![Slide 16 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved.
No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Durkheim’s Mechanical
and Organic Solidarity
• Division of Labor ([1893] 1933)
– Mechanical solidarity: collective
consciousness that emphasizes group
solidarity, implying all individuals perform
the same tasks
– Organic solidarity: collective
consciousness resting on the need
society’s members have for one another](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/schaefermods3pptch05-171018174237/85/Schaefermods3-ppt-ch05-16-320.jpg)
Schaefermods3 ppt ch05
- 1. Social Interaction, Social Structure, and Groups 5 3rd edition Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer
- 2. Slide 2 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Interaction and Social Structure • Social interaction and social structure are central to sociological study • Social Interaction and Reality: reality is shaped by perceptions, evaluations, and definitions – Nature of social interaction and what constitutes reality varies across cultures – Ability to define social reality reflects group’s power within a society – Important aspect of the process of social change involves redefining or reconstructing social reality
- 3. Slide 3 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Elements of Social Structure • All social interaction takes place within a social structure, which can be broken down into five elements: – Statuses – Social roles – Groups – Social networks – Social institutions
- 4. Slide 4 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Statuses • Status: any of the full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society – Person can hold more than one at same time • Ascribed and Achieved Status – Ascribed status: status one is born with – Achieved status: status one earns
- 5. Slide 5 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Statuses • Master Status – Status that dominates other statuses and determines a person’s general position in society – In U.S., ascribed statuses of race and gender can function as master statuses
- 6. Slide 6 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 16-1: Social Statuses
- 7. Slide 7 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Roles • What Are Social Roles? – Social role: set of expectations for people who occupy a given status • Role Conflict – When incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by same person • Role strain – Difficulties that arise when same social position imposes conflicting demands and expectations
- 8. Slide 8 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Roles • Role Exit – Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s identity to establish a new role – Ebaugh’s four stages: • Doubt • Search for alternatives • Action or departure stage • Creation of a new identity
- 9. Slide 9 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Groups • Group: any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact on a regular basis • Vital part of society’s social structure
- 10. Slide 10 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Networks • Social network: series of social relationships that links a person directly to others, and through them indirectly to still more people – Social networks one of five basic elements of social structure – Research indicates that in person and online not everyone participates equally in social networks
- 11. Slide 11 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Institutions • Social institution: organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs • Functionalist Perspective – Five major tasks: 1. Replacing personnel 2. Teaching new recruits 3. Producing and distributing goods and services 4. Preserving order 5. Providing and maintaining a sense of purpose
- 12. Slide 12 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Institutions • Conflict Perspective – Major institutions help maintain privileges of most powerful individuals and groups within society – Social institutions such as education have inherently conservative natures – Social institutions operate in gendered and racist environments
- 13. Slide 13 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Institutions • Interactionist Perspective – Social institutions affect everyday behavior – Social behavior conditioned by roles and statuses we accept
- 14. Slide 14 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Table 16-1: Sociological Perspectives on Social Institutions
- 15. Slide 15 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Structure in Global Perspective • Modern societies are complex – Durkheim’s mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity – Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft – Lenski’s sociocultural evolution approach
- 16. Slide 16 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Durkheim’s Mechanical and Organic Solidarity • Division of Labor ([1893] 1933) – Mechanical solidarity: collective consciousness that emphasizes group solidarity, implying all individuals perform the same tasks – Organic solidarity: collective consciousness resting on the need society’s members have for one another
- 17. Slide 17 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Tönnies’s Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft • Gemeinschaft (guh-MINE-shoft): small community in which people have similar backgrounds and life experiences • Gesellschaft (guh-ZELL-shoft): large community in which people are strangers and feel little in common with other community residents
- 18. Slide 18 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Table 17-1: Comparison of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
- 19. Slide 19 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Human societies undergo process of change characterized by dominant pattern known as sociocultural evolution – Level of technology critical • Technology: “cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires” (Nolan and Lenski 2009:357)
- 20. Slide 20 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Preindustrial Societies – Hunting-and-gathering society: people rely on whatever foods and fibers are readily available – Horticultural societies: people plant seeds and crops – Agrarian societies: people are primarily engaged in production of food; more specialized than horticultural society
- 21. Slide 21 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Industrial Societies – Societies that depend on mechanization to produce their goods and services – People rely on inventions and energy sources – People move away from family as a self-sufficient production unit
- 22. Slide 22 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Lenski’s Sociocultural Evolution Approach • Postindustrial and Postmodern Societies – Postindustrial society: economic system engaged primarily in processing and controlling information – Postmodern society: technologically sophisticated society preoccupied with consumer goods and media images
- 23. Slide 23 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Table 17-2: Stages of Sociocultural Evolution
- 24. Slide 24 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Understanding Groups • A group is any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations – Share a sense of belonging
- 25. Slide 25 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Types of Groups • Primary and Secondary Groups – Primary group: small group with intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation – Secondary group: formal, impersonal groups with little social intimacy or mutual understanding
- 26. Slide 26 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Table 18-1: Comparison of Primary and Secondary Groups
- 27. Slide 27 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Types of Groups • In-Groups and Out-Groups – In-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they belong – Out-groups: any groups or categories to which people feel they do not belong • Conflict between in-groups and out-groups can turn violent on a personal as well as political level
- 28. Slide 28 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Types of Groups • Reference Groups – Reference group: any group that individuals use as standard for evaluating their own behavior – Set and enforce standards of conduct and belief; also perform a comparison function – Often two or more reference groups influence us at the same time
- 29. Slide 29 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Types of Groups • Coalitions – Temporary or permanent alliances geared toward common goal – Some intentionally short-lived • Example: Survivor
- 30. Slide 30 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Understanding Organizations • Formal organizations and bureaucracies • Characteristics of a bureaucracy • Bureaucracy and organizational culture
- 31. Slide 31 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies • Formal organization: group designed for special purpose and structured for maximum efficiency – In our society, formal organizations fulfill enormous variety of personal and societal needs – Ascribed statuses can influence how we see ourselves within formal organizations
- 32. Slide 32 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • Bureaucracy: component of formal organization that uses rules and hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency – Ideal type: a construct or model for evaluating specific cases (Weber) – Weber emphasized basic similarity of structure and process found in dissimilar enterprises of religion, government, education, and business
- 33. Slide 33 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • Characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy: 1. Division of labor 2. Hierarchy of authority 3. Written rules and regulations 4. Impersonality 5. Employment based on technical qualifications
- 34. Slide 34 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • With a division of labor, specialized experts perform specific tasks – Fragmentation of work can remove connection workers have to overall objective of the bureaucracy – Alienation: condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding society – Trained incapacity: workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems
- 35. Slide 35 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • A hierarchy of authority means each position is under supervision • Written rules and regulations ensure uniform performance of every task – Provide continuity – Goal displacement: when rules and regulations overshadow larger goals of organization and become dysfunctional
- 36. Slide 36 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • Impersonality a key characteristic – Bureaucratic norms dictate that officials perform duties without personal consideration to people as individuals
- 37. Slide 37 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • Employment based on technical qualifications: ideally, performance measured against specific standards – Peter principle: every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to his or her level of incompetence (Peter and Hull 1969) – Bureaucracy pervades modern life; through McDonaldization, it has reached new heights
- 38. Slide 38 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Characteristics of a Bureaucracy • Bureaucratization as a Process – Bureaucratization: process by which group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic • Can take place within small group settings • Oligarchy: Rule by a Few – Iron law of oligarchy: even a democratic organization eventually develops into a bureaucracy ruled by a few
- 39. Slide 39 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture • Classical theory or scientific management approach: workers motivated almost entirely by economic rewards • Human relations approach: role of people, communication, and participation within a bureaucracy emphasized
- 40. Slide 40 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Table 19-1: Characteristics of a Bureaucracy
- 41. Slide 41 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions Worldwide • Looking at the Issue – Labor unions consist of organized workers who share either the same skill or the same employer – Labor union practices were historically discriminatory, but today some actually ensure equal pay for minorities – Labor union power varies greatly from country to country
- 42. Slide 42 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Figure 19-1: Labor Union Membership Worldwide
- 43. Slide 43 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions Worldwide • Reasons for ongoing decline in labor union membership: – Changes in the type of industry – Growth in part-time jobs – The legal system – Globalization – Employer offensives
- 44. Slide 44 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions Worldwide • Applying Sociology – Marxists and functionalists view union development as logical response to organizational growth – Sociologists have linked decline in union membership to widening gap between hourly workers’ wages and managerial and executive compensation
- 45. Slide 45 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions Worldwide • Initiating Policy – U.S. is unique among industrial democracies in allowing employers to oppose union development – European labor unions play a major role in politics – Unions are a global force, but form and function vary from country to country
- 46. Slide 46 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 16-1: Disability as a Master Status – Does your campus present barriers to disabled students? If so, what kinds of barriers—physical, attitudinal, or both? Describe some of them. – Why do you think nondisabled people see disability as the most important characteristic of a disabled person? What can be done to help people see beyond the wheelchair and the Seeing Eye dog? Research Today
- 47. Slide 47 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 16-2: Social Networks and Obesity – Have you ever tried to lose weight, and if so, did your cluster of friends and family help or hinder you? In your experience, do people who are overweight tend to cluster in separate groups from those of normal weight? – Besides public health campaigns, what applications can you think of for research on social networking? Research Today
- 48. Slide 48 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 17-1: Disney World: A Postmodern Theme Park – In just the last 24 hours, what evidence of hyperconsumerism have you witnessed? – How often do you find yourself moving seamlessly across time or space, in one way or another? Sociology in the Global Community
- 49. Slide 49 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 19-1: McDonald’s and the Worldwide Bureaucratization of Society – What features of fast-food restaurants do you appreciate? Do you have any complaints about them? – Analyze life at your college using Weber’s model of bureaucracy. What elements of McDonaldization do you see? Do you wish life were less McDonaldized? Sociology in the Global Community
- 50. Slide 50 Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Sarah Levy, Owner, S. Levy Foods – Have you ever thought of starting your own business? If so, what do you think the key to your success might be? – Would business have been a more practical major for Sarah? Why or why not? Taking Sociology to Work