Selection assessment-methods

S H R M F O U N D A T I O N ’ S E F F E C T I V E P R A C T I C E G U I D E L I N E S
Selection
Assessment
Methods
A guide to implementing
formal assessments to build
a high-quality workforce
Elaine D. Pulakos

Elaine D. Pulakos
S H R M F O U N D A T I O N ’ S E F F E C T I V E P R A C T I C E G U I D E L I N E S
Selection
Assessment
Methods
A guide to implementing
formal assessments to build
a high-quality workforce

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information regarding the subject matter covered.
Neither the publisher nor the author is engaged in rendering legal or other professional service. If legal advice or other
expert assistance is required, the services of a competent, licensed professional should be sought. Any federal and state
laws discussed in this book are subject to frequent revision and interpretation by amendments or judicial revisions that
may significantly affect employer or employee rights and obligations. Readers are encouraged to seek legal counsel
regarding specific policies and practices in their organizations.
This book is published by the SHRM Foundation, an affiliate of the Society for Human Resource Management
(SHRM©
). The interpretations, conclusions and recommendations in this book are those of the author and do not
necessarily represent those of the SHRM Foundation.
©2005 SHRM Foundation. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
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Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Effective Practice Guidelines: Selection Assessment Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Job Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Assessment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Criteria for Selecting and Evaluating Assessment Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Additional Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sources and Suggested Readings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
iii
Table of Contents

The SHRM Foundation Board of Directors appreciates how difficult it is for HR prac-
titioners to access current research findings and incorporate them into their own HR
practices.
Human resource professionals juggle multiple responsibilities and do not have time to
read long research reports, no matter how beneficial. Realistically, most HR practitioners
will seek guidance from research findings only if they are presented in a clear, concise and
usable format.
To make research more accessible, the SHRM Foundation created this series of reports
titled Effective Practice Guidelines. The first report on performance management was pub-
lished in 2004. The Foundation will publish new reports on different HR topics each
year. You are now reading the second report in the series: Selection Assessment Methods.
Here is the series concept: A subject matter expert with both research and practitioner
experience is selected to prepare the guidelines. The author distills the research findings
and expert opinion into specific advice on how to conduct effective HR practice. To
provide a convenient reference tool, a substantial annotated bibliography is included
with each report. We believe this new product presents relevant research-based knowl-
edge in an easy-to-use format. We look forward to your feedback to let us know if
we’ve achieved that goal.
Our author is Dr. Elaine Pulakos, executive vice president and director of the
Personnel Decisions Research Institutes (PDRI) Washington, D.C. office. Dr. Pulakos
is one of the country’s leading experts on selection techniques, both as a researcher and
a consultant, and she has provided the very best guidance available on this topic.
Our vision for the SHRM Foundation is: “The SHRM Foundation maximizes the
impact of the HR profession on organizational decision-making and performance, by
promoting innovation, research and the use of research-based knowledge.”
We are confident that this new series of Effective Practice Guidelines takes us one step
closer to making that vision a reality.
Herbert G. Heneman III, Ph.D.
Director of Research, 2005 SHRM Foundation Board
Professor, School of Business, University of Wisconsin-Madison
v
FORWARD

The SHRM Foundation wishes to thank the following individuals for reviewing this
report, providing feedback and helping to shape the finished product:
Howard J. Klein, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Management & Human Resources
Fisher College of Business, Ohio State University
Kathleen McComber, SPHR
Sr. Director of Human Resources and Org. Development
University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
William A. Schiemann, Ph.D.
Chairman & CEO
Metrus Group
Patrick M. Wright, Ph.D.
Director
Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies (CAHRS)
Cornell University
The Foundation would also like to recognize the Society for Human Resource
Management (SHRM) and the Human Resource Certification Institute (HRCI) for
their generous support of SHRM Foundation research and educational projects.
vii
Acknowledgments

Elaine Pulakos is executive vice president and director of the
Washington, D.C. office of Personnel Decisions Research Institute
(PDRI.) PDRI is a premier consulting firm in the field of indus-
trial and organizational psychology. A recognized expert and
researcher in the areas of selection and performance appraisal, Dr.
Pulakos has over 15 years of experience conducting large-scale job
analysis, selection, performance appraisal and career development
projects.
A Fellow of the American Psychological Association (APA) and the Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), Dr. Pulakos is a successful author
and has written on the topics of staffing and performance management. She is a past
president of SIOP. In addition to authoring numerous publications, Dr. Pulakos
recently co-edited two books: The Changing Nature of Performance: Implications for
Staffing, Motivation, and Development with Daniel Ilgen, and Implementing
Organizational Interventions: Steps, Processes, and Best Practices with Jerry Hedge.
Dr. Pulakos has spent her career conducting applied research in public and private sec-
tor organizations, where she has designed, developed and successfully implemented
numerous HR systems including staffing, performance management, and career devel-
opment and training systems. Dr. Pulakos has also been extensively involved in provid-
ing expert advice on EEO-related legal matters and serving as an expert witness and
advisor to the Department of Justice, among others. Elaine received her Ph.D. in
industrial and organizational psychology from Michigan State University.
ix
About the Author
Elaine D. Pulakos, Ph.D.

Organizations compete fiercely in the war for talent. Many invest an enormous amount
of money, time and other resources in advertising and recruiting strategies to attract the
best candidates. This is because today’s executives understand that one of the most
important resources in organizations—if not the most important—is human resources.
Yet, when it comes to actually assessing which job candidates are likely to perform
most effectively and make the most significant contributions, a large number of organ-
izations employ rudimentary and haphazard approaches to selecting their workforces.
This represents a serious disconnect for organizations that purport to have a strategic
focus on increasing their competitive advantage through effective talent management.
The disconnect stems from the fact that many organizations fail to use scientifically
proven assessments to make selection decisions, even though such assessments have
been shown to result in significant productivity increases, cost savings, decreases in
attrition and other critical organizational outcomes that translate into literally millions
of dollars. Thus, there are real and very substantial bottom-line financial results associ-
ated with using effective assessments to guide selection decisions.
One reason why more organizations do not use rigorous assessments to select employ-
ees is because many executives and HR professionals have misconceptions about the
value of using them. Some of the most common misconceptions are presented below.
1
Effective Practice Guidelines:
Selection Assessment Methods
Common Misconceptions About Selection Tests1
Myth: Screening applicants for conscientiousness will yield better performers than
screening applicants for intelligence.
Myth: Screening applicants for their values will yield better performers than
screening applicants for intelligence.
Myth: Integrity tests are not useful because job candidates misrepresent
themselves on these types of tests.
Myth: Unstructured interviews with candidates provide better information than
structured assessment processes.
Myth: Using selection tests creates legal problems for organizations rather than
helps solve them.
1
Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., Brown, K. G. (2002). HR professionals’ beliefs about effective human resources practices:
Correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41, 149-174.

Another reason why formal assessments are not used more in organizations is that
there tends to be a lack of knowledge about the types of assessment methods that
research has shown to be most effective for identifying who will perform best on a
job.2
This, coupled with the fact that the area of selection testing is inherently technical
and difficult to understand, leads many organizational decision makers and HR profes-
sionals to shy away from using formal assessments to guide their selection decisions.
A final reason why more organizations do not use effective assessments may be attrib-
utable to the multitude of consulting firms selling different selection products and
tools. It is important for organizational decision makers and HR practitioners to be
educated consumers regarding these products to ensure they are bringing competently
developed and effective assessment methods into their organizations.
Most organizations use a funneling approach to selection, where more informal tools
and procedures are used initially to reduce the pool of candidates to a manageable
number of individuals who may then be put through a more extensive assessment
process. Common initial screening devices include resumes, application blanks and ref-
erence checks, which are generally used to identify and exclude obvious misfits or poor
performers from further consideration. Another initial screening device is the informal
meeting or phone interview, which is often used to allow organizational members
direct interaction with potential candidates. While these initial screening devices have a
useful place in the overall selection process, the focus of this paper is on more formal
assessment methods. We specifically focus on those that research has shown to have a
proven track record of helping organizations build high-quality workforces by identify-
ing individuals who will perform effectively, achieve results and make important con-
tributions on the job.
This report has three important goals:
Present and summarize what is known from the research literature about the value
of different types of formal assessment methods that are used to select employees in
organizations.
Remove some of the mystique, complexity and confusion that can drive HR profes-
sionals away from implementing formal assessment methods by providing brief
tutorials on the most important technical, legal and measurement issues inherent in
selection testing.
Provide a useful roadmap to help make decisions about what assessment methods
are most useful and practical in different situations.
2 Selection Assessment Methods
2
Ryan, A. M., Tippins, N. T. (2004). Attracting and selecting: What psychological research tells us. Human Resource Management,
43, 305-318.

The report is organized into four major parts. First, a brief discussion of job analysis is
presented. Job analysis is important because it provides information that is necessary to
make decisions about what types of assessment methods are most appropriate for a
given job. Next, to familiarize readers with the array of assessment methods that are
available, the second part of the paper provides brief descriptions and examples of the
most common tools that research has shown to be effective in predicting who will per-
form successfully on a job. The third part of the paper focuses on important criteria to
consider in evaluating assessment methods and provides guidance on how to make
rational choices among the available alternatives. The final part discusses other issues
that are relevant to using assessments, including the mode of administration, utility
and legal considerations.
Job Analysis
There are numerous different types of formal assessments that organizations can use to
select employees. The first step in developing or selecting an assessment method for a
given situation is to understand what the job requires employees to do and, in turn,
what knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) individuals must possess in order to perform
the job effectively. This is typically accomplished by conducting a job analysis.3 4
The
portion of a job analysis that focuses on what the job requires individuals to do is often
referred to as a job-oriented or task-based job analysis, which involves a comprehensive
list of work tasks that individuals are required to perform on the job.
The portion of a job analysis that focuses on the KSAs that workers must possess to be
effective is often referred to as a worker-oriented or KSA-based job analysis. Typically, a
job analyst first identifies the tasks that workers are required to perform on the job and
Selection Assessment Methods 3
Job-Oriented Job Analysis: Sample Tasks for an Investigator Job
Provide testimony by stating facts and answering questions.
Gather and review pertinent information to obtain evidence or develop background
information on subjects.
Integrate diverse information to uncover relationships between individuals, events or
evidence.
Work in a team environment as a team member or leader.
Calm and reassure victims or distressed others in tense situations.
Perform a variety of public service functions to enhance the image of the organization.
3
Gael, S. (Ed.). (1988). The job analysis handbook for business, industry, and government. (Vols. 1 and 2). New York: Wiley.
4
Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L. (2002). Job analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

then identifies the KSAs that are needed to effectively perform those tasks. For exam-
ple, the first task above is “Provide testimony by stating facts and answering ques-
tions.” KSAs that would be required to perform this task include (1) the ability to
speak clearly, self-confidently and concisely using voice inflection, gestures and eye
contact for emphasis; (2) the ability to maintain a professional demeanor and appear-
ance at all times; and (3) the ability to remain calm and levelheaded under stress.
While an in-depth discussion of job analysis procedures is beyond the scope of this
report, the major steps involved in performing a job analysis for the purpose of devel-
oping or selecting assessment methods are shown below.
Person-Oriented Job Analysis: Sample KSAs for an Investigator Job
Ability to speak clearly, self-confidently and concisely using voice inflection, gestures
and eye contact for emphasis.
Ability to think critically, questioning assumptions and identifying merits and
deficiencies in logic.
Ability to gain cooperation from other individuals or organizations.
Ability to maintain a professional demeanor and appearance at all times.
Ability to remain calm and levelheaded under stress.
Knowledge of investigative techniques and procedures.
STEP 1
Observe or interview job experts to develop a list of tasks performed on the job.
STEP 5
Select or develop assessments that measure the most critical tasks or KSAs
that a worker must possess upon entry to the job.
STEP 4
Analyze the survey data to prioritize the most critical tasks and KSAs for the job.
STEP 3
Survey a sufficiently large and representative sample of job incumbents or
their supervisors, asking them to rate which job tasks and KSAs are most critical
for effective job performance.
STEP 2
Observe or interview job experts to develop a list of the KSAs workers
must possess to perform job tasks effectively.

Job analysis information is used as a basis for developing assessments. Specifically,
assessments are developed to measure the most critical tasks or KSAs resulting from the
job analysis for a given job. Some assessments involve work samples that simulate job
tasks and require candidates to demonstrate that they can perform these tasks effective-
ly. Job-oriented or task-based job analysis data are used as a basis for developing these
types of assessments because they focus directly on assessing how well job candidates
can perform critical work tasks.
Other assessment methods focus on measuring KSAs that are required to perform job
tasks effectively, such as various mental abilities, physical abilities or personality traits,
depending on the job’s requirements. If one were selecting a manager, for example, it
would be important to assess whether candidates could solve complex business prob-
lems, be decisive and communicate effectively. Alternatively, if one were selecting an
administrative assistant, KSAs such as the ability to perform work conscientiously and
the ability to perform work with speed and accuracy would be much more important
for identifying capable candidates. Worker-oriented or KSA-based job analysis data are
used as a basis for developing assessment methods that focus on a job candidate’s
underlying abilities to perform important work tasks.
Assessment Methods
This section of the paper describes the various assessment methods that can be used by
organizations. Figure 1 shows which assessment methods are predominantly task-based
and which are predominantly KSA-based. The methods discussed here can be used for
internal or external selection. Internal selection refers to situations where an organiza-
tion is hiring or promoting from within, whereas external selection refers to situations
where an organization is hiring from the outside. While some assessment methods are
used more commonly for external selection (e.g., cognitive ability tests, personality tests,
integrity tests), there are numerous examples of organizations that have used one or
more of the following tools for internal selection, external selection or both.

Cognitive Ability Tests. These assessments measure a variety of mental abilities, such
as verbal and mathematical ability, reasoning ability and reading comprehension.
Cognitive ability tests have been shown to be extremely useful predictors of job per-
formance and thus are used frequently in making selection decisions for many different
types of jobs.5 6 7
Cognitive ability tests typically consist of multiple-choice items that
are administered via a paper-and-pencil instrument or computer.
Some cognitive ability tests contain test items that tap the various abilities (e.g., verbal
ability, numerical ability, etc.) but then sum up the correct answers to all of the items
to obtain a single total score. That total score then represents a measure of general
mental ability. If a separate score is computed for each of the specific types of abilities,
then the resulting scores represent measures of the specific mental abilities.
5
Hunter, J. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 340-362.
6
Ree, M. J., Earles, J. A., Teachout, M. S. (1994). Predicting job performance: Not much more than g. Journal of Applied Psychology,
79, 518-524.
7
Gottredson, L. S. (Ed.). (1982). The g factor in employment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29(3).
KSA-Based Assessments
• Cognitive ability tests
• Job knowledge tests
• Personality rests
• Biographical data
• Integrity tests
• Structured interviews
• Physical fitness tests
Job Analysis
Task-Based Assessments
• Situation judgment test
• Work sample tests
• Assessment centers
• Physical ability tests
Figure 1

Job Knowledge Tests. These assessments measure critical knowledge areas that are
needed to perform a job effectively.8
Typically, the knowledge areas measured represent
technical knowledge. Job knowledge tests are used in situations where candidates must
already possess a body of knowledge prior to job entry. Job knowledge tests are not
appropriate to use in situations where candidates will be trained after selection on the
knowledge areas they need to have. Like cognitive ability tests, job knowledge tests typi-
cally consist of multiple-choice items administered via a paper-and-pencil instrument or
a computer, although essay items are sometimes included in job knowledge tests.
Sample Cognitive Ability Test Items
Verbal ability
Innocuous means the same as:
a. Harmless
b. Preventative
c. Distasteful
d. Futile
Numerical ability
16% of 62.5 is
a. .844
b. 8.44
c. .084
d. 8.4
Reasoning ability
1 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5 ___
a. 4
b. 5
c. 6
d. 7
Reading ability
In American politics, the concern of each party is to win. This requires gaining the support
of many people with differing views. Political parties often have to build into their
programs potentially conflicting objectives that speak to the needs of these different
groups in order to win. As a result, the platforms of major parties typically reflect:
a. Unified principles
b. Prejudice
c. Compromise
d. Disagreement
8
Hunter, J. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 340-362.

Personality Tests. Personality tests that assess traits relevant to job performance have
been shown to be effective predictors of subsequent job performance.9 10
The personali-
ty factors that are assessed most frequently in work situations include conscientious-
ness, extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience and emotional stability.11 12
Research has shown that conscientiousness is the most useful predictor of performance
across many different jobs, although some of the other personality factors have been
shown to be useful predictors of performance in specific types of jobs.13
Personality
inventories consist of several multiple-choice or true/false items measuring each per-
sonality factor. Like cognitive ability and knowledge tests, they are also administered in
a paper-and-pencil or computer format.
9
Raymark, M. J., Schmit, M. J., Guion, R. M. (1997). Identifying potentially useful personality constructs for employee selection.
Personnel Psychology, 50, 723-736.
10
Tett, R. P
., Jackson, D. N., Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of job performance: A meta-analytic review.
11
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel
Psychology, 91, 1-26.
12
Costa, P
. T., Jr., McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 653-665.
13
Hough, L. M. (1992). The big five personality variables-construct confusion: Description versus prediction. Human Performance, 5,
135-155.
Sample Job Knowledge Test Item
The principle of the “lever” is essential to the use of a:
a. Hydraulic jack
b. Plow
c. Auto steering wheel
d. Forklift

Biographical Data. Biographical data (biodata) inventories, which ask job candidates
questions covering their background, personal characteristics or interests, have been
shown to be effective predictors of job performance.14 15
The idea is that the best pre-
dictor of future performance is past performance. Thus, biodata questions focus on
assessing how effectively job candidates performed in the past in areas that are identical
or highly related to what they will be required to do on the job for which they are
being considered. For example, the item on page 10 about the number of volunteer
organizations to which one belonged could be used to assess one’s willingness to volun-
teer to pitch in and help others. The second item could be used to assess one’s respon-
sibility and independence. Biographical inventories consist of multiple-choice items
that are also administered via paper-and-pencil or computer formats.
14
Stokes, G. S., Mumford, M. D., Owens, W. A. (Eds.). (1994). Biodata handbook. Palo Alto, CA: CPP Books.
15
Shoenfeldt, L. F. (1999). From dustbowl empiricism to rational constructs in biodata. Human Resource Management Review, 9, 147-167.
Sample Personality Test Items
It does not make sense to work hard on something if no one will notice.
a. Definitely true
b. Somewhat true
c. Neither true nor false
d. Somewhat false
e. Definitely false
I tend to let others do most of the talking in conversations.
a. Definitely true
b. Somewhat true
d. Somewhat false
e. Definitely false
I have remained calm in situations where others have become upset.
a. Definitely true
b. Somewhat true
d. Somewhat false
e. Definitely false

Another form of a biodata inventory is an instrument called an “accomplishment
record.” With this type of assessment, candidates prepare a written account of their
most meritorious accomplishments in key skill and ability areas that are required for a
job (e.g., planning and organizing, customer service, conflict resolution16
). The candi-
date also provides the name of an individual, such as a past supervisor, who can verify
the accomplishment. Evaluators are trained to score the accomplishments in a consis-
tent manner using standard rating criteria. These types of assessments have been shown
to be effective predictors of subsequent job performance.17
Integrity Tests. Integrity tests measure attitudes and experiences that are related to an
individual’s honesty, trustworthiness and dependability.18 19 20 21
Like many of the tests
discussed here, integrity tests are typically multiple-choice in format and administered
via a paper-and-pencil instrument or a computer.
16
Hough, L. M. (1984). Development and evaluation of the “accomplishment record” methods of selecting and promoting profession-
als. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 135-146.
17
Hough, L. M., Keyes, M. A., Dunnette, M. D. (1983). An evaluation of three 'alternative' selection measures. Personnel Psychology,
36, 261-276.
18
Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities: Findings and implica-
tions for personnel selection and theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology (monograph), 78, 531-537.
19
Sackett, P
. R., Wanek, J. E. (1996). New developments in the use of measures of honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, dependabil-
ity, trustworthiness, and reliability for personnel selection. Personnel Psychology, 49, 787-829.
20
Camara, W. J., Schneider, D. L. (1994). Integrity tests: Facts and unresolved issues. American Psychologist, 49, 112-119.
21
Goldberg, L. R., Grenier, R. M., Guion, L. B., Sechrest, L. B., Wing, H. (1991). Questions used in the prediction of trustworthiness
in pre-employment selection decisions: An APA Task Force Report. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Sample Biographical Inventory Items
To approximately how many volunteer organizations do you belong?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2 to 4
d. 5 or more
Where did most of your spending money come from during your high school years?
a. Allowance from family
b. Own earnings
c. Partly allowance, partly earnings
d. Other sources
e. Had no spending money

Structured Interviews. The interview is the most common selection device used in
organizations. Most selection interviews are unstructured. That is, the questions to be
asked are left up to the interviewer to decide, and there are no agreed-upon standards
for evaluating an applicant’s performance during the interview. Research has shown
that unstructured interviews are not particularly useful for predicting job performance.
Structured interviews, on the other hand, consist of a specific set of questions that are
designed to assess critical KSAs that are required for a job.22 23 24 25
Structured interview
questions can be developed to assess almost any KSA, but they are used most frequent-
ly to assess softer skills such as interpersonal skills, communication skills, leadership,
planning, organizing and adaptability, among others. An important characteristic of an
effective structured interview is that it provides standardized rating criteria to help
interviewers judge the quality and effectiveness of the responses provided by the inter-
viewee. To work well, interviewers must be trained in how to administer the structured
interview properly, probe for additional information and apply the rating criteria accu-
rately and systematically in evaluating job candidates.
22
Eder, R. W., Ferris, G. R. (Eds.). (1989). The employment interview: Theory, research, and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publishing.
23
Campion, M. A., Pursell, E. D., Brown, B. K. (1988). Structured interviewing: Raising the psychometric properties of the employ-
ment interview. Personnel Psychology, 48, 289-308.
24
Campion, M. A., Palmer, D. K., Campion, J. E. (1997). A review of structure in the selection interview. Personnel Psychology, 50,
655-702.
25
Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A, Cable, D. M. (2000). The employment interview: A review of recent research and recommendations for
future research. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 383-406.
Sample Integrity Test Items
It is alright to misrepresent the truth if being completely honest will create problems
that small “white lies” can solve.
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
As long as people follow the spirit of policies and regulations, they don’t need to
follow them exactly.
a. Strongly disagree
b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree
d. Agree
e. Strongly agree

Physical Fitness Tests. Physical fitness tests are used in some selection situations. These
tests require candidates to perform general physical activities to assess one’s overall fit-
ness, strength, endurance or other physical capabilities necessary to perform the job.
Situational Judgment Tests. Situational judgment tests provide job candidates with situ-
ations that they would encounter on the job and viable options for handling the present-
ed situations. 26 27 28
Depending on how the test is designed, candidates are asked to select
the most effective or most and least effective ways of handling the situation from the
response options provided. Situational judgment tests are more complicated to develop
than many of the other types of assessments discussed previously. This is because there is
more inherent difficulty in developing scenarios with several likely response options that
are all viable, but, in fact, some are reliably rated as being more effective than others.
Situational judgment tests are typically administered in written or videotaped form, with
responses collected either in a paper-and-pencil test booklet or on a computer.
Sample Physical Fitness Tests
Run a mile.
Lift 20 lb. weights for 50 repetitions.
Sample Structured Interview Question and Rating Criteria
Tell me about a time when you were able to establish rapport with someone when the
situation made it difficult to do so. What were the circumstances? What did you do?
What were the results?
1 2 3 4 5
26
Motowidlo, S. J., Dunnette, M. D., Carter G. (1990). An alternative selection procedure: A low fidelity simulation. Journal of Applied
27
Chan, D., Schmitt, N. (1997). Video-based versus paper and pencil method of assessment in situational judgment tests:
Subgroup differences in test performance and face validity perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 143-159.
28
Weichmann, D., Schmitt, N., Harvey, V. S. (2001). Incremental validity of situational judgment tests. Journal of Applied Psychology,
86, 410-417.
Low
Made minimal attempts
to understand the
person’s perspective.
Developed only a
surface-level relationship
in a simple situation.
Moderate
Attempted to understand
the other person’s
perspective.
Developed a positive
working relationship
with the person in a
moderately difficult
situation.
High
Effectively reached out
to the person and
actively sought to
understand the person’s
perspective.
Developed an extremely
positive relationship with
the person in an
extremely difficult or
contentious situation.

Work Sample Tests. Work sample tests consist of tasks or work activities that mirror
the tasks that employees are required to perform on the job.29 30 31
Work sample tests
can be designed to measure almost any job task but are typically designed to measure
technically-oriented tasks, such as operating equipment, repairing and troubleshooting
equipment, organizing and planning work, and so forth.
Work sample tests typically involve having job applicants perform the tasks of interest
while their performance is observed and scored by trained evaluators. Similar to job
knowledge tests, work sample tests should only be used in situations where candidates
are expected to know how to perform the tested job tasks prior to job entry. If training
on how to perform the job will be provided after selection, work sample assessments
would not be appropriate to use.
Sample Situational Judgment Test Items
You are currently working on several tasks, all of which are pressing. Your supervisor
asks you to work on another assignment with an immediate deadline. She asks you to
phone companies to obtain financial data. The list of companies is long and not yet
complete. You would…
a. Describe the pressing deadlines in which you are already involved and ask your
supervisor to assign the new task to a less busy colleague.
b. Complete those assignments on which you are already working, then concentrate
on phoning the companies.
c. Work on your other assignments and begin phoning companies only when you
receive a complete list.
d. Immediately phone the companies currently listed, then continue working on your
other assignments; make the other phone calls as you are notified of company
names.
You have just prepared a report that you have checked and rechecked for accuracy.
Before you attend a meeting at which you will submit your report, you review the typed
version and note many serious errors. You would…
a. Show the original and the typed version to the person in charge of typing and
demand that the errors be changed before the meeting.
b. Present the report at the meeting, point out the errors and state they were due
to the typist.
c. Present the errors to the typist, ask him or her to make the corrections and
explain to individuals at the meeting that your report is still being typed.
d. Present your report at the meeting and make no mention of the errors but notify
attendees of corrections after the meeting.
29
Asher, J. J., Sciarrino. J. A. (1974). Realistic work sample tests: A review. Personnel Psychology, 27, 519-533.
30
Hunter, J., Hunter, R. F. (1984). Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job performance. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 72-98.
31
Howard, A. (1983). Work samples and simulations in competency evaluation. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 14,
780-796.

Assessment Centers. An assessment center is a type of work sample test that is typical-
ly focused on assessing higher-level managerial and supervisory competencies.33 34 35
Candidates are asked to complete a series of exercises that simulate actual situations,
problems and tasks that they would face on the job for which they are being consid-
ered, and they are asked to handle these as if they were in the real situation. In this
sense, assessment centers are similar to the work sample tests described previously.
Assessment centers usually last at least a day and up to several days. They typically
include role-play exercises, in-basket exercises, analytical exercises and group discussion
exercises. Trained assessors observe the performance of candidates during the assess-
32
Heneman, H. G., III, Judge, T. A. (in press). Staffing organizations, 5E. Middleton, WI: Mendota House, and New York: McGraw-Hill.
33
Gaugler, B. B., Rosenthal, D. B., Thornton, G. C., III, Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-analyses of assessment center validity. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 72, 493-511.
34
Thornton, G. C., III, Byham, W. C. (1982). Assessment centers and managerial performance. New York: Academic Press.
35
Thornton, G. C., III. (1992). Assessment centers in human resources management. Addison-Wesley.
Sample Work Sample Tests32
Mechanic
Repairing a problem on a car.
Reading a blueprint.
Clerical
Typing test.
Proofreading.
Cashier
Operating a cash register.
Counting money and totaling balance sheet.
Airline Pilot
Pilot simulator.
Rudder control test.
Taxi Cab Driver
Driving test.
Street knowledge test.
Computer Programmer
Programming and debugging test.
Hardware replacement test.

ment process and evaluate them on standardized rating. Some assessment centers also
include other types of assessment methods, such as cognitive ability, job knowledge
and personality tests. It should be noted that assessment centers are not only used for
selection purposes, but can also be used to provide comprehensive development feed-
back to participants.
Physical Ability Tests. Physical ability tests are used regularly to select workers for physi-
cally demanding jobs, such as police officers and firefighters.36 37 38
These tests are similar
to work sample tests in that they typically require candidates to perform a series of actual
job tasks to determine whether or not they can perform the physical requirements of a
job. Physical ability tests are often scored on a pass/fail basis. To pass, the complete set of
tasks that comprise the test must be properly completed within a specified timeframe.
36
Hogan, J. (1991). Physical abilities. In M. D. Dunnette L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology,
vol. 2, pp. 753-831. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
37
Campion, M. A. (1983). Personnel selection for physically demanding jobs: Review and recommendations. Personnel Psychology,
36, 527-550.
38
Blakley, B. R., Quinones, M. S., Crawford, M. S., Jago, I. A. (1994). The validity of isometric strength tests. Personnel Psychology,
47, 247-274.
Sample Assessment Center Process
Candidate Orientation
Role-Play: Candidate prepares for and conducts a counseling session with a
subordinate who is not performing well on the job. Trained assessors play the role of
the subordinate and evaluate the candidate’s performance.
In-Basket Exercise: Candidate completes a mock “in-basket” where he or she
responds to phone messages, e-mails, memoranda, reports and other items that
require action to be taken. Sometimes in-basket exercises also include an interview
with trained assessors where the candidate explains the rationale for his or her
actions.
Case Analysis: A business problem is presented to the candidate that he or she has
to analyze and prepare a written plan discussing the actions to be taken. Trained
assessors evaluate the written products.
Role-Play: Candidate is given a set of facts and must prepare a persuasive oral
presentation regarding a situation. Following the presentation, the candidate
responds to questions. Trained assessors play the role of audience members who
ask the questions and evaluate the candidate’s performance.
Leaderless Group Discussion: A small group of candidates is given a problem to
work on that is similar to what they would encounter on the job. As they work to
resolve the problem, trained assessors observe and evaluate their performance.
Following all of the exercises, assessors discuss their evaluations of the candidates,
decide on consensus evaluations of their performance and prepare feedback.

While perhaps a subtle distinction, physical ability tests usually replicate actual job
tasks and evaluate whether individuals can complete these within specified timeframes
that mirror how quickly they would need to perform them on the job. Alternatively,
physical fitness tests (discussed previously) do not replicate job tasks, per se, but rather
require candidates to perform more general physical activities (e.g., running a mile) to
assess their overall fitness.
Criteria for Selecting and Evaluating Assessment Methods
Properly identifying and implementing formal assessment methods to select employees is
one of the more complex areas for HR professionals to learn about and understand. This
is because understanding selection testing requires knowledge of statistics, measurement
issues and legal issues relevant to testing. Accordingly, this section provides guidelines and
criteria to help HR professionals make informed decisions about what assessment meth-
ods to implement in their organizations. The table on page 17 lists the assessment meth-
ods discussed previously and shows their standing on four important criteria:
Validity—the extent to which the assessment method is useful for predicting subse-
quent job performance.
Adverse impact—the extent to which protected group members (e.g., minorities,
females and individuals over 40) score lower on the assessment than majority group
members.
Cost—both to develop and to administer the assessment.
Applicant reactions—the extent to which applicants react positively versus nega-
tively to the assessment method.
For example, the first entry in the table is cognitive ability tests. On the positive side,
this type of assessment is high on validity and low on costs. However, it is also high on
adverse impact, and applicant reactions are only moderately favorable. Thus, while
Sample Physical Ability Tests
Firefighter
Climb a ladder while carrying equipment.
Drag a hose.
Carry a person down from a building.
Warehouse Worker
Lift materials of weight required on job.
Drag materials for distances required on job.
Roll barrels.
Carry materials of weight and distance required on job.

cognitive tests are inexpensive and very useful for predicting subsequent job perform-
ance, minorities score significantly lower on them than whites.
It is important for HR professionals to understand the implications and tradeoffs
involved in using different types of assessment methods. There is no simple, formulaic
approach for selecting “one best” assessment method, because all of them have advan-
tages and disadvantages. The following sections define and discuss the four criteria for
evaluating assessment methods in detail to help HR practitioners make good decisions
about which methods will be most appropriate and practical for their situations.
Evaluation of Assessment Methods on Four Key Criteria
Assessment Method Validity Adverse Impact
Costs
(Develop/
Administer)
Applicant
Reactions
Cognitive ability tests High
High (against
minorities)
Low/low
Somewhat
favorable
Job knowledge tests High
High (against
minorities)
Low/low
More
favorable
Personality tests
Low to
moderate
Low Low/low
Less
favorable
Biographical data
inventories
Moderate
Low to high for
different types
High/low
Less
favorable
Integrity tests
Moderate to
high
Low Low/low
Less
favorable
Structured interviews High Low High/high
More
favorable
Physical fitness tests
Moderate to
high
High (against
females and
older workers)
High/high
More
favorable
Situational judgment tests Moderate
Moderate (against
minorities)
High/low
More
favorable
Work samples High Low High/high
More
favorable
Assessment centers
Moderate to
high
Low to moderate,
depending on
exercise
High/high
More
favorable
Physical ability tests
Moderate to
high
High (against
females and
older workers)
High/high
More
favorable
Note: There was limited research evidence available on applicant reactions to situational judgment tests and
physical ability tests. However, because these tests tend to appear very relevant to the job, it is likely that
applicant reactions to them would be favorable.

Validity
The most important consideration in evaluating an assessment method is its validity.
For the present purposes, validity refers to whether or not the assessment method pro-
vides useful information about how effectively an employee will actually perform once
she or he is hired for a job. Validity is the most important factor in considering whether
or not to use an assessment method, because an assessment that does not accurately
identify who will perform effectively on a job has no value to the organization. There
are two major forms of validity: criterion-related validity and content validity.
Criterion-Related Validity. A simple example will illustrate how criterion-related validi-
ty can be established. Assume that a sales job requires employees to have a high level of
customer service orientation, and an organization decides to implement a selection test
that assesses prospective applicants on their customer service skills. In order to show that
the customer skills assessment is a valid predictor of performance, it must be shown that
individuals who score higher on the assessment perform better on the job and individu-
als who score lower on the assessment perform less well on the job. Thus, validity in this
case would be defined as a meaningful relationship between how well people performed
on the assessment and how well they subsequently performed on the job.
To measure the extent of the relationship between performance on a test and perform-
ance on a job, a correlation coefficient is used. A correlation coefficient is a statistical
measure that indicates the strength of the relationship between scores on an assessment
and scores on a job performance measure, such as performance appraisal ratings.
Correlations range from 0 (meaning there is no relationship between how well individ-
uals perform on an assessment and how well they perform on the job) to 1.00 (mean-
ing there is a perfect relationship between how well individuals perform on an
assessment and how well they perform on a job—the highest scorer on the assessment
receives the highest performance appraisal score, the second highest scorer on the
assessment receives the second highest performance appraisal score and so forth).
Correlation coefficients that measure the validity of assessment methods never reach
1.00, because performance on an assessment can never perfectly predict how well indi-
viduals will perform on a job. Other factors inevitably influence job performance, such
as an individual’s motivation, relationships with co-workers and supervisors and a myri-
ad of other factors. Assessment methods that organizations typically use tend to have
validities (or correlation coefficients) in the .30 to .50 range. Although these are less
than the maximum possible validity of 1.00, assessments with validities in this range
nonetheless provide very useful and valuable information for making selection decisions.

To summarize criterion-related validity research, an important technique known as
meta-analysis was created. Meta-analysis calculates the average criterion-related validity
across different research studies for a given assessment method. The results of meta-
analyses were used to denote the “low,” “moderate” and “high” levels of criterion-related
validity that are reported in the table on page 17 for the different assessment methods.
“Low” validities would be around .20 or less, and “moderate” validities would be in the
.20 to .40 range. “High” validities mean that correlations between performance on an
assessment and subsequent job performance tend to be in the .40 to .50 range.
Although higher validities mean that the assessment is doing a better job of predicting
subsequent job performance, even assessments with low to moderate validities provide
valuable information for making selection decisions. Further, if two assessments that
measure very different things are used together—for example, cognitive ability and
personality—they cumulatively combine to produce a higher level of overall validity
than each would yield separately. Thus, use of a measure with relatively low validity
can still add substantially to the prediction of job performance when it is coupled with
other measures.
Content Validity. The content validity approach to validation involves demonstrating
that an assessment provides a direct measure of how well candidates will actually per-
form the job. This type of validation requires thoroughly analyzing the job to identify
the tasks that are performed and the KSAs that candidates must possess to perform
those tasks effectively. The job analysis information is then translated into work sample
tasks that mirror the tasks candidates are required to perform on the job. Content
validity is established through a series of expert judgments, which document that the
assessment comprehensively measures the content of the job.
Criterion-Related Versus Content Validation. Criterion-related validity can be used
to evaluate the validity of any assessment where individuals receive scores that reflect
how well they perform on the test, and these scores are subsequently shown to relate to
how well they perform on the job. Content validation can only be used to validate
assessments that provide a direct measure of how well candidates perform job tasks (or,
in other words, the content of the job), such as work sample tests. Content validation
is not an appropriate validation strategy for cognitive ability tests, personality tests,
biodata inventories or integrity tests. This is because these tests measure abilities that
are thought to be related to job performance but do not measure actual job perform-
ance.
Criterion-related validity evidence is a stronger form of validity evidence than content
validity. Thus, it is more desirable to obtain if it is possible to conduct a successful cri-
terion-related study. There are various circumstances that must exist in an organization

for a criterion study to have the possibility of being successful. For example, accurate,
unbiased performance measures must be available. Unfortunately, performance
appraisal ratings, which are the most commonly used performance measures, can be
inaccurate and often fail to effectively discriminate between an organization’s most and
least effective performers. Because criterion-related validity studies are complicated and
their success is contingent on a number of factors, it is best to confer with an experi-
enced professional in determining what type of validation approach will be most prac-
tical and effective in a given situation. More information regarding the various
strategies for validating assessments can be found in Heneman and Judge (2006).
Adverse Impact
Another concept that is critical to understand in order to evaluate assessment methods
is adverse impact. Adverse impact can occur against protected demographic groups,
such as African Americans, Hispanics, females and individuals over 40, when certain
types of assessment methods are used for selection. Adverse impact results in a dispro-
portionately small number of individuals in a protected group versus the majority
group being selected for a job. For example, adverse impact against females is observed
frequently when physical ability tests that measure upper body strength are used for
selection in physically demanding jobs. Other types of assessments (e.g., tests of gener-
al cognitive ability), likewise, tend to systematically produce adverse impact against
minority groups.
Adverse impact is examined by comparing the proportion of majority group members
who are selected for a job to the proportion of protected group members who are
selected. Continuing with the example of males versus females being assessed for their
upper body strength, suppose that 50 females and 50 males are examined. Further
assume that 35 females pass the assessment and are selected, and 45 males pass the
assessment and are selected.
The proportion of females passing the test is 30/50 or 60%.
The proportion of males passing the test is 45/50 or 90%.
The proportion of females passing the test compared with males passing the test is
60%/90% or 67%.
Adverse impact exists if the proportion of protected group members selected is less
than 80% of the proportion of majority group members selected. In this case, because
the ratio of females selected to males selected is only 67%, it can be concluded that the
test is producing an adverse impact against females.
While organizations are and should be interested in selecting the highest quality work-
force possible, many are also concerned about selecting a diverse workforce and not

using measures that will systematically produce adverse impact against protected
groups. At the same time, if there are important job requirements, such as sufficient
upper body strength to perform a firefighter job, an organization would be remiss in
not considering this factor in making selection decisions, even if it means that a dis-
proportionately small proportion of females will be hired.
If an assessment method is shown to produce adverse impact and the organization
wishes to continue the use of that assessment, there are legal requirements to ensure
that the method must have demonstrated validity. If an organization uses an assess-
ment that produces adverse impact without the validity evidence, the organization will
be vulnerable to legal challenges against which it will not be able to prevail. While evi-
dence of validity can be used to justify and defend the use of measures that produce an
adverse impact, many organizations nonetheless attempt to mitigate the adverse impact
produced by their assessment methods to the extent possible in order to minimize
potential legal issues and lack of diversity concerns.
Because adverse impact analyses reflect the proportion of majority versus protected
group members who are ultimately selected for a job, they cannot be computed until
after the assessment process is complete and final selection decisions are made. This is
obviously very late for organizational decision makers to realize that the assessment
may have undesirable levels of adverse impact.
For this reason, researchers and practitioners often examine other statistics that can be
calculated much earlier in the process to determine the likelihood that an assessment
method will produce adverse impact. Specifically, one can compare the average scores
that different demographic group members receive on an assessment that is being con-
sidered for implementation. Continuing with our upper body strength test example,
this would be accomplished by calculating the average score for the group of 50 females
who took the test and the average score for the group of 50 males who took the test.
These average scores would then be transformed into a statistic that represents the dif-
ference between how the two groups performed on the test. This statistic is commonly
referred to as either an “effect size” or a “group difference in standard deviation units.”
Typical “effect sizes” range from 0, indicating no difference on average in how two
groups performed on an assessment, to 1.00 or more, indicating a very large difference
in how the two groups performed. Effect sizes in the .10 to .30 range are considered
small, those in the .30 to .70 range are considered moderate, and those above .70 are
considered large. All else being equal, an effect size of .70 to 1.00 or more on an assess-
ment can be expected to produce a large adverse impact in the final selection decisions.
Even smaller effect sizes (e.g., in the .30 to .40 range) can produce adverse impact in
final selection decisions. It is important to understand how to interpret an effect size

(or group difference in standard deviation units), because these numbers are typically
reported in test manuals or in the research literature when different types of assess-
ments are evaluated.
Tradeoffs Between Validity and Adverse Impact
HR professionals, along with organizational decision makers, need to decide what
levels of validity and adverse impact are desirable in their situations. If the goal is to
obtain the highest quality workforce possible, assessments should be used that provide
the highest levels of validity. However, as is shown in the table on page 17, many of
the assessments that produce the highest levels of validity also produce the highest lev-
els of adverse impact. Such assessments tend to be those that assess candidates’ abilities
to perform technical aspects of a job, such as general mental ability tests, job knowl-
edge tests and other similar types of assessments. Assessments that tend to produce
lower levels of adverse impact and somewhat lower but still useful levels of validity are
those that assess softer skills, such as communication skills, interpersonal skills, helping
and supporting behaviors, and initiative, among others.
Researchers have placed a great deal of emphasis on investigating different strategies for
reducing adverse impact without reducing validity, with some success. One promising
strategy for reducing adverse impact is simply to recruit more qualified protected
group candidates. Unfortunately, this can be easier said than done if many organiza-
tions are competing to recruit the same highly qualified individuals.
Another strategy that has been shown to be successful for mitigating adverse impact
and enhancing validity is to assess the full array of KSAs that are required on a job.
Sometimes professionals are tempted to focus assessments on the technical skills that
are required, because these are so obviously related to effective performance. Research
has shown, however, that the validity of an assessment process can be enhanced and
adverse impact reduced by assessing a comprehensive array of skills and abilities that
are related to both technical task performance and contextual job performance.
Technical task performance and contextual job performance are two distinct compo-
nents that comprise overall job performance.39
As suggested by the title, technical task performance refers to how well one performs
the technical aspects of the job, while contextual performance concerns the extent to
which employees engage in behaviors that demonstrate good organizational citizen-
ship, such as helping co-workers when needed, putting in whatever effort is required to
get the job done and so forth. Assuming a set of assessments is designed to predict
39
Borman, W. C., Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N.
Schmitt, W. Borman and Associates (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 71-98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

both technical and contextual performance, and if contextual performance is weighted
more heavily than technical performance, then reductions in adverse impact and
increases in overall validity have been observed. Because of the positive benefits for
both validity and adverse impact, this is the recommended strategy to pursue in select-
ing or developing an assessment process.
There are several strategies for reducing adverse impact that the research literature has
shown to be ineffective, and thus such strategies are not recommended. Certainly,
using assessments with low or no validity may reduce adverse impact, but this will also
be ineffective for identifying the best talent to hire.
Some researchers have tried providing test orientation and preparation sessions to can-
didates who will participate in the assessment process. These sessions almost certainly
make job candidates more knowledgeable about and comfortable with an organiza-
tion’s assessment methods, and they may thus be beneficial for this reason. However,
research on the effectiveness of assessment preparation courses has not shown them to
reduce the levels of adverse impact regularly observed between majority and protected
group candidates on certain types of assessments.
A third strategy that has been used to mitigate adverse impact is to examine group dif-
ferences on individual test items and remove those items that have the largest group dif-
ferences. Generally, this strategy has not proved to be effective, because all of the items
that measure a given skill tend to have about the same amount of group differences (i.e.,
it is difficult to find subsets of items that have small versus large group differences for a
given skill). The more typical situation is when all or most of the items on a given type
of test will have a similar level of group difference associated with them.

Costs to Develop and Administer
Some assessment methods involve much higher costs to develop and administer than
others. Consider, for example, work sample assessments that require candidates to
spend a full day or more to complete actual tasks and activities they will be required
to perform on the job. Such assessments are more costly to both develop and admin-
ister compared with paper-and-pencil tests. They are more costly to develop because
they typically require involving job experts working in collaboration with test devel-
opment experts to design the exercises and scoring protocols. They are more expen-
sive to administer because they involve setting up equipment and facilities and
paying trained evaluators to observe and score how well each candidate performs on
the assessment exercises.
40
Hattrup, K., Rock, J., Scalia, C. (1997). The effects of various conceptualizations of job performance on adverse impact, minority
hiring, and predicted performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 656-664.
41
Sackett, P
. R., Ellingson, J. E. (1997). The effects of forming multi-predictor composites on group differences and adverse impact.
42
Sackett, P
. R., Roth, L. (1996). Multi-stage selection strategies. A Monte Carlo investigation of effects on performance and minority
hiring. Personnel Psychology, 49, 549-562.
43
Sackett, P
. R., Ellingson, J. E. (1997). The effects of forming multi-predictor composites on group differences and adverse impact.
44
Sackett, P
. R., Schmitt, N., Ellingson, J. E., Kabin, M. B. (2001). High stakes testing in employment, credentialing, and higher edu-
cation: Prospects in a post affirmative-action world. American Psychologist, 56, 302-318.
45
Ibid.
Strategies for Reducing Adverse Impact
Recommended
Recruit more qualified minorities.
Focus on predicting both technical and
contextual performance.40 41
Use assessments with less adverse
impact early in the process and those
with more adverse impact later (only
tends to help when there are many
applicants per position).42
Not Recommended
Use assessments that have low validity.
Combine a number of assessments
with low adverse impact (overall
adverse impact is likely to be greater
than that for individual assessments).43
Omit assessments that produce adverse
impact if their validity evidence is
favorable.
Provide test orientation and preparation
programs to candidates (have been
shown to have no impact).44
Identify and remove individual test
items on which majority and minority
candidates differ (have been shown to
have no impact).45

In contrast, a paper-and-pencil test that consists of multiple-choice items that assess a
job candidate’s conscientiousness can be developed by testing experts without the help
of job experts and can be efficiently administered and scored. Obviously, the costs for
both developing and administering this type of assessment will be significantly less.
Assessments can be relatively expensive to develop but inexpensive to administer or,
conversely, relatively inexpensive to develop but costly to administer over time. One
point to bear in mind, however, is that there are enormous costs to an organization of
consistently hiring employees who do not perform effectively or who leave the organi-
zation after investments have been made in training them. Even the highest develop-
ment and administration costs generally pale in comparison to the costs associated
with unproductive or unsuccessful employees. Furthermore, implementation of effec-
tive assessment procedures has been shown to result in very substantial productivity
and revenue increases as well as cost savings for organizations. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to not only consider the costs associated with developing and administering effec-
tive assessments, but also see these investments in light of the financial and other
benefits that will be gained. The upcoming section on utility of assessments discusses
how to calculate the benefits associated with using assessment methods.
Another cost factor that HR professionals need to consider is whether the organization
desires to use a commercially available assessment or prefers to develop its own cus-
tomized assessment. If HR professionals choose to use a commercially available assess-
ment, they will need to enter into a licensing agreement with the test publisher, and the
organization will be charged either for each use of the test or for the duration of time
the test is used. The advantages of a commercially available assessment are that it can
usually be implemented quickly, it is typically maintained and updated by the publisher
over time, and the data usually continue to be amassed across the different organizations
using the assessment. Probably the biggest downside of commercially available assess-
ments is that licensing agreements can be expensive and last in perpetuity.
If an organization wishes to use a commercially available assessment, it is important to
identify and use a reputable test publisher. An association of test publishers created
guidelines and bylaws to help with this process.46
SHRM provides comprehensive and
valuable information about available assessments and related topics through the
SHRM Testing Center, www.shrm.org/testing/. It is also advisable to seek out the
guidance of consultants or researchers who specialize in assessment and testing prac-
tices. These individuals usually have doctorates in industrial and organizational psy-
chology or human resource management, and many are members of the Society for
46
Wonderlic, F., Jr. (1993). Test publishers form association. Human Resources Measurements (Supplement to the January 1993
Personnel Journal, p. 3).

Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). Guidance is also available that can
assist HR professionals in selecting appropriate testing vendors.47
As an alternative, an organization can opt to have its own customized tests developed,
which it will then own but need to maintain. One advantage of a customized test is that
it is uniquely designed and validated in the situation for which it was developed. Thus,
items can be crafted that are ideally suited to and reflect the unique requirements and
culture of a given organization or job. If an organization has undertaken a significant
assessment development effort and successfully developed highly valid tests, this could
also be a competitive advantage for the company. Under these circumstances, the organ-
ization would not likely want to share the tests or have them used by others.
If an organization wishes to develop and use customized tests that it will own, there
will be ongoing administration and maintenance costs that accompany this decision.
For instance, it will be necessary to maintain databases of test scores after the assess-
ments are administered, analyze and report assessment data for decision-making, peri-
odically revise items and possibly revalidate assessments, and so forth. If an
organization wishes to opt for development and implementation of customized assess-
ments, it will need access to knowledgeable testing professionals either on staff or
through consultant arrangements to manage the program. Running an in-house assess-
ment program involves sufficient specialized technical knowledge and complexity, and
therefore it should not be left to untrained staff.
47
Azar, B. (1994). Could “policing” test use improve assessments? APA Monitor, p. 16.
Commercially Available Versus Custom-Developed Assessments
Commercial Advantages
Test content already available, so
implementation is fast.
Most have data on validity and group
differences, often from similar jobs.
Tests are usually upgraded, maintained
and continually evaluated over time by
the test developer.
Commercial Disadvantages
Licensing fees to use off-the-shelf tests
over time are expensive and can be
prohibitive for some organizations.
The tests are used in many situations,
raising possible test security and
competitive advantage concerns.
Custom-Developed Advantages
Once initial test development costs are
incurred, the organization pays no
ongoing licensing or usage fees.
Test content can be fully customized to
the organization’s jobs and strategy,
maximizing relevance and potential
competitive advantage.
Custom-Developed Disadvantages
Proper assessment development and
validation takes time.
Organization will need to be responsible
for upgrades, maintenance and ongoing
evaluation.

Applicant Reactions
A final criterion that is important to consider in developing or selecting assessment meth-
ods is the reactions of the applicants. The recruitment and selection process is a two-way
interaction between the organization and prospective job candidates, where both parties
are selling themselves, attempting to attract the other and assessing mutual fit. Everything
that an organization does in the recruitment and selection process leaves candidates with
an impression about how the organization does business, and the totality of this experi-
ence has a significant impact on whether or not they will ultimately accept employment.
While there is limited research on applicant reactions to specific assessment methods,
candidates who feel positively about the selection processes used by an organization
report higher levels of satisfaction with the organization, and they are more likely to
recommend the organization to others.48
Because there is such competition for highly
qualified job candidates, the issue of applicant reactions is not inconsequential. There
are real reasons for organizational members to be mindful and careful about the
impressions candidates form as a result of their recruitment and selection processes.
In general, assessments that are viewed more favorably are those that candidates perceive
as more relevant to the job. Because work samples, job knowledge tests and assessment
centers mirror actual activities and knowledge areas that are required to perform the job,
they tend to be viewed more positively by job candidates than multiple-choice tests that
seem abstract and bear little, if any, obvious resemblance to work requirements. More
specifically, job-relevant assessments are viewed more favorably than cognitive ability
assessments, which, in turn, are viewed more favorably than personality inventories,
integrity tests and biographical data inventories.50
Although there is no research on
applicant reactions to physical ability tests, it is reasonable to expect that reactions
would be fairly favorable, especially for those assessments that mirror actual job tasks.
48
Smither, J. W., Reilly, R. R., Millsap, R. E., Pearlman, K., Stoffey, R. (1993). Applicant reactions to selection procedures. Personnel
49
Gilliland, S. W. (1995). Fairness from the applicant's perspective: Reactions to employee selection procedures. International Journal
of Selection and Assessment, 3, 11-19.
50
Hausknecht, J. P
., Day, D. V., Thomas, S. C. (2004). Applicant reactions to selection procedures: An updated model and meta-
analysis. Personnel Psychology, 57, 639-683.
Factors Leading to Positive Applicant Reactions49
Use of assessment methods that are perceived as relevant to the job.
An opportunity to perform and demonstrate job-relevant capabilities.
Assessment procedures that are administered consistently and fairly.
Feedback provided to applicants on their performance.

Another factor that leads to positive reactions is providing feedback to applicants about
how they have performed on an assessment. Candidates not only want feedback on
their performance, but it is not uncommon for some candidates to request feedback
on how they could have performed better. While many candidates desire as much
information as possible about their performance on job assessments, organizations
need to take a measured approach to the feedback they provide. It is certainly reason-
able to let applicants know how they scored on an assessment, and it can also be help-
ful to provide normative data about how they scored compared with others who were
assessed or hired.
However, offering specific feedback on how the applicant might have done better is
not something organizations typically do. For one reason, discussing test performance
in detail can divulge information about the test or suggest correct responses that would
result in test security breaches. As a practical matter as well, it could quickly become
quite costly for organizations to provide in-depth feedback on assessment performance
to each and every job candidate considered.
Additional Considerations
Although not criteria for selecting and evaluating assessment methods, per se, there
are three other factors that are important to know about and consider in implement-
ing assessments for selection purposes. These are (1) mode in which the assessment
will be administered; (2) the utility of the assessments used; and (3) legal require-
ments. These topics are discussed next.
Mode of Assessment Administration
The issue here is whether the assessment is administered via a paper-and-pencil written
format, via a computer or by live administrators, either by phone or in person. Live
administrators are typically required when the assessment is an interactive work sample
or interview.
More and more organizations are moving away from paper-and-pencil assessments to
computer-administered assessments. An important advantage of computer-adminis-
tered assessments is that responses can be automatically stored in a database and assess-
ment scores automatically generated. Computers are also capable of easily storing
multiple assessment items that can be mixed up to form different versions of an assess-
ment that measures the same KSAs. Multiple versions of an assessment help to better
ensure its security.
In recent years, organizations have begun using the Internet to administer assessments,
and some assessment companies now specialize in Internet-based assessments.

Although Internet-based administration has a great deal of appeal for many practition-
ers, there are some important caveats with this type of assessment administration that
need to be considered. First, unless the assessment is proctored, there is no easy way of
knowing whether the individual taking the assessment is getting help from others or
possibly even having someone take the assessment for him or her. Because of this limi-
tation, unproctored Internet-based assessment should be used only as a preliminary
screen to weed out clearly unqualified candidates. Any Internet-based assessment
should be followed up with a more comprehensive assessment in a monitored and con-
trolled assessment environment. Alternatively, candidates can be brought into testing
centers where Internet-administered assessments can be properly monitored and proc-
tored. A more complete discussion of computer and Internet-based assessment issues
can be found in a paper by Potosky and Bobko.51
Utility of Assessments
Another concept that is important to understand in the assessment arena is utility.
Utility addresses the benefits of implementing an assessment. When one is attempting
to persuade non-HR decision makers about the advantages of using assessments, the
case can often be made more convincingly by discussing utility than by discussing
validity. There are two types of utility that can be expected from implementing a new
assessment method: hiring success gains and economic gains.52
Hiring success gains refer to the number of successful hires that an organization experi-
ences subsequent to implementing an assessment method compared with the number
the organization experienced prior to implementation. The greater the hiring success
gain, the higher the utility of the assessment.
Economic gains refer to the monetary impact of using an assessment method on the
organization. In essence, economic gain is evaluated by examining the revenue generated
by hiring high-performing employees using an assessment versus the costs of using it. The
greater the ratio of revenues to costs, the higher the utility of the assessment. The actual
formulae used to assess economic gain are a bit more complicated than a simple compari-
son of revenue and costs. They consider additional factors, such as the correlation between
the assessment and job performance, the number of applicants and the tenure of the
selected group, among others. More information on how to calculate economic gains can
be found in Heneman and Judge (2006). Suffice it to say, however, that if decision makers
can be shown the positive impacts of assessment methods in terms of their bottom line
hiring and economic gains, the value of the assessments is more obviously apparent.
51
Potosky, D., Bobko, P
. (2004). Selection testing via the Internet: Practical considerations and exploratory empirical findings.
52
Heneman, H. G., III, Judge, T. A. (in press). Staffing organizations, 5E. Middleton, WI: Mendota House, and New York: McGraw-Hill.

Legal Requirements
It is important for any HR professional involved in employee selection to have an
understanding of the legal issues and requirements that govern the use of assessment
methods in organizations. There are two key documents with which all HR profes-
sionals should be familiar.
The first is the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures. This docu-
ment contains a comprehensive set of federal regulations specifying requirements for
selection systems of organizations covered under the Civil Rights Acts and under E.O.
11246 (see www.eeoc.gov/regs for the full text of this document). These federal regula-
tions address the need to determine if a selection procedure is causing adverse impact
and if so, the validation requirements for using the procedure. To assist practitioners in
applying the Uniform Guidelines properly, several documents and articles have been
published. The reader is referred to two of these in particular: The Society for Industrial
and Organizational Psychology Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection
Procedures (www.siop.org) and the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
(www.apa.org/science/standards.html).
A common misconception among HR professionals is that the use of informal and
unstructured selection processes in lieu of formal assessments is one way to avoid legal
issues and it negates the need to comply with federal regulations, such as the Uniform
Guidelines. This is not the case. If any selection practices or procedures used are shown
to produce an adverse impact, irrespective of how informal or “safe” they may appear,
the organization is required to demonstrate the validity of the procedures. The irony is
that rather than avoiding formal assessments because of legal concerns, organizations
should embrace well-developed and validated formal assessments and use them more
extensively to ensure that any legal challenges can be addressed successfully.
HR professionals and especially managers sometimes react very negatively when legal
concerns in hiring are raised. They feel that requirements, like those outlined in the
Uniform Guidelines, are simply bureaucratic burdens imposed by the government that
interfere with organizations selecting the most effective workforces. It is important to
point out that the procedures outlined in the Uniform Guidelines are, in fact, the
exact same procedures that an assessment expert would employ if the only goal was to
identify the best qualified candidates for a job. Thus, at least in this case, compliance
with legal requirements also represents best practice in developing and implementing
the most effective selection practices possible.
The second document that all HR professionals engaged in selection work need to be
familiar with is the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). The ADA creates
substantial requirements for providing reasonable accommodation to applicants with

disabilities in the selection process. If a job requires a skill that a disabled person can-
not perform, the organization is not required to provide reasonable accommodation to
allow that skill to be assessed. However, if there are ways to accommodate disabilities
both on the job and in the assessment process, the organization must provide for this.
Examples of reasonable accommodation might include substituting an oral assessment
for a written one, providing extra time to complete an assessment, providing an assess-
ment in Braille, providing items in larger print or providing an interpreter who can
communicate items in sign language. Guidance is available from several sources to help
HR professionals better understand their responsibilities under the ADA and provide
appropriate and reasonable accommodation when warranted.53 54 55 56
53
Daley, L., Dolland, M., Kraft, J., Nester, M. A., Schneider, R. (1988). Employment testing of persons with disabling conditions.
Alexandria, VA: International Personnel Management Association.
54
Eyde, L. D., Nester, M. A., Heaton, S. M., Nelson, A.V. (1994). Guide for administering written employment examinations to per-
sons with disabilities. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
55
Williams, S. K. (Jan/Feb 2003). Tips for minimizing abuses under the Americans with Disabilities Act. Alexandria, VA: Society for
Human Resource Management.
56
Job applicants and the Americans with Disabilities Act. www.eeoc.gov

Selecting and using effective assessment methods can greatly enhance the quality and
productivity of an organization’s workforce. Unfortunately, many HR professionals
have misconceptions about both the value of formal assessments and the types of
assessments that have proven to be most effective. This, coupled with the fact that the
area of selection testing is inherently technical and difficult to understand, has led to
an underutilization of formal assessments in organizations. By providing a basic under-
standing of key criteria for evaluating assessment methods and resources for accessing
assessment-related information and expertise, it is our hope that this report has taken a
positive step toward better equipping organizational decision makers and HR profes-
sionals to introduce effective assessment methods into their organizations.
33
Summary and Conclusions

Job Analysis
Brannick, M. T., Levine, E. L. (2002). Job analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
This book provides a user-friendly compilation of how to conduct a job analysis
and use the results. The topics covered include the building blocks of job analysis
methods, work (task)-oriented methods, worker (KSA)-methods, hybrid methods
that combine both task and KSA job analysis, job analysis for management jobs
and teams, job analysis and the law, doing a job analysis study, and uses of job
analysis in job descriptions, performance appraisals, job evaluation, job design,
staffing and training. Practical examples and summaries of research are inter-
spersed throughout the book.
Gael, S. (Ed.). (1988). The job analysis handbook for business, industry, and
government (Vols. 1 and 2). New York: Wiley.
In these volumes, the author argues that job analysis is the hub of virtually all
human resource administration and management activities, and it is necessary for
the successful functioning of organizations. The handbook addresses job analysis
topics and issues comprehensively, contains chapters written especially for job
analysis by recognized authorities and presents material relevant to a wide audi-
ence of practitioners working in business, industry, labor unions, universities, the
military, and federal, state and local governments.
Cognitive Ability Tests
Gottredson, L. S. (1986). Societal consequences of the g factor in employment.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 379-410.
This article discusses and rebuts seven common arguments that general intelli-
gence (g) is of little or no practical importance in employment and illustrates the
effect that differences in intelligence in a workforce may have on the structure
and functioning of whole societies. Evidence and theory are presented to support
the position that the occupational status hierarchy is an intellectual complexity
factor among occupations that has evolved in response to the wide dispersion in
intelligence levels within populations. The mean black-white difference in intelli-
gence is used to illustrate society-wide ramifications of individual and group dif-
ferences in intelligence, particularly when social policies are based on
misconceptions about intelligence or its impact.
35
Sources and Suggested Readings

Hunter, J. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job
performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 340-362.
A review of the research literature indicates that general cognitive ability (GCA)
predicts supervisor ratings and training success as well as objective, rigorously
content-valid work sample performance. Previous studies showed that much of
this predictive power stemmed from the fact that GCA predicted job knowledge
and job knowledge predicted job performance. However, GCA was shown to pre-
dict performance to a greater extent, verifying job analyses showing that most
major cognitive skills were used in everyday work. Evidence showing that it is
GCA—and not specific cognitive aptitude—that predicts performance is dis-
cussed. The author argues that the findings from this study support classic learn-
ing theory over behaviorist theories of learning and performance.
Hunter, J., Hunter, R. F. (1984). Validity and utility of alternative predictors of job
performance. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 72-98.
An examination of the cumulative research on various predictors of job perform-
ance showed that for entry-level jobs there was no predictor with validity equal to
that of cognitive ability. For selection on the basis of current job performance, the
work sample test was slightly better. For federal entry-level jobs, this research
showed that substitution of an alternative predictor instead of using cognitive
ability would cost from $3.12 (job tryout) to $15.89 billion/year (age). Hiring on
ability had a utility of $15.61 billion/year but affected minority groups adversely.
Hiring on ability by quotas would decrease utility by 5%. A third strategy—using
a low cutoff score—would decrease utility by 83%. It was suggested that using
other predictors in conjunction with ability tests might improve validity and
reduce adverse impact.
Ree, M. J., Earles, J. A., Teachout, M. S. (1994). Predicting job performance: Not
much more than g. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 518-524.
The roles of general cognitive ability (g) and specific abilities or knowledge (s)
were investigated as predictors of work sample job performance criteria in seven
jobs for U.S. Air Force enlistees. Both g and s were defined by scores on the
enlistment selection and classification test (the Armed Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery) used by the armed services for selection. Analyses revealed that
g was the best predictor of all performance measures that were examined and that
s added a statistically significant but practically small amount to this prediction.
These results were consistent with those of previous studies, most notably the
Army’s Project A (J. J. McHenry, L. M. Hough, J. L. Toquam, M. A. Hanson
S. Ashworth, 1990).

Personality Tests
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 91, 1-26.
This study examined the validity of five personality measures for predicting per-
formance in five occupational groups (professionals, police, managers, sales and
skilled or semi-skilled). Three different kinds of performance measures were used
in this study: job proficiency, training proficiency and personnel data. The results
showed that one of the personality measures—conscientiousness—was consistent-
ly related to all three performance measures for all of the occupational groups.
Extraversion (another one of the personality measures examined) was a valid pre-
dictor for two occupations involving social interaction—managers and sales.
Openness to experience and extraversion were valid predictors of the training
proficiency criterion. The results for agreeableness suggested that it was not an
important predictor of job performance. Overall, the results illustrated the bene-
fits of using the five-factor model of personality in assessment research.
Costa, P. T., Jr., McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality
and Individual Differences, 13, 653-665.
A considerable number of research studies have shown support for a five-factor
model of personality traits. These include conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeable-
ness, openness to experience and emotional stability. The claim that these factors rep-
resent the basic dimensions of personality is based on four lines of reasoning and
evidence that are discussed in this paper: (1) longitudinal and cross-observer studies
have demonstrated that all five factors are enduring dispositions that are manifested
in patterns of behavior; (2) traits related to each of the factors have been found in a
variety of personality systems and in the natural language of trait description; (3) the
factors have been found in different age, sex, race and language groups, although
they may be somewhat differently expressed in different cultures; and (4) evidence of
heritability has suggested that all have some biological basis. The authors also identi-
fy and address some outstanding issues regarding the five-factor model.

Hough, L. M. (1992). The big five personality variables—construct confusion: Description
versus prediction. Human Performance, 5, 135-155.
This article suggests that the five-factor model of personality traits (extraversion,
conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability and openness to experience)
is not an adequate taxonomy of personality variables for predicting important job
performance measures. The author argues that the five factors are too heteroge-
neous and incomplete. This paper first discusses the development of personality
and job performance models. A nine-factor taxonomy is then presented that
includes affiliation, potency, achievement, dependability, adjustment, agreeable-
ness, intellectance, rugged individualism and locus of control. Comparisons
between different taxonomies are made, and correlational evidence demonstrating
the usefulness of the nine personality measures is presented.
Raymark, M. J., Schmit, M. J., Guion, R. M. (1997). Identifying potentially useful
personality constructs for employee selection. Personnel Psychology, 50, 723-736.
This article describes the Personality-Related Position Requirements Form
(PPRF), a job analysis form used in making hypotheses about what personality
predictors will be relevant for predicting performance in different jobs. The Big
Five personality factors provided an organizing framework for the PPRF.
Subsequent development resulted in identifying 12 specific sets of items for facets
of each of the Big Five. A study was conducted by gathering job descriptions on
260 different jobs to determine if the PPRF could reliably differentiate between
jobs, and such evidence was found. The PPRF is offered to both researchers and
practitioners for use, refinement and further testing of its technical merits and
intended purposes.
Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of
job performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703-742.
This study examined past research to (1) assess the overall validity of personality
measures as predictors of job performance; (2) investigate moderating effects of
several study characteristics on personality scale validity; and (3) investigate the
predictability of job performance as a function of eight personality measures:
neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, locus of
control, Type A and miscellaneous. Based on the review of 494 studies, usable
results were identified for 97 independent samples. Consistent with predictions,
studies using confirmatory research strategies produced corrected mean personali-
ty scale validity that was more than twice as high as that based on studies adopt-
ing exploratory strategies. An even higher mean validity was obtained based on
studies using job analysis explicitly in selection of personality measures.

Biodata Tests
Hough, L. M. (1984). Development and evaluation of the “accomplishment record” methods
of selecting and promoting professionals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 135-146.
This study described the development of the “accomplishment record” method,
which resulted in self-reported descriptions of accomplishments in areas that were
highly relevant for making selection or promotion decisions. The accomplish-
ments were reliably rated using specially prepared rating scales and guidelines. To
test the validity of the accomplishment record method, 329 attorneys prepared
accomplishment records according to specified instructions and also completed a
battery of more typical assessment methods. Scores on the accomplishment
record inventory were unrelated to the traditional assessment measures (e.g., apti-
tude tests, grades and honors), but they correlated with job performance. The
accomplishment record had also been found to correlate with self-perceptions of
success, hard work and self-assurance and with the length of time spent practicing
a profession. This accomplishment record also appeared to work equally well for
predicting the job performance of females, minorities and white males.
Hough, L. M., Keyes, M. A., Dunnette, M. D. (1983). An evaluation of three
‘alternative’ selection measures. Personnel Psychology, 36, 261-276.
A content-oriented validation strategy was used to develop three alternative selec-
tion inventories that were designed to reflect the job content of positions held by
attorneys employed with a large federal agency. These inventories and three tradi-
tional assessment methods were completed by 329 agency attorneys as part of a
concurrent validation study. Criterion-related validities of two traditional inven-
tories (a background inventory and an interest and opinion inventory) and one
alternative inventory (an accomplishment record inventory) were statistically and
practically significant. The special features and advantages of the accomplishment
record inventory as an alternative selection procedure were discussed.

Shoenfeldt, L. F. (1999). From dustbowl empiricism to rational constructs in biodata.
Human Resource Management Review, 9, 147-167.
This paper presents an attempt to use different types of biographical data scales in
a concurrent validation to predict service orientation. Over 867 service employ-
ees, along with a large number of applicants, completed a 137-item biographical
questionnaire constructed to cover 15 aspects of service delivery identified
through an extensive job analysis. Biographical data scales were developed using
different techniques, some relying on statistical procedures and others relying on
rational judgment. They were validated against supervisory ratings of service ori-
entation and overall performance, along with three personnel measures: days
absent, times absent and times tardy. Several types of scales showed positive valid-
ity results with the performance measures. The results were promising in terms of
both the prediction and understanding of customer service orientation.
Stokes, G. S., Mumford, M. D., Owens, W. A. (Eds.). (1994). Biodata handbook:
Theory, research, and use of biographical information in selection and performance
prediction. Palo Alto, CA: CPP Books.
The information derived from biographical data enables professionals to predict
the future career choice, performance, safety behaviors and turnover of employ-
ees. This is done by assessing prospective employees’ past performance and behav-
iors that are relevant to the target job of interest. This book is a comprehensive
reference that provides information for understanding and using biographical
data in selection in the public and private sectors (including selection of blue-col-
lar and federal government employees and work team members), career counsel-
ing and development, and job classification.
Integrity Tests
Camara, W. J., Schneider, D. L. (1994). Integrity tests: Facts and unresolved issues.
American Psychologist, 49, 112-119.
This article described two independent reports, completed by the American
Psychological Association (APA) and the U.S. Congress Office of Technology
Assessment, that examined scientific and measurement issues concerning integrity
testing. Data were presented on a variety of tests collected by surveying test pub-
lishers. The survey data provided a view of the industry’s scope (e.g., test audience,
user screening, score reporting) that was not available elsewhere. The article also
addressed unresolved issues regarding integrity testing that had a wide range of
implications for the profession of psychology, the testing industry and public poli-
cy (e.g., cutting scores, user screening and training and test marketing practices).

Goldberg, L. R., Grenier, R. M., Guion, L. B., Sechrest, L. B., Wing, H. (1991). Questions
used in the prediction of trustworthiness in pre-employment selection decisions: An APA
Task Force Report. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
This report presented the findings of an APA task force that was appointed to
review available commercial tests used for the purpose of assessing the honesty
and integrity of prospective employees. Specifically, the task force was asked to
gather and examine data relevant to the scientific and social-policy considerations
associated with the development and use of assessments of dishonesty, theft and
related behaviors. The report focused exclusively on commercially published
instruments used for pre-employment selection decisions about the trustworthi-
ness (vs. untrustworthiness) of job applicants. It did not consider assessments that
required special apparatus or were used to assess current employees.
Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of
integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of
job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology (monograph), 78, 679-703.
The authors conducted a comprehensive examination of the validity of integrity
tests based on 665 validity coefficients. Results indicated that integrity test validi-
ties were substantial for predicting job performance and counterproductive
behaviors on the job, such as theft, disciplinary problems and absenteeism. The
estimated mean validity of integrity tests for predicting supervisory ratings of job
performance was .41. Results of validity studies conducted on applicants using
external performance measures (i.e., excluding self-reports) indicated that integri-
ty tests predicted the broad criterion of organizationally disruptive behaviors bet-
ter than they predicted employee theft alone. The authors concluded that
integrity test validities were positive across situations and settings.
Sackett, P. R., Wanek, J. E. (1996). New developments in the use of measures of
honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, dependability, trustworthiness, and reliability for
personnel selection. Personnel Psychology, 49, 787-829.
This article reviews journal articles, books, book chapters, law review articles,
convention papers and dissertations regarding integrity testing for personnel
selection. Developments include an examination of professional and congression-
al inquiry into this area of testing, rapid growth of the validity database, new
insight into similarities and differences between different tests, and links to the
Big Five personality dimensions. Inquiries into relationships with other constructs
are reviewed, as are applicant reactions to these tests. The effects of the Civil
Rights Act of 1991 and the Americans with Disabilities Act are considered. In the
domain of criterion-related validity, the cumulative database has grown dramati-
cally, and the pattern of findings continues to be consistently positive.

Structured Interviews
Campion, M. A., Palmer, D. K., Campion, J. E. (1997). A review of structure in the
selection interview. Personnel Psychology, 50, 655-702.
This article reviewed the research literature in order to describe and evaluate the
many ways selection interviews can be structured. Fifteen components of structure
were identified that may enhance either the content or the evaluation process of
the interview. Each component was described, and the different ways in which
they had been used in previous studies were discussed. Then, each component
was critiqued in terms of its impact on reliability, validity and user reactions.
Finally, recommendations for research and practice were presented. The authors
concluded that interviews could be easily enhanced by using the various compo-
nents of structure. They recommended that improvement of this popular selec-
tion procedure be a high priority for future research and practice.
Campion, M. A., Pursell, E. D., Brown, B. K. (1988). Structured interviewing: Raising the
psychometric properties of the employment interview. Personnel Psychology, 41, 25-42.
This article proposed an employee-interviewing technique that included the fol-
lowing steps: (1) develop questions based on a job analysis; (2) ask the same ques-
tions of each candidate; (3) use examples and illustrations; (4) have a panel record
and rate answers; (5) administer the process to all candidates; and (6) emphasize
job relatedness, fairness and documentation. When the interview was used to hire
149 entry-level production employees, it revealed high interrater reliability and
predictive validity as well as evidence for test fairness and utility.
Eder, R. W., Ferris, G. R. (Eds.). (1989). The employment interview: Theory, research,
and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishing.
This book provides a comprehensive treatment of theory, research and practice
relevant to the employment interview. The topics covered include the inter-
viewer’s decision-making process, applicant strategies and employment inter-
view validity. There is also a concluding commentary summarizing the volume’s
implications for theory building, research methods and effective practice.

Judge, T. A., Higgins, C. A, Cable, D. M. (2000). The employment interview: A review
of recent research and recommendations for future research. Human Resource
Management Review, 10, 383-406.
This is a comprehensive review that examined recent research on the employment
interview process. The authors began with a review of the traditional areas of inter-
view research: reliability, validity, structured interviews, interviewer differences,
equal employment opportunity issues, impression management and decision-mak-
ing processes. Next, they reviewed and discussed more recent developments in
interview research, such as the use of the interview as a means of assessing person-
organization fit and applicant reactions to the employment interview. Throughout
the review, they suggested topics for future research.
Physical Fitness and Physical Abilities Tests
Blakley, B. R., Quinones, M. S., Crawford, M. S., Jago, I. A. (1994). The validity of
isometric strength tests. Personnel Psychology, 47, 247-274.
This article examined six studies in which isometric strength tests were used as
part of selection procedures. The studies represented seven jobs across various
industries with a total sample size of 1,364 individuals. The relationship between
performance on four isometric strength tests and both supervisory ratings of
physical performance and performance on work simulations was examined.
Results indicated that isometric strength tests were valid predictors of both types
of performance measures across all of the jobs examined. In addition, the four of
the six tests were found to correlate more strongly with work simulations than
with supervisory ratings of physical performance.
Campion, M. A. (1983). Personnel selection for physically demanding jobs: Review and
recommendations. Personnel Psychology, 36, 527-550.
In this review article, the authors argued that improvements in personnel selec-
tion systems for physically demanding jobs were needed due to equal employ-
ment opportunity (EEO) considerations, concern for worker physical well-being
and the lack of alternative procedures. The paper addressed the special EEO sen-
sitivities of physical abilities selection and reviewed the literature from a variety of
disciplines on (1) the physiological background underlying the selection strate-
gies; (2) the assessment of human physical abilities; (3) the measurement of phys-
ical requirements of jobs; and (4) the physical abilities personnel selection studies
reported in the literature.

Hogan, J. (1991). Physical abilities. In M.D. Dunnette L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook
of industrial and organizational psychology, vol. 2 (pp. 753-831). Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press.
This chapter identifies factors that affect the ability to perform in the workplace,
including physiological responses, training, ability and injury, and workload. It
reviews procedures and methods for designing personnel selection systems for
physically demanding jobs and emphasizes the unique physical ability content of
job analyses, performance measures and assessments. In addition, the chapter
summarizes legislative decisions designed to protect women, handicapped persons
and older workers in light of their implications for physical ability assessments by
employers. Finally, it argues that the need to improve development and imple-
mentation of fair physical ability selection procedures and the need to understand
the relationship between physical performance and other organizational effective-
ness outcomes are important issues for future research.
Situational Judgment Tests
Chan, D., Schmitt, N. (1997). Video-based versus paper and pencil method of
assessment in situational judgment tests: Subgroup differences in test performance and
face validity perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 143-159.
This study examined the effects of race, reading comprehension, method of assess-
ment, face validity perceptions and performance on a situational judgment test.
The situational judgment test was administered via a videotape and via a paper-
and-pencil instrument. A total of 241 psychology undergraduates (113 blacks and
128 whites) participated in the study. The results showed that the racial differences
in situational judgment test performance and face validity reactions to the test
were substantially smaller with the video-based method of testing compared with
the paper-and-pencil method. Implications of the findings were discussed in the
context of research on adverse impact and examinee test reactions.
Motowidlo, S. J., Dunnette, M. D., Carter G. (1990). An alternative selection
procedure: A low fidelity simulation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 640-647.
From critical-incident analysis and judgments by subject-matter experts, a low-
fidelity simulation was developed for selecting entry-level managers in the telecom-
munications industry. The simulation presented applicants with descriptions of
work situations and five alternative responses for each situation. It asked them to
select one response they would most likely make and one they would least likely
make in addressing each situation. In a sample of 120 management incumbents,
simulation scores correlated from .28 to .37 with supervisory ratings of perform-
ance. These results show that samples of hypothetical work behavior can predict
performance, without the props, equipment or role players often required by high-
fidelity simulations, such as work-sample tests or assessment centers.

Weichmann, D., Schmitt, N., Harvey, V. S. (2001). Incremental validity of situational
judgment tests. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 410-417.
Using three different samples, the authors assessed the increases in the validity
produced by situational judgment inventories (SJIs), relative to job knowledge,
cognitive ability, job experience and conscientiousness, in the prediction of job
performance. The SJI was a valid predictor in three samples and produced sub-
stantial increases in validity in two samples. Relative to the other predictors, SJI’s
correlation with performance, controlling for the other predictors, was superior in
most comparisons. Subgroup differences on the SJI also appeared to be less than
those for cognitive ability and job knowledge measures, but greater than the dif-
ferences observed in conscientiousness. The authors concluded that the SJI
should prove to be a valuable additional measure in the prediction of job per-
formance, but also suggested several additional areas of research.
Work Sample Tests
Asher, J. J., Sciarrino. J. A. (1974). Realistic work sample tests: A review. Personnel
This study reviewed the validity evidence for a wide sample of motor and verbal
work sample tests, which were designed to measure on-the-job behaviors. Motor
tests were shown to have higher validities than verbal tests when job proficiency
was the performance measure, but this pattern was reversed when success in
training was the performance measure. These validities were somewhat lower
than those for biographical information but higher than those for other predic-
tors. The authors discussed a number of possible explanations for these findings.
Howard, A. (1983). Work samples and simulations in competency evaluation.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 14, 780-796.
This article argues that the evaluation of professional competence in psycholo-
gy—by licensing boards, the American Board of Professional Psychology or other
boards—has not taken full advantage of expertise in psychological measurement
within the profession. The advantages and disadvantages of work samples and
simulations for such purposes are discussed and compared with those of paper-
and-pencil tests. Examples from various professions and from psychological
research in personnel selection are presented. A comparison of work samples with
simulations shows greater advantages for the latter, but a combination of exercises
in an assessment center model is recommended. An illustration of how examina-
tions of psychological competence at the licensing and the specialty board levels
could be improved by incorporating work samples and simulations is presented.

Assessment Centers
Gaugler, B. B., Rosenthal, D. B., Thornton, G. C., III, Bentson, C. (1987). Meta-
analyses of assessment center validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 493-511.
This paper examined the validity of assessment centers across a large number of
studies. Specifically, the authors calculated the average validity of 107 validity
coefficients from 50 assessment centers and found an average validity of .37.
Validities were sorted into five categories based on the performance measures
used in the study and four categories based on the purpose of the assessment.
Higher validities were found in studies in which ratings of potential were the per-
formance measures, and lower validities were found in studies where the assess-
ment center was used to make promotion decisions. The authors also found that
the validities were higher when (1) the percentage of females who were being
assessed was high; (2) when several evaluation devices were used; (3) when asses-
sors were psychologists rather than managers; (4) when peer evaluation was used;
and (5) when the study was methodologically sound. Age of those being assessed,
whether feedback was given, days of assessor training, days of observation, per-
centages of minority candidates being assessed, and criterion contamination did
not have any effect on assessment center validities.
Thornton, G. C., III. (1992). Assessment centers in human resources management.
Boston: Addison-Wesley.
While assessment centers have been used for numerous human resource manage-
ment functions, all assessment centers are not alike. This book shows how assess-
ment for managerial selection/promotion, diagnosis of managerial training needs
and team building among managerial groups are done differently. The author also
shows how the assessed dimensions, observations and participant feedback all
must be tailor-made to the specific application of the assessment center method.
Thornton, G. C., III, Byham, W. C. (1982). Assessment centers and managerial
performance. New York: Academic Press.
This book focuses on examining the assessment center experience. It traces the his-
torical development of multiple assessment procedures with emphasis on those
advances relevant to assessment center; critiques all of the published and unpub-
lished research on assessment centers; integrates assessment center procedures into
several theories of measurement and human judgment; and presents new models
of job analysis, the nature of managerial work, work-sampling assessment methods
and the process of human judgment based on the assessment center experience.

Adverse Impact
Sackett, P. R., Ellingson, J. E. (1997). The effects of forming multi-predictor composites
on group differences and adverse impact. Personnel Psychology, 50, 707-721.
A common assumption exists that including predictors that demonstrate smaller
group differences with others that demonstrate larger group differences will help
alleviate the adverse impact observed. The purpose of this paper was to answer
the question, “If two or more predictors are combined that have smaller and larg-
er group differences, what will be the magnitude of group differences and, conse-
quently, of adverse impact?” To answer this question, a set of tables, figures and
formulas were presented that highlighted variables influential in affecting how
combinations of predictors influenced observed group differences. A number of
conclusions were drawn that clarified the extent to which combining predictors
with smaller and larger group differences affected subsequent adverse impact.
Sackett, P. R., Schmitt, N., Ellingson, J. E., Kabin, M. B. (2001). High stakes testing in
employment, credentialing, and higher education: Prospects in a post affirmative-action
world. American Psychologist, 56, 302-318.
Cognitively loaded tests of knowledge, skill and ability often contribute to deci-
sions regarding education, jobs, licensure or certification. Users of such tests often
face difficult choices when trying to maximize both the performance and ethnic
diversity of chosen individuals. The authors describe the nature of this quandary,
review research on different strategies to address it and recommend using selec-
tion materials that assess the full range of relevant attributes using a format that
minimizes verbal content as much as is consistent with the outcome one is trying
to achieve. They also recommend the use of test preparation, face-valid assess-
ments and the consideration of relevant job or life experiences. Regardless of the
strategy adopted, however, they suggest that it is unreasonable to expect that one
can maximize both the performance and ethnic diversity of selected individuals.

Sackett, P. R., Roth, L. (1996). Multi-stage selection strategies. A Monte Carlo inves-
tigation of effects on performance and minority hiring. Personnel Psychology, 49, 549-562.
This study examined the effects of selection process variables on employee per-
formance and on minority hiring. Simulated data were used to estimate the
effects of 14 selection procedures, including the use of within-group norming
(i.e., selecting the highest scoring candidates within each racial or gender group
rather than selecting the highest scoring candidates overall), which was restricted
by the Civil Rights Act of 1991. The authors examined how selection rules that
did and did not include within-group norming fared in terms of tradeoffs
between performance and minority representation. The results showed that the
preferred strategy depended on the relative value the organization placed on per-
formance versus minority representation. Results also showed that the effects of
different screen-then-select selection strategies varied as a result of the selection
ratios at the screening and selection stages, thus precluding simple conclusions
about the merits of each selection strategy.
Applicant Reactions
Gilliland, S. W. (1995). Fairness from the applicant’s perspective: Reactions to employee
selection procedures. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 3, 11-19.
Applicant reactions to selection procedures were examined in terms of the satisfac-
tion and/or violation of 10 procedural justice rules. The authors first collected 237
critical incidents describing fair and unfair treatment during selection processes
from 31 individuals who had recently participated in job search and hiring. The
critical incidents were categorized into 10 procedural justice rules, and the distribu-
tion of these incidents was examined for different hiring outcomes and different
selection procedures. The most common procedural concerns reflected selection
procedure job relatedness and the interpersonal treatment applicants had received.
Accepted applicants were primarily concerned about consistency of treatment, while
rejected applicants were more concerned about receiving timely feedback and bla-
tant bias. Ease of faking was the primary procedural concern among applicants who
took honesty and personality tests, while job relatedness was the primary concern
among applicants who took ability and work sample tests. The authors concluded
the paper by discussing future research issues and offering practical suggestions for
minimizing applicants’ negative reactions to selection processes.

Hausknecht, J. P., Day, D. V., Thomas, S.C. (2004). Applicant reactions to selection
procedures: An updated model and meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 57, 639-683.
An updated theoretical model of applicant reactions to selection procedures was
proposed and tested. Results from 86 independent samples (48,750 individuals)
indicated that applicants who held positive perceptions about selection were more
likely to view the organization favorably and report stronger intentions to accept
job offers and recommend the employer to others. Applicant perceptions were
positively correlated with actual and perceived performance on selection tools and
with self-perceptions. The average correlation between applicant perceptions and
gender, age and ethnic background was near zero. Face validity and perceived pre-
dictive validity were strong predictors of many applicant perceptions, including
procedural justice, distributive justice, attitudes toward tests and attitudes toward
selection. Interviews and work samples were perceived more favorably than cogni-
tive ability tests, which were perceived more favorably than personality invento-
ries, honesty tests, biodata and graphology. The discussion identified remaining
theoretical and methodological issues as well as directions for future research.
Smither, J. W., Reilly, R. R., Millsap, R. E., Pearlman, K., Stoffey, R. (1993). Applicant
reactions to selection procedures. Personnel Psychology, 46, 49-76.
The premise of this research was that applicant reactions to selection procedures
may be of practical importance to organizations’ attractiveness to candidates and
to selection procedure validity and utility. In part one of a two-part study, 110
newly hired entry-level managers and 44 recruiting-employment managers
viewed sample items or brief descriptions of 14 selection tools. They judged sim-
ulations, interviews and cognitive tests with relatively concrete item-types (such as
vocabulary, standard written English and mathematical word problems) as signifi-
cantly more job-related than personality, biodata and cognitive tests with relative-
ly abstract item types (such as quantitative comparisons and letter sets). A
measure of new managers’ cognitive abilities was positively correlated with their
perceptions of the job relatedness of selection procedures. In part two, the reac-
tions of 460 applicants to a range of entry-level to professional civil service exam-
inations were found to be positively related to procedural and distributive justice
perceptions and willingness to recommend the employer to others.

Americans With Disabilities Guidance
Daley, L., Dolland, M., Kraft, J., Nester, M. A., Schneider, R. (1988). Employment
testing of persons with disabling conditions. Alexandria, VA: International Personnel
Management Association.
This is a monograph that is based on a symposium presented at both the 1987
IPMAAC Conference and the 1987 IMPA International Conference. The first
section is devoted to a review of research bearing on the accommodation of tests
and testing procedures for disabled examinees. Section two presents the experi-
ences of two large eastern states and their programs of accommodation testing.
Sections three and four are commentaries on the material presented in the first
two sections and reflect the perspectives of the public sector manager and of the
disabled community. An appendix presents model guidelines for accommodated
testing of the disabled.
Eyde, L. D., Nester, M. A., Heaton, S. M., Nelson, A. V. (1994). Guide for
administering written employment examinations to persons with disabilities.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
This paper provides guidance for administering written examinations to persons
with disabilities. It also includes information on legal requirements for reasonable
accommodations and offers detailed guidelines for testing applicants who are deaf
or hard of hearing or who have vision or motor impairments. The paper includes
a checklist for physical accessibility of test sites and information on effective per-
sonal interactions with persons with disabilities. Although the guide was primari-
ly intended for federal government test administrators, most of the information
covered is useful for any individual who administers written tests.
Williams, S. K. (Jan/Feb 2003). Tips for minimizing abuses under the Americans with
Disabilities Act. Alexandria, VA: Society for Human Resource Management.
This paper provides a discussion of the law, its interpretation and implications for
usage of various selection techniques in relation to the Americans with
Disabilities Act of 1990. It covers physical exams, psychological exams, health
questionnaires, physical agility tests, drug and alcohol tests, specific oral and writ-
ten questions (e.g., about the existence of a disability, about ability to perform
job-related functions), and specific requests (e.g., how you would perform job-
related functions with or without reasonable accommodation). Indications are
given about what inquiries can be made about disabilities for pre- and post-offer
external applicants and for internal employee applicants.

Legal Guidance
Azar, B. (1994). Could “policing” test use improve assessments? APA Monitor, p. 16.
This article discusses APA’s Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing.
It discusses issues surrounding the enforcement of the standards as well as the
possibility of developing more specific standards. The article describes the poten-
tial positive and negative consequences if changes were made to the standards and
the enforcement practices.
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. (2003). Principles for the validation
and use of personnel selection procedures: Fourth edition. Bowling Green, OH: Author.
This document outlines principles adopted by the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology (SIOP) of the American Psychological Association for
the validation and use of personnel selection and assessment procedures, includ-
ing performance appraisal. The Principles specify SIOP policy on conducting val-
idation research using principles of good practice in the choice, development and
evaluation of personnel selection procedures.
Uniform guidelines on employee selection procedures. (1978). Federal register, 43,
38295-38315.
These guidelines incorporate a single set of principles that are designed to assist
employers, labor organizations, employment agencies and licensing and certifica-
tion boards to comply with requirements of federal law prohibiting employment
practices that discriminate on grounds of race, color, religion, sex and national
origin. They are designed to provide a framework for determining the proper use
of tests and other assessment procedures (including performance appraisal) and to
inform employers how the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission would
evaluate personnel practices to ensure adherence to federal law.
General References
Borman, W. C., Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include
elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt, W. Borman and Associates (Eds.),
Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 71-98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
In this chapter, the authors argue that selection criteria should embrace a domain of
organizational behavior broader than just technical task performance. Specifically,
performance measures should be expanded to also include contextual activities.
Contextual work activities include non-technical behaviors such as helping co-
workers when needed and putting in whatever effort is necessary to get the job
done. After discussing what contextual performance is and how it differs from task
performance, the authors present four streams of research that illustrate aspects of
contextual performance. Finally, the authors discuss various individual difference
variables that may be useful in predicting contextual job performance.

Heneman, H.G., III, Judge, T.A. (in press). Staffing organizations, 5E. Middleton, WI:
Mendota House, and New York: McGraw-Hill.
This is a comprehensive, user-friendly book dealing with all aspects of the staffing
process. It is based on a comprehensive staffing model and includes the following com-
ponents: (1) staffing models and strategy; (2) staffing support systems (legal compliance,
planning, job analysis); (3) core staffing systems (recruitment, selection, employment);
and (4) staffing system and retention management. The book is filled with up-to-date
research, useful examples and best business practices in the staffing area. In addition,
each chapter concludes with in-depth applications (cases and exercises) that enhance
skills and provide practice in key staffing activities and related decision-making.
Kehoe, J. (2000). Managing selection in changing organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This edited book provides managers and HR practitioners with practical guidance
on making decisions about employee staffing. The chapters are authored by leading
researchers and practitioners with extensive experience in the staffing area who offer
proven strategies for the design and management of effective selection processes in
organizations. The book examines selection in its organizational, social and legal
contexts and helps human resource professionals forge links between staffing and
other functions such as training, development, recruitment and resourcing.
McHenry, J. J., Hough, L. M., Toquam, J. L., Hanson, M. A., Ashworth, S. A. (1990).
Project A validation results: The relationships between predictor and criterion domains.
In this study, a predictor battery of cognitive ability, perceptual-psychomotor ability,
temperament/personality, interest and job outcome preference measures was adminis-
tered to 4,039 enlisted soldiers in nine Army occupations. Relationships between the
predictor measures and five components of job performance were analyzed. Scores
from the cognitive and perceptual-psychomotor ability tests provided the best predic-
tion of job-specific and general technical task proficiency, while the temperament/per-
sonality measures best predicted giving extra effort, supporting peers and exhibiting
personal discipline. Scores from the interest inventory correlated more highly with
technical task proficiency than with demonstrating effort and peer support.
Murphy, K. (1996). Individual differences and behavior in organizations. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
This edited book integrates existing research and stimulates new ways of thinking
about how individual differences affect people’s behaviors and experiences in
organizations. It provides insights into what influences behavior on the job.
Leading psychologists, who authored the individual chapters in this book, exam-
ine the entire spectrum of individual differences and show how they affect per-
sonality, vocational interests, job performance and work dysfunctions.

Potosky, D., Bobko, P. (2004). Selection testing via the Internet: Practical considerations
and exploratory empirical findings. Personnel Psychology, 57, 1003-1034.
This article presents equivalence information and practical lessons concerning
selection testing via the Internet. The authors identify several issues associated
with measurement and validity, the role of individual characteristics, respondents’
reactions and behaviors, and other considerations concerning Internet test admin-
istration. They also report results from an exploratory study of the correlation
between paper-and-pencil and Internet-administered cognitively oriented selec-
tion tests (including timed and untimed, proctored tests). The results suggest
modest degrees of cross-mode equivalence for an untimed situational judgment
test (r = .84) and for a timed cognitive ability test (r = .60). Further, some types
of items (math, verbal, spatial) in the timed cognitive ability test seem to play a
different role in the reduced cross-mode equivalence. New issues regarding the
perception of, and reaction to, items presented via the Internet are presented, and
a variety of practical issues are discussed.
Ryan, A. M., Tippins, N. T. (2004). Attracting and selecting: What psychological
research tells us. Human Resource Management, 43, 305-318.
This article reviews research on what selection tools work, what recruitment
strategies work, how selection-tool use relates to workforce diversity and what
staffing and recruiting processes lead to positive applicant perceptions.
Knowledge and implementation gaps in these areas are also discussed, and key
research findings are presented. To aid the HR manager in evaluating how well a
staffing system fits with current research knowledge, a list of audit questions is
presented. The goal is to assist the reader in not only understanding the present
gaps between research and practice in recruitment and selection, but also to
develop skills for employing research in HR practice.
Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., Brown, K. G. (2002). HR professionals’ beliefs about
effective human resources practices: Correspondence between research and practice.
Human Resource Management, 41, 149-174.
In this study, 5,000 human resource professionals were surveyed regarding the
extent to which they agreed with various HR research findings. Responses from
959 participants suggested that there were large discrepancies between research
findings and practitioners’ beliefs in some areas, especially staffing. In particular,
practitioners placed far less faith in intelligence and personality tests as predictors
of employee performance than HR research would recommend. Practitioners
were somewhat more likely to agree with research findings when they were at
higher organizational levels, had SPHR certifications and read the academic
research literature. Suggestions were made for more effective dissemination of HR
research findings.

Schmitt, N., Borman, W. C. (1995). Personnel selection in organizations. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book presents emerging issues in personnel research and practice. In the
book, leading experts highlight the personnel selection issues that will receive
increasing attention in the years ahead. The authors explore key subjects, includ-
ing job analysis, performance measure development, biographical and personality
measures, the concept of validity, the changing demographics of the work popula-
tion, the decline of the manufacturing economy, and the development of small
organizations. The book examines specific topics such as recruitment and reten-
tion, structured versus unstructured interviews, the ethics and effectiveness of
computerized psychological testing, perceptions of selection fairness, productivity,
turnover, and absenteeism. It also covers broader concerns, including downsizing
and retirement, selection and staffing as a corporate strategy, promoting job and
life satisfaction, organizational citizenship, and commitment.
Schmidt, F. L., Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in
personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research
findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274.
This article summarizes the practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of
research in personnel selection. It presents the validity of 19 selection procedures
for predicting job and training performance and the validity of paired combina-
tions of general mental ability (GMA) and the 18 other selection procedures.
Overall, the three combinations with the highest validity and utility for predict-
ing job performance are GMA plus a work sample test (mean validity of .63),
GMA plus an integrity test (mean validity of .65) and GMA plus a structured
interview (mean validity of .63). A further advantage of the latter two combina-
tions is that they can be used for both entry-level selection and selection of expe-
rienced employees. The practical utility implications of these summary findings
are substantial, and the implications of these findings for the development of the-
ories of job performance are discussed.

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