnualElectricity
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureBenefit Type
$ 0.29 millionTk. 20 millionAnnualFlood Relief
L-M
Approach
UNIDO
Approach
NatureBenefit Type

MBA~ IM – VTU
Dissimilarities between Two Approaches
UNIDO Approach
• Domestic currency is
used as Numeraire
• Consumption is the
measurement base
• SCBA objectives are
met through stage by
stage
L-M Approach
• International Price is
used as Numeraire
• Uncommitted Social
Income is the
measurement base
• At one place all SCBA
objectives are fulfilled

MBA~ IM – VTU
Similarities between Two Approaches
• Calculation of Shadow Prices to reflect social
value
• Usage of Discounted Cash Flow Techniques
• Taking into account about the effect of a
project on savings, investment and income of a
society

MBA~ IM – VTU
References
• Chandra, Prasanna, Project: Planning, Analysis,
Financing, Implementation, and Review, 6/e, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Limited, New Delhi,
2006.
• Little, I.M.D. & J. Mirrlees, Manual of Industrial
Project analysis in developing countries, Vol. II,
OECD, 1968.
• Puttaswamaiah, K., & Venu, S., A Theoretical and
Applied Critique of Alternative Methodologies.
• UNIDO, Guidelines For Project Evaluation, 1981.
• www.citechco.net/jmba

MBA~ IM – VTU
Questions
1. “Social cost – benefits are always equivalent to monetary
cost – benefits”. Do you agree? Why or why not?
Explain.
2. What do you mean by externalities? Give at least three
examples of externalities. How do you measure these
externalities?
3. How a project can be evaluated? Explain briefly.
4. What is shadow pricing? Is there any difference between
shadow price and market price?
5. Define ‘Numeraire’ and give the general ideas about
Numeraire.
6. Distinguish between tradable and non-tradable g/s.

MBA~ IM – VTU
Questions
7. Determine the shadow price of the followings:
 Tradable inputs & outputs
 Non-tradable inputs
 Non-tradable outputs
 Labor
 Capital
8. Briefly explain about L-M approach.
9. What are the main features of L-M approach that differ
from UNIDO approach?

MBA~ IM – VTU
Thank You
!!! For Your Great Patience !!!

MBA~ IM – VTU
Possible Impacts Shadow Price of Labor
1. Taking labor away from other
employments
Willingness to pay of other users for this labor
2. Stimulating the production of
new workers
oThe value assigned by the worker on the leisure that he
has forego.
o The additional consumption of food;
o The cost of transport and rehabilitation;
o Negative impact on savings and investments due to the
increased consumption by workers;
o the cost of training;
o The marginal product in the previous employment;
3. Importing workers Flighting of foreign currency equivalent to the wages
commanded by the foreign workers along with a
premium on account of the foreign exchange.

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