Supply Chain Management Coordination.

Supply Chain Management:
Coordination in a Supply Chain

Rajendran Ananda
Krishnan

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Topics to be covered
 Coordination in a Supply Chain
 Lack of Supply chain Coordination and
the Bullwhip effect
 Obstacle to coordination
 Managerial levers
 Building partnerships and trust
 Continuous replenishment and vendor
managed inventories
 Collaborative planning, forecasting and
replenishment
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Lack of Supply Chain Coordination and Bullwhip
Effect
 Supply chain coordination improves if all stages
of the chain take actions that together increase
total supply chain profits. Supply chain
coordination requires each stage of the supply
chain to take into account the impact its actions
have on other stages.
 A lack of coordination occurs either because
different stages of the supply chain have
objectives that conflict or because information
moving between stages is delayed and
distorted.
 Different stages of a supply chain may have
conflicting objectives if each stage has a
different owner. As a result, each stage tries to
maximize its own profits, resulting in actions that
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Bullwhip Effect
 Fluctuations in orders placed and demand increase
as we move up the supply chain from retailers to
wholesalers to manufacturers to suppliers. This is
called as Bullwhip effect.
 The Bullwhip effect distorts demand information
within the supply chain, with each stage having a
different estimate of what demand looks like. The
result is a loss of supply chain coordination.
 P&G has observed the bullwhip effect in the supply
chain for Pampers diapers. The company found that
raw material orders from P&G to its suppliers
fluctuated significantly over time. Farther down the
chain, when sales at retail stores were studied, it was
found that the fluctuations, while present, were small.
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Causes for the bullwhip effect
 Forecasting updating – Multiple forecast updates by
each entity in the chain leads to significant distortions.
Each member of the chain updates forecast based on
orders received at his end and not based on the demand
raised by the end customer.
 Order batching – Each member of the chain has his own
economies of scale in production and transportation
resulting in planning practices leading to order batching.
 Price fluctuations – Discounts or price promotions result
in forward buying, causing much distortion. Further
frequent price changes affect the ordering pattern of the
buyer.
 Shortage gaming – In a situation of shortages the
suppliers usually resort to rationing, which in turn provides
incentives to buyers to inflate orders.
 Long lead time – Long lead times increase the planning
horizon of other partners in the chain. Further, each
partner is forced to keep large amounts of safety stock,
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The effect on Performance of Lack of
Coordination
A supply chain lacks coordination if each stage
optimizes only its local objectives, without
considering the impact on the complete chain.
Total supply chain profits are thus less than what
could be achieved through coordination.
 Manufacturing Cost – Increases manufacturing
cost. As a result of the Bullwhip effect,
manufacturer must satisfy a stream of orders
that is much more variable than customer
demand. Manufacturer can respond to the
increased variability by either building excess
capacity or holding excess inventory, both of
which increases the manufacturing cost.
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 Inventory Cost – Bullwhip effect increases
inventory cost. To handle the increased
variability in demand, manufacturer has to carry
a higher level of inventory, than would be
required in the absence of the Bullwhip effect.
 Replenishment Lead Time – Increases
replenishment lead times. Increased variability
makes scheduling at manufacturers much more
difficult and the available capacity and inventory
cannot supply the orders coming in.
 Transportation Cost – Increases transportation
cost. Transportation requirements fluctuate
significantly over time and thus surplus
transportation capacity needs to be maintained
to cover high demand periods.
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 Labor cost for shipping and receiving –
Increases labor costs. Labor requirements
fluctuate with orders and thus manufacturers
have the option of either carrying excess labor
capacity or varying labor capacity, both of which
increases total labor cost.
 Level of product availability – Hurts the level
of product availability and result in more
stockouts in the supply chain. Large fluctuations
in orders make it difficult for manufacturer to
supply all distributor and retailer orders on time.
 Relationships across the Supply Chain –
Has a negative effect on performance at every
stage and thus hurts the relationships between
different stages of the supply chain.
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Obstacles to coordination in a Supply Chain
Any factor that leads to either local optimization
by different stages of the supply chain or an
increase in information delay, distortion and
variability within the supply chain, is an obstacle
to coordination
INCENTIVE OBSTACLES
 Local optimization within functions or
stages of a supply chain – Incentives that
focus only on the local impact of an action result
in decisions that do not maximize total supply
chain profits. For eg. If the compensation of a
transportation manager at a firm is linked to
average transportation cost per unit, manager is
likely to take actions that reduce transportation
cost even if they increase inventory cost or hurt
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 Sales Force Incentives – In many firms, sales force
incentives are based on the amount the sales force
sells during an evaluation period of a month. The
sales typically measured by a manufacturer are the
quantity sold to distributors or retailers (sell-in), not
the quantity sold to final customers (sell-through).

INFORMATION-PROCESSING OBSTACLES
 Forecasting based on Orders and not Customer
Demand – When stages within a supply chain make
forecasts that are based on orders they receive, any
variability in customer demand is magnified as orders
move up the supply chain to manufacturers and
suppliers. Each stage views its primary role within the
supply chain as one of filling orders placed by its
downstream partner and not the actual customer
order. Thus each stage views its demand as the
stream of orders received and produces a forecast
based on this information. https://www.facebook.com/ialwaysthink
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 Lack of Information sharing – Lack of information
sharing between stages of the supply chain magnifies
the bullwhip effect. For eg. A retailer such as Walmart
may increase the size of a particular order because of
a planned promotion. If the manufacturer is not aware
of the planned promotion it may interpret the larger
order as a permanent increase in demand and thus
manufacturers and suppliers will have a lot of
inventory right after Walmart finishes its promotion.
OPERATIONAL OBSTACLES
 Ordering in Large Lots – When a firm places orders
in lot sizes that are much larger than the lot sizes in
which demand arises, variability of orders is
magnified up in the supply chain. Firms may order in
large lots because there is a significant fixed cost
associated with placing, receiving or transporting an
order and supplier offers quantity discounts based on
lot size.
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 Large Replenishment Lead times – Consider a
situation in which a retailer has misinterpreted a
random increase in demand as a growth trend. If the
retailer faces a lead time of two weeks, it will
incorporate the anticipated growth over two weeks
when placing the order.
 Rationing and Shortage Gaming – Rationing
schemes that allocate limited production in proportion
to the orders placed by retailers lead to a
magnification of the bullwhip effect. This can occur
when a high demand product is in short supply.
One commonly used rationing scheme is to allocate
the available supply of product based on orders
placed. Under this rationing scheme, if the supply
available is 75% of the total orders received, each
retailer receives 75% of its orders. This rationing
scheme results in a game in which retailers try to
increase the size of their orders to increase the
amount supplied to them. https://www.facebook.com/ialwaysthink
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PRICING OBSTACLES
 Lot-size based quantity discounts – Lot size based
quantity discounts Increase the lot size of orders placed
within the supply chain and thus magnify the bullwhip
effect.
 Price fluctuations – Trade promotions and other short-
term discounts offered by a manufacturer result in
forward buying, by which a wholesaler or retailer
purchases large lots during the discounting period to
cover demand during future periods. Forward buying
results in large orders during the promotion period
followed by very small orders after that.

BEHAVIORAL OBSTACLES
1. Each stage of the supply chain views its actions locally
and is unable to see the impact of its actions on other
stages.
2. A lack of trust among supply chain partners causes
them to be opportunistic at thehttps://www.facebook.com/ialwaysthink
expense of overall
supply chain performance. prettythings

Managerial Levers to Achieve Coordination
 Aligning of goals and incentives
 Improving Information Accuracy
 Improving operational performance
 Designing pricing strategies to stabilize orders
 Building partnerships and trust
ALIGNING OF GOALS AND INCENTIVES
 Aligning Incentives across Functions – To
ensure that the objective any function uses to
evaluate a decision is aligned with the firm’s
overall objective. All facility, transportation and
inventory decisions should be evaluated based
on their effect on profitability and not total costs.
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 Pricing for Coordination – A manufacturer can
use lot-size based quantity discounts to achieve
coordination for commodity products if the
manufacturer has large fixed costs associated
with each lot. Manufacturers can use buy-back,
revenue sharing and quantity flexibility contracts
to spur retailers to provide levels of product
availability that maximize supply chain profits.
 Altering sales force incentives from Sell-in
to sell-through – Any change that reduces the
incentive for a salesperson to push product to
the retailer reduces the bullwhip effect.
Managers should link the incentives for the
sales force to sell the units to the end customer
(sell through) and not to the retailer (sell in).
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IMPROVING INFORMATION ACCURACY
 Sharing point of sales data – A primary cause for the
Bullwhip effect is the fact that each stage of the supply
chain uses orders to forecast future demand. If retailers
share POS data with other supply chain stages, all
supply chain stages can forecast future demand based
on customer demand.
 Implementing Collaborative Forecasting and
planning – Once point-of-sale data are shared, different
stages of the supply chain must forecast and plan jointly
if complete coordination is to be achieved.
 Designing single stage control of Replenishment –
Designing a supply chain in which a single stage
controls replenishment decisions for the entire supply
chain can help diminish the bullwhip effect as the
problem of multiple forecasts https://www.facebook.com/ialwaysthink and
is eliminated
coordination within the supply chainprettythings
follows.

IMPROVING OPERATIONAL
PERFORMANCE
 Reducing Replenishment Lead time – By
reducing the replenishment lead time,
managers can decrease the uncertainty of
demand during the lead time. Specially
beneficial for seasonal items because it
allows for multiple orders to be placed in the
season with a significant increase in the
accuracy of the forecast.
 Reducing Lot Sizes – A reduction of lot
sizes decreases the amount of fluctuation
that can accumulate between any pair of
stages of a supply chain, thus decreasing the
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 Rationing based on past sales and sharing
information to limit Gaming – Managers can design
rationing schemes that discourage retailers from
artificially inflating their orders in the case of a
shortage. Turn-and-earn approach is to allocate the
available supply based on past sales rather than
current retailer orders. It removes any incentive a
retailer may have to inflate orders thus dampening the
bullwhip effect.
DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES TO STABILIZE
ORDERS
 Moving from lot Size-based to Volume-Based
Quantity Discounts – Offering volume-based
quantity discounts eliminates the incentive to increase
the size of a single lot because volume-based
discounts consider the total purchases during a
specified period rather than purchases in a single lot.
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Stabilizing Pricing – Managers can dampen
the bullwhip effect by eliminating promotions
and charging an EDLP(Every Day Low Pricing).
The elimination of promotions removes forward
buying by retailers and results in orders that
match customer demand.
BUILDING STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIPS AND
TRUST
Sharing of accurate information that is trusted by
every stage results in a better matching of
supply and demand throughout a supply chain
and a lower cost. A better relationship also
tends to lower the transaction cost between
supply chain stages.
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Building Strategic Partnerships and
Trust within a Supply Chain
 A trust-based relationship between two stages of a
supply chain includes dependability of the two
stages, and the ability of each stage to make a leap
of faith. Trust involves a belief that each stage is
interested in the other’s welfare and will not take
actions without considering their impact on the other
stages.
 There are two views regarding how cooperation and
trust can be built into any supply chain relationship:
1. Deterrence based view – In this view the parties
involved use a variety of formal contracts to ensure
cooperation.
2. Process-based view – With this view, trust and
cooperation are built over time as a result of a
series of interactions between the parties involved.
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Coordination and trust within the supply
chain help improve performance for the
following reasons:
1. When stages trust each other, they are
more likely to take the other party’s
objectives into consideration when
making decisions.
2. Action oriented managerial levers to
achieve coordination become easier to
implement. Sharing of information is
natural between parties that trust each
other.
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There are two phases to any long-term supply chain
relationship.
 Design phase – Ground rules are established and the
relationship is initiated.
 Management phase – Interactions based on the ground
rules occur and the relationships as well as the ground
rules evolve.

Designing a Relationship with Cooperation and Trust
Key Steps in designing a relationship
Step I Assessing the value of the relationship – The first
step in designing a supply chain relationship is to clearly
identify the contribution of each party as well as the
mutual benefit that the relationship provides. The next
step is to identify the criteria used for evaluating the
relationship as well as the contribution of each party.
Equity defined as fair dealing measures the fairness of
the division of the total profits among the parties involved.
Thus, a supply chain relationship is likely to be
sustainable only if it increases total profits and this
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Step II. Identifying operational roles and
decision rights for each party –When
identifying operational roles and decision
rights for different parties in a supply chain
relationship, managers must consider the
resulting interdependence between the
parties. A source of conflict may arise if the
tasks are divided in a way that make one
party more dependent on the other. The
allocation of tasks results in a sequential
interdependence if the activities of one
partner precede the other. In reciprocal
interdependence, parties come together
and exchange information and inputs in both
directions. prettythings

Effective Interdependence on SC
Relationships
High

Partner Relatively
High level of
Powerful
Interdependence
Effective Relationship

Organization’s
Dependence
(contracts)
Low level of Organization
Interdependence Relatively Powerful

Lo
w
Low High
Partner’s Dependence
(Source:Harvard Business Review- Nov- Dec 1996 Mfr- Retailer Relationships –
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Step III. Creating Effective Contracts
Managers can help promote trust by
creating contracts that encourage
negotiations as unplanned contingencies
arise. Contracts are most effective for
governance when complete information is
available and all future contingencies can
be accounted for. Over time, the informal
understandings and commitments
between the individuals tend to be
formalized when new contracts are drawn
up.
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 Designing effective conflict-resolution
Mechanisms – Effective conflict-resolution
mechanisms can significantly strengthen
any supply chain relationship.
Unsatisfactory resolution causes the
relationship to worsen whereas satisfactory
resolutions strengthen the partnership. A
good conflict resolution mechanism should
give the parties an opportunity to
communicate and work through their
differences, in the process building greater
trust.
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 Managing Supply Chain Relationships
For Cooperation and Trust – Effectively
managed supply chain relationships foster
cooperation and trust, thus increasing
supply chain coordination. In contrast,
poorly managed relationships lead to each
party being opportunistic, resulting in a loss
of total supply chain profits.

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Continuous Replenishment (CRP)and
Vendor Managed Inventories (VMI)
 Bull whip effect can be dampened by 2
practices:
◦ 1. CRP (Continuous Replenishment Programs)
◦ 2. VMI (Vendor Managed Inventory)
These two practices assign the responsibility of replenishment
across the supply chain to a single entity. A single point of
replenishment decisions ensures visibility and a common
forecast that drives orders across the supply chain.
1. Continuous Replenishment Programs (CRP)
 wholesaler or manufacturer replenishes a retailer regularly
based on POS data. CRP may be supplier, distributor or third
party managed.
 Driven by Actual withdrawals of inventory from retailer
warehouses rather than POS data at the retailer level.
In CRP, the inventory at the retailer is owned by the Retailer
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Vendor managed Inventory- VMI
 Mfr or supplier is responsible for all decisions regarding product
inventories at the retailer. As a result, the control of the
replenishment decision moves to the manufacturer instead of the
retailer.
 In many instances of VMI, the inventory is owned by the supplier
until it is sold by the retailer.
 Requires the Retailer to share demand information with the
manufacturer to allow it to make inventory replenishment
decisions.
 VMI can increase the profit for the entire SC, if both retailer and
manufacturer margins are considered, while making inventory
decisions.
 VMI also helps by conveying customer demand data to the
manufacturer, which can then plan production accordingly. Helps
improve manufacturer forecasts.
 For eg. K-Mart (with about 50 suppliers) has seen inventories
drop by 30 to 40 percent after implementing VMI.

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Collaborative Planning, Forecasting,
and Replenishment (CPFR)
 “ A business practice that combines the
intelligence of multiple partners in the planning
and fulfillment of consumer demand”
According to Voluntary Inter Industry & Commerce
Standards Association – VICS”, Since 1998, over 300
companies have implemented the process
 Successful CPFR can only be built on a foundation in
which the two parties synchronize their data and establish
standards for exchanging information.

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Contd.
 Buyers and sellers in a supply chain may
collaborate along any or all of the following four
supply chain activities:
 1. Strategy and Planning – In a Joint Business plan, they
identify significant events such as promotion, new product
introduction, store opening/ Closing, Inventory plan that affect
demand and supply.
 2. Demand and supply Management- Collaborative Sales
forecast is first done which projects the best estimate of
customer’s demand at the point of sale and then converted to
collaborative order plan that determines future orders and
delivery requirements.
 3. Execution – After forecasts, converted to actual orders-
then production, shipping, receiving, and stocking of products
 4. Analysis - Identifying Exceptions and evaluating metrics
that are used to assess performance.
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Common Scenarios – Deployment of
CPFR
1. Retail event Collaboration – Promotions and other
retail events have a significant impact on demand. In
such a setting, collaboration between retailers and
suppliers to plan, forecast and replenish promotions is
very effective.
2. DC Replenishment collaboration – The two trading
partners collaborate on forecasting DC withdrawals or
anticipated demand from the DC to the manufacturer.
3. Store Replenishment Collaboration – Trading partners
collaborate on store level point of sales forecasts.
4. Collaborative assortment Planning – Fashion apparel
and other seasonal goods follow a seasonal pattern of
demand. Thus collaborative planning in these categories
has a horizon of a single season and is performed at
seasonal intervals and forecasts rely more on industry
trends, macroeconomic factors and customer tastes.
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Implementation of CPFR
 Johnson & Johnson and Super drug, a
chain in UK implemented CPFR over the
three month trial period and observed:
◦ Inventory level at its DCs dropped by13%
◦ Product availability increased by1.6%
 Sears implemented CPFR in 2003
and saw significant benefits :
- Stock levels improved by 4.3%
- DCs to store fill rate improved by10.7%
- Overall Inventory levels fell by 25%.

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Thank You

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Supply Chain Management Coordination.

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